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Finnie S, Butterill P, Novotny V, Redmond C, Jorge LR, Abe T, Lamarre GPA, Maicher V, Sam K. Vertical stratification and defensive traits of caterpillars against parasitoids in a lowland tropical forest in Cameroon. Oecologia 2024; 204:915-930. [PMID: 38613574 PMCID: PMC11062930 DOI: 10.1007/s00442-024-05542-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2023] [Accepted: 03/12/2024] [Indexed: 04/15/2024]
Abstract
Insect herbivores and their parasitoids play a crucial role in terrestrial trophic interactions in tropical forests. These interactions occur across the entire vertical gradient of the forest. This study compares how caterpillar communities, and their parasitism rates, vary across vertical strata and between caterpillar defensive strategies in a semi deciduous tropical forest in Nditam, Cameroon. Within a 0.1 ha plot, all trees with a diameter at breast height (DBH) ≥ 5 cm were felled and systematically searched for caterpillars. We divided the entire vertical gradient of the forest into eight, five-metre strata. All caterpillars were assigned to a stratum based on their collection height, reared, identified, and classified into one of three defensive traits: aposematic, cryptic and shelter-building. Caterpillar species richness and diversity showed a midstory peak, whereas density followed the opposite pattern, decreasing in the midstory and then increasing towards the highest strata. This trend was driven by some highly dense shelter-building caterpillars in the upper canopy. Specialisation indices indicated decreasing levels of caterpillar generality with increasing height, a midstory peak in vulnerability, and increasing connectance towards the upper canopy, although the latter was likely driven by decreasing network size. Both aposematic and shelter-building caterpillars had significantly higher parasitism rates than cryptic caterpillars. Our results highlight nuanced changes in caterpillar communities across forest strata and provide evidence that defences strategies are important indicators of parasitism rates in caterpillars and that both aposematic and shelter-building caterpillars could be considered a "safe haven" for parasitoids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sam Finnie
- Biology Centre of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Institute of Entomology, České Budějovice, Czech Republic.
- Faculty of Science, University of South Bohemia, České Budějovice, Czech Republic.
| | - Philip Butterill
- Biology Centre of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Institute of Entomology, České Budějovice, Czech Republic
- Faculty of Science, University of South Bohemia, České Budějovice, Czech Republic
| | - Vojtech Novotny
- Biology Centre of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Institute of Entomology, České Budějovice, Czech Republic
- Faculty of Science, University of South Bohemia, České Budějovice, Czech Republic
| | - Conor Redmond
- Biology Centre of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Institute of Entomology, České Budějovice, Czech Republic
- Faculty of Science, University of South Bohemia, České Budějovice, Czech Republic
| | - Leonardo Ré Jorge
- Biology Centre of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Institute of Entomology, České Budějovice, Czech Republic
- Faculty of Science, University of South Bohemia, České Budějovice, Czech Republic
| | - Tomokazu Abe
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Chiba University, Chiba, 263-8522, Japan
| | - Greg P A Lamarre
- Biology Centre of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Institute of Entomology, České Budějovice, Czech Republic
- Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Apartado, Balboa, 0843-03092, Ancon, Panama
| | - Vincent Maicher
- Biology Centre of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Institute of Entomology, České Budějovice, Czech Republic
- Faculty of Science, University of South Bohemia, České Budějovice, Czech Republic
- The Nature Conservancy (TNC), Libreville, Gabon
| | - Katerina Sam
- Biology Centre of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Institute of Entomology, České Budějovice, Czech Republic
- Faculty of Science, University of South Bohemia, České Budějovice, Czech Republic
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2
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Quicke DLJ, Ghafouri Moghaddam M, Butcher BA. Dietary Challenges for Parasitoid Wasps (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonoidea); Coping with Toxic Hosts, or Not? Toxins (Basel) 2023; 15:424. [PMID: 37505693 PMCID: PMC10467097 DOI: 10.3390/toxins15070424] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2023] [Revised: 06/17/2023] [Accepted: 06/23/2023] [Indexed: 07/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Many insects defend themselves against predation by being distasteful or toxic. The chemicals involved may be sequestered from their diet or synthesized de novo in the insects' body tissues. Parasitoid wasps are a diverse group of insects that play a critical role in regulating their host insect populations such as lepidopteran caterpillars. The successful parasitization of caterpillars by parasitoid wasps is contingent upon their aptitude for locating and selecting suitable hosts, thereby determining their efficacy in parasitism. However, some hosts can be toxic to parasitoid wasps, which can pose challenges to their survival and reproduction. Caterpillars employ a varied array of defensive mechanisms to safeguard themselves against natural predators, particularly parasitoid wasps. These defenses are deployed pre-emptively, concurrently, or subsequently during encounters with such natural enemies. Caterpillars utilize a range of strategies to evade detection or deter and evade attackers. These tactics encompass both measures to prevent being noticed and mechanisms aimed at repelling or eluding potential threats. Post-attack strategies aim to eliminate or incapacitate the eggs or larvae of parasitoids. In this review, we investigate the dietary challenges faced by parasitoid wasps when encountering toxic hosts. We first summarize the known mechanisms through which insect hosts can be toxic to parasitoids and which protect caterpillars from parasitization. We then discuss the dietary adaptations and physiological mechanisms that parasitoid wasps have evolved to overcome these challenges, such as changes in feeding behavior, detoxification enzymes, and immune responses. We present new analyses of all published parasitoid-host records for the Ichneumonoidea that attack Lepidoptera caterpillars and show that classically toxic host groups are indeed hosts to significantly fewer species of parasitoid than most other lepidopteran groups.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Buntika A. Butcher
- Integrative Ecology Laboratory, Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Chulalongkorn University, Phayathai Road, Bangkok 10330, Thailand; (D.L.J.Q.); (M.G.M.)
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3
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Palma-Onetto V, Bergmann J, González-Teuber M. Mode of action, chemistry and defensive efficacy of the osmeterium in the caterpillar Battus polydamas archidamas. Sci Rep 2023; 13:6644. [PMID: 37095102 PMCID: PMC10126055 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-33390-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2022] [Accepted: 04/12/2023] [Indexed: 04/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Chemical secretions are one of the main defensive mechanisms in insects. The osmeterium is a unique organ in larvae of Papilionidae (Lepidoptera), which is everted upon disturbance, secreting odoriferous volatiles. Here, using larvae of the specialized butterfly Battus polydamas archidamas (Papilionidae: Troidini), we aimed to understand the mode of action of the osmeterium, the chemical composition and origin of the secretion, as well as its defensive efficiency against a natural predator. We described osmeterium's morphology, ultramorphology, structure, ultrastructure, and chemistry. Additionally, behavioral assays of the osmeterial secretion against a predator were developed. We showed that the osmeterium is composed of tubular arms (made up by epidermal cells) and of two ellipsoid glands, which possess a secretory function. The eversion and retraction of the osmeterium are dependent on the internal pressure generated by the hemolymph, and by longitudinal muscles that connect the abdomen with the apex of the osmeterium. Germacrene A was the main compound present in the secretion. Minor monoterpenes (sabinene and ß-pinene) and sesquiterpenes ((E)-β-caryophyllene, selina-3,7(11)-diene, and other some unidentified compounds) were also detected. Only sesquiterpenes (with the exception of (E)-β-caryophyllene) are likely to be synthesized in the osmeterium-associated glands. Furthermore, the osmeterial secretion proved to deter predatory ants. Our results suggest that the osmeterium, besides serving as an aposematic warning for enemies, is an efficient chemical defense, with its own synthesis of irritant volatiles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valeria Palma-Onetto
- Departamento de Química Ambiental, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Católica de La Santísima Concepción, Concepción, Chile.
| | - Jan Bergmann
- Instituto de Química, Facultad de Ciencias, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Valparaíso, Valparaíso, Chile
| | - Marcia González-Teuber
- Departamento de Química Ambiental, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Católica de La Santísima Concepción, Concepción, Chile.
- Departamento de Genética Molecular y Microbiología, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile.
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4
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McLellan CF, Montgomery SH. Towards an integrative approach to understanding collective behaviour in caterpillars. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2023; 378:20220072. [PMID: 36802788 PMCID: PMC9939266 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2022.0072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2022] [Accepted: 09/20/2022] [Indexed: 02/21/2023] Open
Abstract
To evolve, and remain adaptive, collective behaviours must have a positive impact on overall individual fitness. However, these adaptive benefits may not be immediately apparent owing to an array of interactions with other ecological traits, which can depend on a lineage's evolutionary past and the mechanisms controlling group behaviour. A coherent understanding of how these behaviours evolve, are exhibited, and are coordinated across individuals, therefore requires an integrative approach spanning traditional disciplines in behavioural biology. Here, we argue that lepidopteran larvae are well placed to serve as study systems for investigating the integrative biology of collective behaviour. Lepidopteran larvae display a striking diversity in social behaviour, which illustrates critical interactions between ecological, morphological and behavioural traits. While previous, often classic, work has provided an understanding of how and why collective behaviours evolve in Lepidoptera, much less is known about the developmental and mechanistic basis of these traits. Recent advances in the quantification of behaviour, and the availability of genomic resources and manipulative tools, allied with the exploitation of the behavioural diversity of tractable lepidopteran clades, will change this. In doing so, we will be able to address previously intractable questions that can reveal the interplay between levels of biological variation. This article is part of a discussion meeting issue 'Collective behaviour through time'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Callum F. McLellan
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Bristol, Bristol BS8 1TQ, UK
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5
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Wenda C, Nakamura A, Ashton LA. Season and herbivore defence trait mediate tri-trophic interactions in tropical rainforest. J Anim Ecol 2023; 92:466-476. [PMID: 36479696 DOI: 10.1111/1365-2656.13865] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2022] [Accepted: 11/17/2022] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Bottom-up effects from host plants and top-down effects from predators on herbivore abundance and distribution vary with physical environment, plant chemistry, predator and herbivore trait and diversity. Tri-trophic interactions in tropical ecosystems may follow different patterns from temperate ecosystems due to differences in above abiotic and biotic conditions. We sampled leaf-chewing larvae of Lepidoptera (caterpillars) from a dominant host tree species in a seasonal rainforest in Southwest China. We reared out parasitoids and grouped herbivores based on their diet preferences, feeding habits and defence mechanisms. We compared caterpillar abundance with leaf numbers ('bottom-up' effects) and parasitoid abundance ('top-down' effects) between different seasons and herbivore traits. We found bottom-up effects were stronger than top-down effects. Both bottom-up and top-down effects were stronger in the dry season than in the wet season, which were driven by polyphagous rare species and host plant phenology. Contrary to our predictions, herbivore traits did not influence differences in the bottom-up or top-down effects except for stronger top-down effects for shelter-builders. Our study shows season is the main predictor of the bottom-up and top-down effects in the tropics and highlights the complexity of these interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cheng Wenda
- School of Ecology, Sun Yat-Sen University, Shenzhen, China.,State Key Laboratory of Biological Control, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Akihiro Nakamura
- CAS Key Laboratory of Tropical Forest Ecology, Xishuangbanna Tropical Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Mengla, China
| | - Louise A Ashton
- Ecology and Biodiversity Area, School of Biological Sciences, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China
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6
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Anttonen P, Li Y, Chesters D, Davrinche A, Haider S, Bruelheide H, Chen JT, Wang MQ, Ma KP, Zhu CD, Schuldt A. Leaf Nutritional Content, Tree Richness, and Season Shape the Caterpillar Functional Trait Composition Hosted by Trees. INSECTS 2022; 13:1100. [PMID: 36555010 PMCID: PMC9785672 DOI: 10.3390/insects13121100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2022] [Revised: 11/25/2022] [Accepted: 11/26/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Nutritional content of host plants is expected to drive caterpillar species assemblages and their trait composition. These relationships are altered by tree richness-induced neighborhood variation and a seasonal decline in leaf quality. We tested how key functional traits related to the growth and defenses of the average caterpillar hosted by a tree species are shaped by nutritional host quality. We measured morphological traits and estimated plant community-level diet breadth based on occurrences from 1020 caterpillars representing 146 species in a subtropical tree diversity experiment from spring to autumn in one year. We focused on interspecific caterpillar trait variation by analyzing presence-only patterns of caterpillar species for each tree species. Our results show that tree richness positively affected caterpillar species-sharing among tree species, which resulted in lowered trait variation and led to higher caterpillar richness for each tree species. However, community-level diet breadth depended more on the nutritional content of host trees. Higher nutritional quality also supported species-poorer but more abundant communities of smaller and less well-defended caterpillars. This study demonstrates that the leaf nutritional quality of trees shapes caterpillar trait composition across diverse species assemblages at fine spatial scales in a way that can be predicted by ecological theory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Perttu Anttonen
- Institute of Biology/Geobotany and Botanical Garden, Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg, 06108 Halle, Germany
- German Centre for Integrative Biodiversity Research (iDiv) Halle-Jena-Leipzig, 04103 Leipzig, Germany
| | - Yi Li
- State Key Laboratory of Vegetation and Environmental Change, Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100093, China
- Key Laboratory of Zoological Systematics and Evolution, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
| | - Douglas Chesters
- Key Laboratory of Zoological Systematics and Evolution, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
- International College, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Andréa Davrinche
- Institute of Biology/Geobotany and Botanical Garden, Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg, 06108 Halle, Germany
- German Centre for Integrative Biodiversity Research (iDiv) Halle-Jena-Leipzig, 04103 Leipzig, Germany
| | - Sylvia Haider
- Institute of Biology/Geobotany and Botanical Garden, Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg, 06108 Halle, Germany
- German Centre for Integrative Biodiversity Research (iDiv) Halle-Jena-Leipzig, 04103 Leipzig, Germany
| | - Helge Bruelheide
- Institute of Biology/Geobotany and Botanical Garden, Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg, 06108 Halle, Germany
- German Centre for Integrative Biodiversity Research (iDiv) Halle-Jena-Leipzig, 04103 Leipzig, Germany
| | - Jing-Ting Chen
- Key Laboratory of Zoological Systematics and Evolution, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
- College of Biological Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Ming-Qiang Wang
- Key Laboratory of Zoological Systematics and Evolution, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
| | - Ke-Ping Ma
- State Key Laboratory of Vegetation and Environmental Change, Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100093, China
| | - Chao-Dong Zhu
- Key Laboratory of Zoological Systematics and Evolution, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
- International College, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
- College of Biological Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
- State Key Laboratory of Integrated Pest Management, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
| | - Andreas Schuldt
- Department of Forest Nature Conservation, Georg-August-University Göttingen, 37077 Göttingen, Germany
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7
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Campos-Moreno DF, Gates MW, Zhang YM, Pérez-Lachaud G, Dyer LA, Whitfield JB, Pozo C. Aximopsis gabrielae sp. nov.: a gregarious parasitoid (Hymenoptera: Eurytomidae) of the skipper Quadrus cerialis (Lepidoptera: Hesperiidae) feeding on Piper amalago in southern Mexico. J NAT HIST 2022. [DOI: 10.1080/00222933.2022.2025940] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Diego F. Campos-Moreno
- Departamento de Conservación de la Biodiversidad, El Colegio de la Frontera Sur (ECOSUR), Chetumal, Mexico
| | - Michael W. Gates
- Systematic Entomology Laboratory, USDA, c/o National Museum of Natural History, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Y. Miles Zhang
- Systematic Entomology Laboratory, USDA, c/o National Museum of Natural History, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Gabriela Pérez-Lachaud
- Departamento de Conservación de la Biodiversidad, El Colegio de la Frontera Sur (ECOSUR), Chetumal, Mexico
| | - Lee A. Dyer
- Biology Department, University of Nevada, Reno, NV, USA
| | | | - Carmen Pozo
- Departamento de Conservación de la Biodiversidad, El Colegio de la Frontera Sur (ECOSUR), Chetumal, Mexico
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8
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Jarrett BJM, Szűcs M. Traits across trophic levels interact to influence parasitoid establishment in biological control releases. Ecol Evol 2022; 12:e8654. [PMID: 35342595 PMCID: PMC8928891 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.8654] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2021] [Revised: 01/17/2022] [Accepted: 02/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
A central goal in ecology is to predict what governs a species’ ability to establish in a new environment. One mechanism driving establishment success is individual species’ traits, but the role of trait combinations among interacting species across different trophic levels is less clear. Deliberate or accidental species additions to existing communities provide opportunities to study larger scale patterns of establishment success. Biological control introductions are especially valuable because they contain data on both the successfully established and unestablished species. Here, we used a recent dataset of importation biological control introductions to explore how life‐history traits of 132 parasitoid species and their herbivorous hosts interact to affect parasitoid establishment. We find that of five parasitoid and herbivore traits investigated, one parasitoid trait—host range—weakly predicts parasitoid establishment; parasitoids with higher levels of phylogenetic specialization have higher establishment success, though the effect is marginal. In addition, parasitoids are more likely to establish when their herbivore host has had a shorter residence time. Interestingly, we do not corroborate earlier findings that gregarious parasitoids and endoparasitoids are more likely to establish. Most importantly, we find that life‐history traits of the parasitoid species and their hosts can interact to influence establishment. Specifically, parasitoids with broader host ranges are more likely to establish when the herbivore they have been released to control is also more of a generalist. These results provide insight into how multiple species’ traits and their interactions, both within and across trophic levels, can influence establishment of species of higher trophic levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin J. M. Jarrett
- Department of Entomology Michigan State University East Lansing Michigan USA
- Department of Biology Lund University Lund Sweden
| | - Marianna Szűcs
- Department of Entomology Michigan State University East Lansing Michigan USA
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9
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Beran F, Petschenka G. Sequestration of Plant Defense Compounds by Insects: From Mechanisms to Insect-Plant Coevolution. ANNUAL REVIEW OF ENTOMOLOGY 2022; 67:163-180. [PMID: 34995091 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-ento-062821-062319] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Plant defense compounds play a key role in the evolution of insect-plant associations by selecting for behavioral, morphological, and physiological insect adaptations. Sequestration, the ability of herbivorous insects to accumulate plant defense compounds to gain a fitness advantage, represents a complex syndrome of adaptations that has evolved in all major lineages of herbivorous insects and involves various classes of plant defense compounds. In this article, we review progress in understanding how insects selectively accumulate plant defense metabolites and how the evolution of specific resistance mechanisms to these defense compounds enables sequestration. These mechanistic considerations are further integrated into the concept of insect-plant coevolution. Comparative genome and transcriptome analyses, combined with approaches based on analytical chemistry that are centered in phylogenetic frameworks, will help to reveal adaptations underlying the sequestration syndrome, which is essential to understanding the influence of sequestration on insect-plant coevolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Franziska Beran
- Research Group Sequestration and Detoxification in Insects, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Jena 07745, Germany;
| | - Georg Petschenka
- Department of Applied Entomology, University of Hohenheim, Stuttgart 70599, Germany;
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10
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Baer CS, Marquis RJ. Experimental shelter-switching shows shelter type alters predation on caterpillars (Hesperiidae). Behav Ecol 2021. [DOI: 10.1093/beheco/arab057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Abstract
Caterpillars build various shelters that protect them from natural enemies, but whether specific shelters provide different protection is unknown. To disentangle a caterpillar species’ shelter from the rest of its phenotype, we performed a field experiment in which two caterpillar species (Urbanus dorantes and U. proteus) were removed from their original shelters, placed into shelters made by conspecifics or heterospecifics, and monitored for predation and parasitism. Predation was intense, with 0–48% of caterpillars surviving depending on treatment. Shelter builder identity significantly affected predation independent of occupant identity, with caterpillars placed in U. proteus shelters experiencing higher predation than those in U. dorantes shelters. The effect of shelter builder identity was related to shelter type: shriveled leaf shelters built by U. dorantes had a lower risk of predation than cut-and-fold shelters built by either species. Cut-and-fold shelters built by the two species did not have significantly different shapes. Caterpillar stage also significantly affected predation (mid-instars were more successful than early instars), but caterpillar species identity did not. Surprisingly, parasitism was rare, but both shriveled leaf shelters and cut-and-fold shelters resulted in similar overall caterpillar mortality. The differences in predation and overall mortality between shelter types suggest a trade-off between protection from predators and parasitoids. This experiment demonstrates that shelter type determines the fate of the caterpillar inside, independent of the identity of the caterpillar that built the shelter. This is the first experimental evidence that predation may select for shelter type and associated shelter-building behavior in Lepidoptera.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christina S Baer
- Department of Biology, University of Missouri-St. Louis, 223 Research Building and the Whitney R. Harris World Ecology Center, 111 Benton Hall, 1 University Blvd., St. Louis, MO 63121-4400, USA
| | - Robert J Marquis
- Department of Biology, University of Missouri-St. Louis, 223 Research Building and the Whitney R. Harris World Ecology Center, 111 Benton Hall, 1 University Blvd., St. Louis, MO 63121-4400, USA
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11
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Boevé JL. Behavior and body size modulate the defense of toxin-containing sawfly larvae against ants. Sci Rep 2021; 11:13610. [PMID: 34193937 PMCID: PMC8245414 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-93074-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2020] [Accepted: 06/15/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The sawfly larvae of most Argidae and Pergidae (Hymenoptera: Symphyta) species contain toxic peptides, and these along with other traits contribute to their defense. However, the effectiveness of their defense strategy, especially against ants, remains poorly quantified. Here, five Arge species, A. berberidis, A. nigripes, A. ochropus, A. pagana, A. pullata, plus three Pergidae species, Lophyrotoma analis, Lophyrotoma zonalis, Philomastix macleaii, were tested in laboratory bioassays on ant workers mainly of Myrmica rubra. The experiments focused on short-term predator-prey interactions, sawfly survival rate after long-term interactions, and feeding deterrence of the sawfly hemolymph. The larvae of Arge species were generally surrounded by few ants, which rarely bit them, whereas larvae of Pergidae, especially P. macleaii, had more ants around with more biting. A detailed behavioral analysis of Arge-ant interactions revealed that larval body size and abdomen raising behavior were two determinants of ant responses. Another determinant may be the emission of a volatile secretion by non-eversible ventro-abdominal glands. The crude hemolymph of all tested species, the five Arge species and L. zonalis, was a strong feeding deterrent and remained active at a ten-fold dilution. Furthermore, the study revealed that the taxon-specific behavior of ants, sting or spray, impacted the survival of A. pagana but not the large body-sized A. pullata. The overall results suggest that the ability of Arge and Pergidae larvae to defend against ants is influenced by the body size and behavior of the larvae, as well as by chemicals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jean-Luc Boevé
- OD Taxonomy and Phylogeny, Royal Belgian Institute of Natural Sciences, Rue Vautier 29, 1000, Brussels, Belgium.
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12
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Audusseau H, Ryrholm N, Stefanescu C, Tharel S, Jansson C, Champeaux L, Shaw MR, Raper C, Lewis OT, Janz N, Schmucki R. Rewiring of interactions in a changing environment: nettle‐feeding butterflies and their parasitoids. OIKOS 2021. [DOI: 10.1111/oik.07953] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Hélène Audusseau
- Dept of Zoology, Stockholm Univ. Stockholm Sweden
- UK Centre for Ecology and Hydrology Wallingford UK
| | - Nils Ryrholm
- Dept of Electronics, Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Univ. of Gävle Gävle Sweden
| | | | | | | | | | - Mark R. Shaw
- National Museums of Scotland Chambers Street Edinburgh UK
| | - Chris Raper
- Angela Marmont Centre for UK Biodiversity, Natural History Museum London UK
| | | | - Niklas Janz
- Dept of Zoology, Stockholm Univ. Stockholm Sweden
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13
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Baer CS, Marquis RJ. Between predators and parasitoids: Complex interactions among shelter traits, predation and parasitism in a shelter‐building caterpillar community. Funct Ecol 2020. [DOI: 10.1111/1365-2435.13641] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Christina S. Baer
- Department of Biology and the Whitney R. Harris World Ecology Center University of Missouri‐St. Louis St. Louis MO USA
| | - Robert J. Marquis
- Department of Biology and the Whitney R. Harris World Ecology Center University of Missouri‐St. Louis St. Louis MO USA
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14
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Salcido DM, Forister ML, Garcia Lopez H, Dyer LA. Loss of dominant caterpillar genera in a protected tropical forest. Sci Rep 2020; 10:422. [PMID: 31949238 PMCID: PMC6965627 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-57226-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2019] [Accepted: 12/20/2019] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Reports of biodiversity loss have increasingly focused on declines in abundance and diversity of insects, but it is still unclear if substantive insect diversity losses are occurring in intact low-latitude forests. We collected 22 years of plant-caterpillar-parasitoid data in a protected tropical forest and found reductions in the diversity and density of insects that appear to be partly driven by a changing climate and weather anomalies. Results also point to the potential influence of variables not directly measured in this study, including changes in land-use in nearby areas. We report a decline in parasitism that represents a reduction in an important ecosystem service: enemy control of primary consumers. The consequences of these changes are in many cases irreversible and are likely to be mirrored in nearby forests; overall declines in the region will have negative consequences for surrounding agriculture. The decline of important tropical taxa and associated ecosystem function illuminates the consequences of numerous threats to global insect diversity and provides additional impetus for research on tropical diversity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Danielle M Salcido
- Department of Biology, Program in Ecology, Evolution and Conservation Biology, University of Nevada, Reno, NV, 89557, USA.
| | - Matthew L Forister
- Department of Biology, Program in Ecology, Evolution and Conservation Biology, University of Nevada, Reno, NV, 89557, USA
| | - Humberto Garcia Lopez
- Department of Biology, Program in Ecology, Evolution and Conservation Biology, University of Nevada, Reno, NV, 89557, USA
| | - Lee A Dyer
- Department of Biology, Program in Ecology, Evolution and Conservation Biology, University of Nevada, Reno, NV, 89557, USA
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15
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Seifert CL, Lamarre GPA, Volf M, Jorge LR, Miller SE, Wagner DL, Anderson-Teixeira KJ, Novotný V. Vertical stratification of a temperate forest caterpillar community in eastern North America. Oecologia 2019; 192:501-514. [PMID: 31872269 DOI: 10.1007/s00442-019-04584-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2019] [Accepted: 12/17/2019] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Vertical niche partitioning might be one of the main driving forces explaining the high diversity of forest ecosystems. However, the forest's vertical dimension has received limited investigation, especially in temperate forests. Thus, our knowledge about how communities are vertically structured remains limited for temperate forest ecosystems. In this study, we investigated the vertical structuring of an arboreal caterpillar community in a temperate deciduous forest of eastern North America. Within a 0.2-ha forest stand, all deciduous trees ≥ 5 cm diameter at breast height (DBH) were felled and systematically searched for caterpillars. Sampled caterpillars were assigned to a specific stratum (i.e. understory, midstory, or canopy) depending on their vertical position and classified into feeding guild as either exposed feeders or shelter builders (i.e. leaf rollers, leaf tiers, webbers). In total, 3892 caterpillars representing 215 species of butterflies and moths were collected and identified. While stratum had no effect on caterpillar density, feeding guild composition changed significantly with shelter-building caterpillars becoming the dominant guild in the canopy. Species richness and diversity were found to be highest in the understory and midstory and declined strongly in the canopy. Family and species composition changed significantly among the strata; understory and canopy showed the lowest similarity. Food web analyses further revealed an increasing network specialization towards the canopy, caused by an increase in specialization of the caterpillar community. In summary, our study revealed a pronounced stratification of a temperate forest caterpillar community, unveiling a distinctly different assemblage of caterpillars dwelling in the canopy stratum.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlo L Seifert
- Biology Centre of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Institute of Entomology, České Budějovice, Czech Republic. .,Faculty of Science, University of South Bohemia, České Budějovice, Czech Republic.
| | - Greg P A Lamarre
- Biology Centre of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Institute of Entomology, České Budějovice, Czech Republic.,Faculty of Science, University of South Bohemia, České Budějovice, Czech Republic.,Center for Tropical Forest Science-Forest Global Earth Observatory, Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Panama, Republic of Panama
| | - Martin Volf
- Biology Centre of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Institute of Entomology, České Budějovice, Czech Republic.,German Centre for Integrative Biodiversity Research (iDiv) Halle-Jena-Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Leonardo R Jorge
- Biology Centre of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Institute of Entomology, České Budějovice, Czech Republic.,Faculty of Science, University of South Bohemia, České Budějovice, Czech Republic
| | - Scott E Miller
- National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC, USA
| | | | - Kristina J Anderson-Teixeira
- Center for Tropical Forest Science-Forest Global Earth Observatory, Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Panama, Republic of Panama.,Conservation Ecology Center, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, Front Royal, VA, USA
| | - Vojtěch Novotný
- Biology Centre of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Institute of Entomology, České Budějovice, Czech Republic.,Faculty of Science, University of South Bohemia, České Budějovice, Czech Republic
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16
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Anderson RM, Dallar NM, Pirtel NL, Connors CJ, Mickley J, Bagchi R, Singer MS. Bottom-Up and Top-Down Effects of Forest Fragmentation Differ Between Dietary Generalist and Specialist Caterpillars. Front Ecol Evol 2019. [DOI: 10.3389/fevo.2019.00452] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
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17
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White PS, Penley MJ, Tierney ARP, Soper DM, Morran LT. Dauer life stage of Caenorhabditis elegans induces elevated levels of defense against the parasite Serratia marcescens. Sci Rep 2019; 9:11575. [PMID: 31399616 PMCID: PMC6688991 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-47969-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2019] [Accepted: 07/23/2019] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Host-parasite research often focuses on a single host life stage, yet different life stages may exhibit different defenses. The nematode Caenorhabditis elegans has an alternate dispersal life stage, dauer. Despite dauer's importance in nature, we know little of how it responds to parasites. Previous research indicates that non-dauer C. elegans prefer to consume the virulent bacterial parasite, Serratia marcescens, when given a choice between the parasite and benign Escherichia coli. Here, we compared the preferences of dauer individuals from six strains of C. elegans to the preferences of other life stages. We found that dauer individuals exhibited reduced preference for S. marcescens, and dauers from some strains preferred E. coli to S. marcescens. In addition to testing food preference, a mechanism of parasite avoidance, we also measured host mortality rates after direct parasite exposure to determine if life stage also altered host survival. Overall, dauer individuals exhibited reduced mortality rates. However, dauer versus non-dauer larvae mortality rates also varied significantly by host strain. Collectively, we found evidence of dauer-induced parasite avoidance and reduced mortality in the presence of a parasite, but these effects were strain-specific. These results demonstrate the importance of host life stage and genotype when assessing infection dynamics.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Signe White
- Population Biology, Ecology, and Evolution Graduate Program, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA.
- Department of Biology, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA.
| | - McKenna J Penley
- Department of Biology, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA
| | - Aimee R Paulk Tierney
- Microbiology and Molecular Genetics Graduate Program, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA
| | - Deanna M Soper
- Biology Department, University of Dallas, Irving, TX, 75062, USA
| | - Levi T Morran
- Department of Biology, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA
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18
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Carper AL, Enger M, Bowers MD. Host Plant Effects on Immune Response Across Development of a Specialist Caterpillar. Front Ecol Evol 2019. [DOI: 10.3389/fevo.2019.00208] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
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19
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Breviglieri CPB, Romero GQ. Acoustic stimuli from predators trigger behavioural responses in aggregate caterpillars. AUSTRAL ECOL 2019. [DOI: 10.1111/aec.12757] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Crasso Paulo B. Breviglieri
- Department of Animal Biology; Institute of Biology; University of Campinas (UNICAMP); Campinas São Paulo 13083-970 Brazil
| | - Gustavo Q. Romero
- Department of Animal Biology; Institute of Biology; University of Campinas (UNICAMP); Campinas São Paulo 13083-970 Brazil
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20
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Morrison CR, Aubert C, Windsor DM. Variation in Host Plant Usage and Diet Breadth Predict Sibling Preference and Performance in the Neotropical Tortoise Beetle Chelymorpha alternans (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae: Cassidinae). ENVIRONMENTAL ENTOMOLOGY 2019; 48:382-394. [PMID: 30753405 DOI: 10.1093/ee/nvy194] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Specialized interactions between insects and the plants that they consume are one of the most ubiquitous and consequential ecological associations on the plant. Decades of investigation suggest that a narrow diet favors an individual phytophagous insect's performance relative to a dietary generalist. However, this body of research has tended to approach questions of diet breadth and host usage from the perspective of temperate plant-insect associations. Relationships between diet breadth, host usage, and variation in tropical insect preference and performance remain largely uninvestigated. Here we characterize how variation in diet breadth and host usage affect oviposition preference, development, survival, and gain in mass of a Neotropical tortoise beetle Chelymorpha alternans Boheman 1854 (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae), using a split-brood, sibling experimental design. Host performance was measured after splitting broods among four no-choice host diets. Groups consuming single hosts varied among themselves in developmental time and survival from larva to adult. Performance did not vary among groups consuming multiple and single hosts. Oviposition preference was measured in choice and no-choice tests. Females displayed preference for the original host in both experiments. Developmental time and survival of offspring sourced from the no-choice experiment was measured for two complete generations to explore correlations with female oviposition preference. Preference for the original host correlated with high survivorship and an intermediate developmental time. Survivorship and time to develop were also high on an alternative host that was less preferred. Departures from predictions of prevailing preference-performance hypotheses suggest that host usage presents C. alternans with fitness trade-offs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Colin R Morrison
- Department of Integrative Biology, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX
- Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Panamá, Republic of Panamá
| | - Clément Aubert
- Département Biologie Écologie, Université de Montpellier, Montpellier, France
- Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Panamá, Republic of Panamá
| | - Donald M Windsor
- Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Panamá, Republic of Panamá
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21
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Martínez LC, Plata-Rueda A, da Silva Neves G, Cossolin JF, Dos Santos MH, Zanuncio JC, Serrão JE. Morphology, ultrastructure, and chemical compounds of the osmeterium of Heraclides thoas (Lepidoptera: Papilionidae). PROTOPLASMA 2018; 255:1693-1702. [PMID: 29752568 DOI: 10.1007/s00709-018-1261-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2017] [Accepted: 05/07/2018] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
The osmeterium, found in papilionoid larvae, is an eversible organ with an exocrine gland that produces substances in response to the mechanical disturbances caused by natural enemies. The anatomy, histology and ultrastructure of the osmeterium, and the chemical composition of its secretion in Heraclides thoas (Lepidoptera: Papilionidae) were studied. Heraclides thoas larvae have a Y-shaped osmeterium in the thorax. The surface of the osmeterium has a rough cuticle lining cells with papillae and irregular folds, whereas the cells that limited the gland pores are irregular, folded, and devoid of papillae. Two types of cells are found: (i) cuticular epidermal cells on the surface of the tubular arms of the osmeterium and (ii) secretory cells of the ellipsoid gland within the region of the glandular pore. Cuticular epidermal cells show a thick cuticle, with several layers divided into epicuticle and lamellar endocuticle. Secretory cells are polygonal, with extensive folds in the basal plasma membrane that formed extracellular channels. The cytoplasm has mitochondria, ribosomes, and numerous vacuoles, whereas the nucleus is irregular in shape with decondensed chromatin. The chemical composition of the osmeterial secretion comprised (Z)-α-bisabolene (25.4%), α-bisabol (20.6%), β-bisabolene (13.1%), (E)-α-bisabolene 8%), β-pinene (9.91%), longipinene epoxide (8.92%), (Z)-β-farnesene (6.96%), β-caryophyllene (2.05%), farnesol (1.86%), linalyl propionate (1.86%), and 1-octyn-4-ol (1.07%). The morphological features suggest that the cuticular epidermal cells play a major role in the maintenance and protection of the osmeterium, whereas secretory cells are responsible for production of osmeterial secretions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luis Carlos Martínez
- Departamento de Biologia Geral, Universidade Federal de Viçosa, Avenida Peter Henry Rolfs, Campus Universitário Viçosa, Minas Gerais, 36570-000, Brazil.
| | - Angelica Plata-Rueda
- Instituto de Ciências Agrárias, Universidade Federal de Viçosa, Rio Paranaíba, Minas Gerais, 38810-000, Brazil
| | - Guilherme da Silva Neves
- Departamento de Biologia Geral, Universidade Federal de Viçosa, Avenida Peter Henry Rolfs, Campus Universitário Viçosa, Minas Gerais, 36570-000, Brazil
| | - Jamile Fernanda Cossolin
- Departamento de Biologia Geral, Universidade Federal de Viçosa, Avenida Peter Henry Rolfs, Campus Universitário Viçosa, Minas Gerais, 36570-000, Brazil
| | | | - José Cola Zanuncio
- Departamento de Entomologia, Universidade Federal de Viçosa, Viçosa, Minas Gerais, 36570-000, Brazil
| | - José Eduardo Serrão
- Departamento de Biologia Geral, Universidade Federal de Viçosa, Avenida Peter Henry Rolfs, Campus Universitário Viçosa, Minas Gerais, 36570-000, Brazil
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22
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Gaitonde N, Joshi J, Kunte K. Evolution of ontogenic change in color defenses of swallowtail butterflies. Ecol Evol 2018; 8:9751-9763. [PMID: 30386572 PMCID: PMC6202720 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.4426] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2018] [Revised: 07/05/2018] [Accepted: 07/09/2018] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Natural selection by visually hunting predators has led to the evolution of color defense strategies such as masquerade, crypsis, and aposematism that reduce the risk of predation in prey species. These color defenses are not mutually exclusive, and switches between strategies with ontogenic development are widespread across taxa. However, the evolutionary dynamics of ontogenic color change are poorly understood. Using comparative phylogenetics, we studied the evolution of color defenses in the complex life cycles of swallowtail butterflies (family Papilionidae). We also tested the relative importance of life history traits, chemical and visual backgrounds, and ancestry on the evolution of protective coloration. We found that vulnerable early- and late-instar caterpillars of species that feed on sparsely vegetated, toxic plants were aposematic, whereas species that feed on densely vegetated, nontoxic plants had masquerading and cryptic caterpillars. Masquerading caterpillars resembled bird droppings at early instars and transitioned to crypsis with an increase in body size at late instars. The immobile pupae-safe from motion-detecting, visually hunting predators-retained the ancestral cryptic coloration in all lineages, irrespective of the toxic nature of the host plant. Thus, color defense strategy (masquerade, crypsis, or aposematism) at a particular lifestage in the life cycle of swallowtail butterflies was determined by the interaction between life history traits such as body size and motion levels, phytochemical and visual backgrounds, and ancestry. We show that ontogenic color change in swallowtail butterflies is an adaptive response to age-dependent vulnerability to predation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nikhil Gaitonde
- National Center for Biological SciencesTata Institute of Fundamental ResearchBengaluruIndia
- Manipal Academy of Higher Education (MAHE)ManipalIndia
| | - Jahnavi Joshi
- National Center for Biological SciencesTata Institute of Fundamental ResearchBengaluruIndia
| | - Krushnamegh Kunte
- National Center for Biological SciencesTata Institute of Fundamental ResearchBengaluruIndia
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23
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Harvey JA, Visser B, Lammers M, Marien J, Gershenzon J, Ode PJ, Heinen R, Gols R, Ellers J. Ant-like Traits in Wingless Parasitoids Repel Attack from Wolf Spiders. J Chem Ecol 2018; 44:894-904. [PMID: 30066038 PMCID: PMC6153775 DOI: 10.1007/s10886-018-0989-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2018] [Revised: 07/04/2018] [Accepted: 07/06/2018] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
A recent study showed that a wingless parasitoid, Gelis agilis, exhibits a suite of ant-like traits that repels attack from wolf spiders. When agitated, G. agilis secreted 6-methyl-5-hepten-2-one (sulcatone), which a small number of ant species produce as an alarm/panic pheromone. Here, we tested four Gelis parasitoid species, occurring in the same food chain and microhabitats, for the presence of sulcatone and conducted two-species choice bioassays with wolf spiders to determine their degree of susceptibility to attack. All four Gelis species, including both winged and wingless species, produced sulcatone, whereas a closely related species, Acrolyta nens, and the more distantly related Cotesia glomerata, did not. In two-choice bioassays, spiders overwhelmingly rejected the wingless Gelis species, preferring A. nens and C. glomerata. However, spiders exhibited no preference for either A. nens or G. areator, both of which are winged. Wingless gelines exhibited several ant-like traits, perhaps accounting for the reluctance of spiders to attack them. On the other hand, despite producing sulcatone, the winged G. areator more closely resembles other winged cryptines like A. nens, making it harder for spiders to distinguish between these two species. C. glomerata was also preferred by spiders over A. nens, suggesting that other non-sulcatone producing cryptines nevertheless possess traits that make them less attractive as prey. Phylogenetic reconstruction of the Cryptinae reveals that G. hortensis and G. proximus are ‘sister’species, with G. agilis, and G.areator in particular evolving along more distant trajectories. We discuss the possibility that wingless Gelis species have evolved a suite of ant-like traits as a form, of mimicry to repel predators on the ground.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey A Harvey
- Department of Terrestrial Ecology, Netherlands Institute of Ecology, Droevendaalsesteeg 10, 6700, AB, Wageningen, The Netherlands. .,Department of Ecological Sciences, Section Animal Ecology, VU University Amsterdam, De Boelelaan 1085, 1081, HV, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
| | - Bertanne Visser
- Evolutionary Ecology and Genetics group, Biodiversity Research Centre, Earth and Life Institute, Université Catholique de Louvain, Croix du Sud 4-5, 1348, Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium
| | - Marl Lammers
- Department of Ecological Sciences, Section Animal Ecology, VU University Amsterdam, De Boelelaan 1085, 1081, HV, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Janine Marien
- Department of Ecological Sciences, Section Animal Ecology, VU University Amsterdam, De Boelelaan 1085, 1081, HV, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Jonathan Gershenzon
- Max Planck Institute of Chemical Ecology, Beutenberg Campus, Hans Knoel Str 8, DE-07745, Jena, Germany
| | - Paul J Ode
- Department of Bioagricultural Sciences and Pest Management, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, 80523-1177, USA
| | - Robin Heinen
- Department of Terrestrial Ecology, Netherlands Institute of Ecology, Droevendaalsesteeg 10, 6700, AB, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Rieta Gols
- Laboratory of Entomology, Wageningen University, Droevendaalsesteeg 1, 6700, EH, Wageningen, the Netherlands
| | - Jacintha Ellers
- Department of Ecological Sciences, Section Animal Ecology, VU University Amsterdam, De Boelelaan 1085, 1081, HV, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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24
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Šigut M, Šigutová H, Šipoš J, Pyszko P, Kotásková N, Drozd P. Vertical canopy gradient shaping the stratification of leaf-chewer-parasitoid interactions in a temperate forest. Ecol Evol 2018; 8:7297-7311. [PMID: 30151150 PMCID: PMC6106176 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.4194] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2018] [Accepted: 04/22/2018] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Knowledge about herbivores and their parasitoids in forest canopies remains limited, despite their diversity and ecological importance. Thus, it is important to understand the factors that shape the herbivore-parasitoid community structure, particularly the effect of vertical gradient. We investigated a quantitative community dataset of exposed and semiconcealed leaf-chewing larvae and their parasitoids along a vertical canopy gradient in a temperate forest. We sampled target insects using an elevated work platform in a 0.2 ha broadleaf deciduous forest plot in the Czech Republic. We analyzed the effect of vertical position among three canopy levels (first [lowest], second [middle], and third [highest]) and tree species on community descriptors (density, diversity, and parasitism rate) and food web structure. We also analyzed vertical patterns in density and parasitism rate between exposed and semiconcealed hosts, and the vertical preference of the most abundant parasitoid taxa in relation to their host specificity. Tree species was an important determinant of all community descriptors and food web structure. Insect density and diversity varied with the vertical gradient, but was only significant for hosts. Both host guilds were most abundant in the second level, but only the density of exposed hosts declined in the third level. Parasitism rate decreased from the first to third level. The overall parasitism rate did not differ between guilds, but semiconcealed hosts suffered lower parasitism in the third level. Less host-specific taxa (Ichneumonidae, Braconidae) operated more frequently lower in the canopy, whereas more host-specific Tachinidae followed their host distribution. The most host-specific Chalcidoidea preferred the third level. Vertical stratification of insect density, diversity, and parasitism rate was most pronounced in the tallest tree species. Therefore, our study contradicts the general paradigm of weak arthropod stratification in temperate forest canopies. However, in the network structure, vertical variation might be superseded by variation among tree species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Šigut
- Department of Biology and EcologyUniversity of OstravaOstravaCzech Republic
- Institute of Environmental TechnologiesUniversity of OstravaOstravaCzech Republic
| | - Hana Šigutová
- Institute of Environmental TechnologiesUniversity of OstravaOstravaCzech Republic
| | - Jan Šipoš
- Department of Biology and EcologyUniversity of OstravaOstravaCzech Republic
- Department of Vegetation EcologyInstitute of Botany CASBrnoCzech Republic
- Department of Zoology, Fisheries, Hydrobiology and ApicultureMendel University in BrnoBrnoCzech Republic
| | - Petr Pyszko
- Department of Biology and EcologyUniversity of OstravaOstravaCzech Republic
- Institute of Environmental TechnologiesUniversity of OstravaOstravaCzech Republic
| | - Nela Kotásková
- Department of Biology and EcologyUniversity of OstravaOstravaCzech Republic
| | - Pavel Drozd
- Department of Biology and EcologyUniversity of OstravaOstravaCzech Republic
- Institute of Environmental TechnologiesUniversity of OstravaOstravaCzech Republic
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25
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Host plant iridoid glycosides mediate herbivore interactions with natural enemies. Oecologia 2018; 188:491-500. [PMID: 30003369 DOI: 10.1007/s00442-018-4224-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2018] [Accepted: 07/08/2018] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
Many insect herbivores are dietary specialists capable of sequestering the secondary metabolites produced by their host plants. These defensive compounds have important but complex implications for tritrophic interactions between plants, herbivores, and natural enemies. The sequestration of host plant secondary metabolites defends herbivores from attack by generalist predators, but may also compromise the immune response, making insect herbivores more vulnerable to parasitism. Here, we investigate the role of plant secondary metabolites in mediating interactions between a specialist herbivore and its natural enemies. The host plants are two Penstemon species, Penstemon glaber and Penstemon virgatus, which are chemically defended by iridoid glycosides (IGs). First, we examined how Penstemon iridoid glycoside content influences the sequestration of IGs by a specialist herbivore, Euphydryas anicia. Then, we performed ant bioassays to assess how host plant species influences larval susceptibility to predators and phenoloxidase assays to assess the immunocompetence and potential vulnerability to parasitoids and pathogens. We found that the concentration of IGs sequestered by E. anicia larvae varied with host plant diet. Larvae reared on P. glaber sequestered more IGs than larvae reared on P. virgatus. Yet, ant predators found larvae unpalatable regardless of host plant diet and were also repelled by sugar solutions containing isolated IGs. However, E. anicia larvae reared on P. glaber showed higher levels of phenoloxidase activity than larvae reared on P. virgatus. Our results suggest that the sequestration of some secondary metabolites can effectively protect herbivores from predation, yet may also increase vulnerability to parasitism via decreased immunocompetence.
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26
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Slinn HL, Richards LA, Dyer LA, Hurtado PJ, Smilanich AM. Across Multiple Species, Phytochemical Diversity and Herbivore Diet Breadth Have Cascading Effects on Herbivore Immunity and Parasitism in a Tropical Model System. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2018; 9:656. [PMID: 29942320 PMCID: PMC6004389 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2018.00656] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2018] [Accepted: 04/27/2018] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
Terrestrial tri-trophic interactions account for a large part of biodiversity, with approximately 75% represented in plant-insect-parasitoid interactions. Herbivore diet breadth is an important factor mediating these tri-trophic interactions, as specialisation can influence how herbivore fitness is affected by plant traits. We investigated how phytochemistry, herbivore immunity, and herbivore diet breadth mediate plant-caterpillar-parasitoid interactions on the tropical plant genus Piper (Piperaceae) at La Selva Biological station in Costa Rica and at Yanayacu Biological Station in Ecuador. We collected larval stages of one Piper generalist species, Quadrus cerealis, (Lepidoptera: Hesperiidae) and 4 specialist species in the genus Eois (Lepidoptera: Geometridae) from 15 different species of Piper, reared them on host leaf material, and assayed phenoloxidase activity as a measure of potential larval immunity. We combined these data with parasitism and caterpillar species diet breadth calculated from a 19-year database, as well as established values of phytochemical diversity calculated for each plant species, in order to test specific hypotheses about how these variables are related. We found that phytochemical diversity was an important predictor for herbivore immunity, herbivore parasitism, and diet breadth for specialist caterpillars, but that the direction and magnitude of these relationships differed between sites. In Costa Rica, specialist herbivore immune function was negatively associated with the phytochemical diversity of the Piper host plants, and rates of parasitism decreased with higher immune function. The same was true for Ecuador with the exception that there was a positive association between immune function and phytochemical diversity. Furthermore, phytochemical diversity did not affect herbivore immunity and parasitism for the more generalised herbivore. Results also indicated that small differences in herbivore diet breadth are an important factor mediating herbivore immunity and parasitism success for Eois at both sites. These patterns contribute to a growing body of literature that demonstrate strong cascading effects of phytochemistry on higher trophic levels that are dependent on herbivore specialisation and that can vary in space and time. Investigating the interface between herbivore immunity, plant chemical defence, and parasitoids is an important facet of tri-trophic interactions that can help to explain the enormous amount of biodiversity found in the tropics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heather L. Slinn
- Department of Biology, University of Nevada, Reno, Reno, NV, United States
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Lenhart PA, Jackson KA, White JA. Heritable variation in prey defence provides refuge for subdominant predators. Proc Biol Sci 2018; 285:rspb.2018.0523. [PMID: 29848647 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2018.0523] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2018] [Accepted: 05/01/2018] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Generalist predators with broadly overlapping niches commonly coexist on seemingly identical sets of prey. Here, we provide empirical demonstration that predators can differentially exploit fine-grained niches generated by variable, heritable and selective defences within a single prey species. Some, but not all, clones of the aphid Aphis craccivora are toxic towards the dominant invasive predatory ladybeetle, Harmonia axyridis However, other less competitive ladybeetle species are not affected by the aphid's toxic trait. In laboratory and open field experiments, we show: (i) that subdominant ladybeetle species were able to exploit the toxic aphids, benefitting from the suppression of the dominant predator; and (ii) that this narrow-spectrum toxicity can function as an anti-predator defence for the aphid, but depends on enemy community context. Our results demonstrate that niche differentiation among generalist predators may hinge upon previously underappreciated heritable variation in prey defence, which, in turn, may promote diversity and stability of enemy communities invaded by a dominant predator.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul A Lenhart
- Department of Entomology, S-225 Agricultural Science Center N, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, USA
| | - Kelly A Jackson
- Department of Entomology, S-225 Agricultural Science Center N, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, USA
| | - Jennifer A White
- Department of Entomology, S-225 Agricultural Science Center N, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, USA
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Bagchi R, Brown LM, Elphick CS, Wagner DL, Singer MS. Anthropogenic fragmentation of landscapes: mechanisms for eroding the specificity of plant-herbivore interactions. Oecologia 2018; 187:521-533. [PMID: 29560512 DOI: 10.1007/s00442-018-4115-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2017] [Accepted: 03/11/2018] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Reduced ecological specialization is an emerging, general pattern of ecological networks in fragmented landscapes. In plant-herbivore interactions, reductions in dietary specialization of herbivore communities are consistently associated with fragmented landscapes, but the causes remain poorly understood. We propose several hypothetical bottom-up and top-down mechanisms that may reduce the specificity of plant-herbivore interactions. These include empirically plausible applications and extensions of theory based on reduced habitat patch size and isolation (considered jointly), and habitat edge effects. Bottom-up effects in small, isolated habitat patches may limit availability of suitable hostplants, a constraint that increases with dietary specialization. Poor hostplant quality due to inbreeding in such fragments may especially disadvantage dietary specialist herbivores even when their hostplants are present. Size and isolation of habitat patches may change patterns of predation of herbivores, but whether such putative changes are associated with herbivore dietary specialization should depend on the mobility, size, and diet breadth of predators. Bottom-up edge effects may favor dietary generalist herbivores, yet top-down edge effects may favor dietary specialists owing to reduced predation. An increasingly supported edge effect is trophic ricochets generated by large grazers/browsers, which remove key hostplant species of specialist herbivores. We present empirical evidence that greater deer browsing in small forest fragments disproportionately reduces specialist abundances in lepidopteran assemblages in northeastern USA. Despite indirect evidence for these mechanisms, they have received scant direct testing with experimental approaches at a landscape scale. Identifying their relative contributions to reduced specificity of plant-herbivore interactions in fragmented landscapes is an important research goal.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert Bagchi
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Connecticut, 75 N. Eagleville Road Unit 3043, Storrs, CT, 06260-3043, USA.
| | - Leone M Brown
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Connecticut, 75 N. Eagleville Road Unit 3043, Storrs, CT, 06260-3043, USA
| | - Chris S Elphick
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Connecticut, 75 N. Eagleville Road Unit 3043, Storrs, CT, 06260-3043, USA
| | - David L Wagner
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Connecticut, 75 N. Eagleville Road Unit 3043, Storrs, CT, 06260-3043, USA
| | - Michael S Singer
- Department of Biology, Wesleyan University, Middletown, CT, 06459, USA
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Host plant associated enhancement of immunity and survival in virus infected caterpillars. J Invertebr Pathol 2018; 151:102-112. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jip.2017.11.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2017] [Revised: 10/08/2017] [Accepted: 11/07/2017] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
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Jahner JP, Forister ML, Parchman TL, Smilanich AM, Miller JS, Wilson JS, Walla TR, Tepe EJ, Richards LA, Quijano‐Abril MA, Glassmire AE, Dyer LA. Host conservatism, geography, and elevation in the evolution of a Neotropical moth radiation. Evolution 2017; 71:2885-2900. [DOI: 10.1111/evo.13377] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2017] [Revised: 09/12/2017] [Accepted: 09/20/2017] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Joshua P. Jahner
- Program in Ecology, Evolution, and Conservation Biology, Department of Biology University of Nevada Reno Nevada 89557
| | - Matthew L. Forister
- Program in Ecology, Evolution, and Conservation Biology, Department of Biology University of Nevada Reno Nevada 89557
| | - Thomas L. Parchman
- Program in Ecology, Evolution, and Conservation Biology, Department of Biology University of Nevada Reno Nevada 89557
| | - Angela M. Smilanich
- Program in Ecology, Evolution, and Conservation Biology, Department of Biology University of Nevada Reno Nevada 89557
| | - James S. Miller
- Division of Invertebrate Zoology American Museum of Natural History New York New York 10024
| | | | - Thomas R. Walla
- Department of Biology Colorado Mesa University Grand Junction Colorado 81507
- Seccion Invertebrados Museo Ecuatoriano de Ciencias Naturales Quito Ecuador
| | - Eric J. Tepe
- Department of Biological Sciences University of Cincinnati Cincinnati Ohio 45221
| | - Lora A. Richards
- Program in Ecology, Evolution, and Conservation Biology, Department of Biology University of Nevada Reno Nevada 89557
| | | | - Andrea E. Glassmire
- Program in Ecology, Evolution, and Conservation Biology, Department of Biology University of Nevada Reno Nevada 89557
| | - Lee A. Dyer
- Program in Ecology, Evolution, and Conservation Biology, Department of Biology University of Nevada Reno Nevada 89557
- Seccion Invertebrados Museo Ecuatoriano de Ciencias Naturales Quito Ecuador
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Zhou J, Meng L, Li B. Defensive behaviors of the Oriental armyworm Mythimna separata in response to different parasitoid species (Hymenoptera: Braconidae). PeerJ 2017; 5:e3690. [PMID: 28852593 PMCID: PMC5572553 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.3690] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2017] [Accepted: 07/24/2017] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
This study examined defensive behaviors of Mythimna separata (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) larvae varying in body size in response to two parasitoids varying in oviposition behavior; Microplitis mediator females sting the host with the ovipositor after climbing onto it while Meteorus pulchricornis females make the sting by standing at a close distance from the host. Mythimna separata larvae exhibited evasive (escaping and dropping) and aggressive (thrashing) behaviors to defend themselves against parasitoids M. mediator and M. pulchricornis. Escaping and dropping did not change in probability with host body size or parasitoid species. Thrashing did not vary in frequency with host body size, yet performed more frequently in response to M. mediator than to M. pulchricornis. Parasitoid handling time and stinging likelihood varied depending not only on host body size but also on parasitoid species. Parasitoid handling time increased with host thrashing frequency, similar in slope for both parasitoids yet on a higher intercept for M. mediator than for M. pulchricornis. Handling time decreased with host size for M. pulchricornis but not for M. mediator. The likelihood of realizing an ovipositor sting decreased with thrashing frequency of both small and large hosts for M. pulchricornis, while this was true only for large hosts for M. mediator. Our results suggest that the thrashing behavior of M. separata larvae has a defensive effect on parasitism, depending on host body size and parasitoid species with different oviposition behaviors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jincheng Zhou
- School of Plant Protection, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
| | - Ling Meng
- School of Plant Protection, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
| | - Baoping Li
- School of Plant Protection, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
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Powell S, Donaldson‐Matasci M, Woodrow‐Tomizuka A, Dornhaus A. Context‐dependent defences in turtle ants: Resource defensibility and threat level induce dynamic shifts in soldier deployment. Funct Ecol 2017. [DOI: 10.1111/1365-2435.12926] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Scott Powell
- Department of Biological Sciences George Washington University Washington DC USA
| | | | - Augustus Woodrow‐Tomizuka
- Department of Ecology & Evolutionary Biology University of Arizona Tucson AZ USA
- Sonoran Science Academy –Tucson (6‐12) Tucson AZ USA
| | - Anna Dornhaus
- Department of Ecology & Evolutionary Biology University of Arizona Tucson AZ USA
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Tang R, Babendreier D, Zhang F, Kang M, Song K, Hou ML. Assessment of Trichogramma japonicum and T. chilonis as Potential Biological Control Agents of Yellow Stem Borer in Rice. INSECTS 2017; 8:insects8010019. [PMID: 28208706 PMCID: PMC5371947 DOI: 10.3390/insects8010019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2016] [Revised: 01/23/2017] [Accepted: 01/24/2017] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Two species of Trichogramma wasps were assessed for their effectiveness against yellow stem borer Scirpophaga incertulas. A laboratory cage test with T. japonicum and T. chilonis showed that both species parasitized yellow stem borer egg masses at 60.0% ± 9.13% and 40.7% ± 7.11%, respectively, with egg parasitism rates of 15.8% ± 22.2% for T. japonicum and 2.8% ± 5.0% for T. chilonis. Once the host eggs were parasitized, emergence rates were high for both species (95.7% ± 0.12% for T. japonicum and 100% for T. chilonis). In paddy field trials, the two Trichogramma species were released at three densities (50,000/ha, 100,000/ha and 200,000/ha) in Southwestern China. Egg mass parasitism was 9% ± 7.7% for T. japonicum and 15% ± 14.1% for T. chilonis, and again only a relatively small fraction of eggs was successfully parasitized. No clear conclusion could be drawn on the most efficient release rate as no significant differences were found among the three release rates. A comparison of field-collected T. japonicum with T. japonicum and T. chilonis mass reared on Corcyra cephalonica showed significantly larger body size and ovipositor length in field-collected wasps, suggesting potentially higher effectiveness on yellow stem borer eggs after at least one generation on the target host. Factors contributing to the low field parasitism rates are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rui Tang
- MoA-CABI Joint Laboratory for Bio-Safety, Institute of Plant Protection, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, 2 West Yuan-Ming-Yuan Road, Haidian District, Beijing 100193, China.
| | - Dirk Babendreier
- MoA-CABI Joint Laboratory for Bio-Safety, Institute of Plant Protection, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, 2 West Yuan-Ming-Yuan Road, Haidian District, Beijing 100193, China.
- CABI Europe-Switzerland, Rue des Grillons 1, Delémont CH-2800, Switzerland.
| | - Feng Zhang
- MoA-CABI Joint Laboratory for Bio-Safety, Institute of Plant Protection, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, 2 West Yuan-Ming-Yuan Road, Haidian District, Beijing 100193, China.
| | - Min Kang
- Plant Protection and Quarantine Station, Dehong Prefecture Agriculture Bureau, Dehong 678400, China.
| | - Kai Song
- Dryland Farming Institute, Hebei Academy of Agricultural and Forestry Sciences, Hengshui 053000, China.
| | - Mao-Lin Hou
- State Key Laboratory for Biology of Plant Disease and Insect Pests, Institute of Plant Protection, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, China.
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Covarrubias-Camarillo T, Osorio-Beristain M, Legal L, Contreras-Garduño J. Baronia brevicornis caterpillars build shelters to avoid predation. J NAT HIST 2016. [DOI: 10.1080/00222933.2016.1193640] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- T. Covarrubias-Camarillo
- Departamento de Biología, División de Ciencias Naturales y Exactas, Universidad de Guanajuato, Guanajuato, Mexico
| | - M. Osorio-Beristain
- Departamento de Ecología Evolutiva, Centro de Investigación en Biodiversidad y Conservación (CIByC), Universidad Autónoma del Estado de Morelos, Cuernavaca, Mexico
| | - L. Legal
- Laboratoire d’Ecologie Fonctionnelle (EcoLab), UMR 5245, Université Paul Sabatier, Toulouse, France
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Stireman JO. Community ecology of the 'other' parasitoids. CURRENT OPINION IN INSECT SCIENCE 2016; 14:87-93. [PMID: 27436652 DOI: 10.1016/j.cois.2016.02.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2015] [Accepted: 02/03/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
The study of parasitoid communities is an active and dynamic field. Most studies, however, are focused primarily on parasitic wasps, despite the thousands of other insect parasitoids distributed across many lineages. Although questions in parasitoid community ecology are much the same for different groups, answers to these questions may not be due to differing biological traits. The ecology of non-hymenopteran ('NH') parasitoid communities is poorly known, but recent work indicates that habitat and host traits have strong impacts on the size and composition of these parasitoid assemblages. Recent food-web analyses indicate that host ranges vary widely within and among taxa and associations are shaped by host ecology and defenses. Evidence is also accumulating for strong 'bottom-up' and 'top-down' multi-trophic interactions between NH-parasitoids and nonadjacent trophic levels, as well as trait-mediated indirect effects on communities. Recent technical and conceptual advances in characterizing and comparing food webs, consideration of phylogenetic history, and increasing anthropogenic impacts provide many new and stimulating areas of research on parasitoid communities.
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Affiliation(s)
- John O Stireman
- Department of Biological Sciences, Wright State University, Dayton, OH, USA.
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36
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Rowen E, Kaplan I. Eco-evolutionary factors drive induced plant volatiles: a meta-analysis. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2016; 210:284-94. [PMID: 26725245 DOI: 10.1111/nph.13804] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2015] [Accepted: 11/11/2015] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Herbivore-induced plant volatiles (HIPVs) mediate critical ecological functions, but no studies have quantitatively synthesized data published on HIPVs to evaluate broad patterns. We tested three hypotheses that use eco-evolutionary theory to predict volatile induction: feeding guild (chewing arthropods > sap feeders), diet breadth (specialist herbivores > generalists), and selection history (domesticated plants < wild species). To test these hypotheses, we extracted data from 236 experiments that report volatiles produced by herbivore-damaged and undamaged plants. These data were subjected to meta-analysis, including effects on total volatiles and major biochemical classes. Overall, we found that chewers induced more volatiles than sap feeders, for both total volatiles and most volatile classes (e.g. green leaf volatiles, monoterpenes). Although specialist herbivores induced more total volatiles than generalists, this was inconsistent across chemical classes. Contrary to our expectation, domesticated species induced stronger volatile responses than wild species, even when controlling for plant taxonomy. Surprisingly, this is the first quantitative synthesis of published studies on HIPVs. Our analysis provides support for perceptions in the published literature (chewers > sap feeders), while challenging other commonly held notions (wild > crop). Despite the large number of experiments, we identified several gaps in the existing literature that should guide future investigations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth Rowen
- Department of Entomology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802-3508, USA
| | - Ian Kaplan
- Department of Entomology, Purdue University, 901 W. State Street, West Lafayette, IN, 47907, USA
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Petschenka G, Agrawal AA. How herbivores coopt plant defenses: natural selection, specialization, and sequestration. CURRENT OPINION IN INSECT SCIENCE 2016; 14:17-24. [PMID: 27436642 DOI: 10.1016/j.cois.2015.12.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2015] [Revised: 12/10/2015] [Accepted: 12/20/2015] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
We review progress in understanding sequestration by herbivorous insects, the use of plant chemical defenses for their own defense. We incorporate sequestration into the framework of plant-insect coevolution by integrating three hierarchical issues: (1) the relationship between dietary specialization and sequestration of plant defenses, (2) the physiological mechanisms involved in sequestration, and (3) how sequestration evolves via interactions between trophic levels. Sequestration is often associated with specialization, but even specialized sequestration is not an evolutionary dead-end. Despite considerable progress in understanding physiological mechanisms, detailed knowledge of how plant toxins cross the insect gut epithelium is still largely lacking. Sequestration is likely a major vehicle for coevolutionary escalation in speciose plant-insect-predator interactions, suggesting that a strictly bitrophic view is untenable.
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Affiliation(s)
- Georg Petschenka
- Institut für Insektenbiotechnologie, Justus-Liebig-Universität Giessen, Heinrich-Buff-Ring 26-32, 35392 Giessen, Germany.
| | - Anurag A Agrawal
- Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Cornell University, E425 Corson Hall, Ithaca, NY 14853 USA
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Sugiura S. Bagworm bags as portable armour against invertebrate predators. PeerJ 2016; 4:e1686. [PMID: 26893969 PMCID: PMC4756730 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.1686] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2015] [Accepted: 01/22/2016] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Some animals have evolved the use of environmental materials as “portable armour” against natural enemies. Portable bags that bagworm larvae (Lepidoptera: Psychidae) construct using their own silk and plant parts are generally believed to play an important role as a physical barrier against natural enemies. However, no experimental studies have tested the importance of bags as portable armour against predators. To clarify the defensive function, I studied the bagworm Eumeta minuscula and a potential predator Calosoma maximoviczi (Coleoptera: Carabidae). Under laboratory conditions, all bagworm larvae were attacked by carabid adults, but successfully defended themselves against the predators’ mandibles using their own bags. The portable bags, which are composed mainly of host plant twigs, may function as a physical barrier against predator mandibles. To test this hypothesis, I removed the twig bags and replaced some with herb leaf bags; all bag-removed larvae were easily caught and predated by carabids, while all bag-replaced larvae could successfully defend themselves against carabid attacks. Therefore, various types of portable bags can protect bagworm larvae from carabid attacks. This is the first study to test the defensive function of bagworm portable bags against invertebrate predators.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shinji Sugiura
- Graduate School of Agricultural Science, Kobe University , Kobe , Japan
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Eveleigh E, Silk P, Leclair G, Mayo P, Francis B, Williams M. Spruce Budworm (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) Oral Secretions I: Biology and Function. ENVIRONMENTAL ENTOMOLOGY 2015; 44:1641-1651. [PMID: 26454475 DOI: 10.1093/ee/nvv156] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2015] [Accepted: 09/04/2015] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
The potential roles of the oral secretions (OS) of spruce budworm (SBW; Choristoneura fumiferana Clemens) larvae and factors that may affect the volume of OS disgorged were investigated in the laboratory. Experiments revealed that diet-fed SBW larvae readily disgorge OS when induced ("milked"), with minimal overall cost to their development and eventual pupal weight. Exposure of conspecific larvae to OS throughout larval development negatively affected survival and male pupal weight; however, male development time was faster when exposed to OS. Female pupal weight and development time were not affected. Preliminary experiments suggested that OS had a repellent effect on a co-occurring herbivore, the false hemlock looper, Nepytia canosaria (Walker). OS produced by larvae that fed on three host tree species and on artificial diet significantly increased the grooming time of ants (Camponotus sp.), indicating that SBW OS have an anti-predator function. The volume of OS is significantly greater in L6 than in L4 or L5, with the volume produced by L6 depending on weight and age as well as feeding history at time of milking. These findings indicate that SBW OS function as both an intra- and interspecific epideictic pheromone and as an anti-predator defensive mechanism, while incurring minimal metabolic costs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eldon Eveleigh
- Natural Resources Canada, Canadian Forest Service - Atlantic Forestry Centre, PO Box 4000, Fredericton, NB, E3B 5P7, Canada
| | - Peter Silk
- Natural Resources Canada, Canadian Forest Service - Atlantic Forestry Centre, PO Box 4000, Fredericton, NB, E3B 5P7, Canada.
| | - Gaëtan Leclair
- Natural Resources Canada, Canadian Forest Service - Atlantic Forestry Centre, PO Box 4000, Fredericton, NB, E3B 5P7, Canada
| | - Peter Mayo
- Natural Resources Canada, Canadian Forest Service - Atlantic Forestry Centre, PO Box 4000, Fredericton, NB, E3B 5P7, Canada
| | - Brittany Francis
- Natural Resources Canada, Canadian Forest Service - Atlantic Forestry Centre, PO Box 4000, Fredericton, NB, E3B 5P7, Canada
| | - Martin Williams
- Natural Resources Canada, Canadian Forest Service - Atlantic Forestry Centre, PO Box 4000, Fredericton, NB, E3B 5P7, Canada
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Lemos F, Bernardo AMG, Dias CR, Sarmento RA, Pallini A, Venzon M, Janssen A. Breaking and entering: predators invade the shelter of their prey and gain protection. EXPERIMENTAL & APPLIED ACAROLOGY 2015; 67:247-57. [PMID: 26188859 PMCID: PMC4559574 DOI: 10.1007/s10493-015-9951-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2015] [Accepted: 07/13/2015] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Many herbivorous arthropods construct shelters on their host plant that offer protection against natural enemies. This has resulted in selection on natural enemies to enter these shelters, where they can feed on prey that are inaccessible for competing predators and parasitoids. The spider mite Tetranychus evansi produces a shelter consisting of a dense web that is impenetrable for most predators; the only known natural enemy that can penetrate the web and can forage efficiently on this pest is Phytoseiulus longipes. We show that this predator preferentially foraged and oviposited in the web of its prey. Moreover, intraguild predation on juveniles of these predators was significantly higher outside this web and in the less dense web of a closely related prey species (T. urticae) than inside the web of T. evansi. Although the production of shelters by herbivores may be profitable at first, their adapted natural enemies may reap the benefit in the end.
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Affiliation(s)
- Felipe Lemos
- />IBED, Section Population Biology, University of Amsterdam, Science Park 904, 1098 XH Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- />Department of Entomology, Federal University of Viçosa, Viçosa, MG Brazil
| | | | - Cleide Rosa Dias
- />Department of Entomology, Federal University of Viçosa, Viçosa, MG Brazil
| | | | - Angelo Pallini
- />Department of Entomology, Federal University of Viçosa, Viçosa, MG Brazil
| | - Madelaine Venzon
- />Agriculture and Livestock Research Enterprise of Minas Gerais (EPAMIG), Viçosa, MG Brazil
| | - Arne Janssen
- />IBED, Section Population Biology, University of Amsterdam, Science Park 904, 1098 XH Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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Richards LA, Dyer LA, Forister ML, Smilanich AM, Dodson CD, Leonard MD, Jeffrey CS. Phytochemical diversity drives plant-insect community diversity. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2015; 112:10973-8. [PMID: 26283384 PMCID: PMC4568244 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1504977112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 128] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
What are the ecological causes and consequences of variation in phytochemical diversity within and between plant taxa? Despite decades of natural products discovery by organic chemists and research by chemical ecologists, our understanding of phytochemically mediated ecological processes in natural communities has been restricted to studies of either broad classes of compounds or a small number of well-characterized molecules. Until now, no studies have assessed the ecological causes or consequences of rigorously quantified phytochemical diversity across taxa in natural systems. Consequently, hypotheses that attempt to explain variation in phytochemical diversity among plants remain largely untested. We use spectral data from crude plant extracts to characterize phytochemical diversity in a suite of co-occurring plants in the tropical genus Piper (Piperaceae). In combination with 20 years of data focused on Piper-associated insects, we find that phytochemical diversity has a direct and positive effect on the diversity of herbivores but also reduces overall herbivore damage. Elevated chemical diversity is associated with more specialized assemblages of herbivores, and the cascading positive effect of phytochemistry on herbivore enemies is stronger as herbivore diet breadth narrows. These results are consistent with traditional hypotheses that predict positive associations between plant chemical diversity, insect herbivore diversity, and trophic specialization. It is clear from these results that high phytochemical diversity not only enhances the diversity of plant-associated insects but also contributes to the ecological predominance of specialized insect herbivores.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Lee A Dyer
- Biology Department, University of Nevada, Reno, NV 89557
| | | | | | - Craig D Dodson
- Chemistry Department, University of Nevada, Reno, NV 89557
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Reudler JH, Lindstedt C, Pakkanen H, Lehtinen I, Mappes J. Costs and benefits of plant allelochemicals in herbivore diet in a multi enemy world. Oecologia 2015; 179:1147-58. [PMID: 26296333 DOI: 10.1007/s00442-015-3425-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2015] [Accepted: 08/06/2015] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Sequestration of plant defensive chemicals by herbivorous insects is a way of defending themselves against their natural enemies. Such herbivores have repeatedly evolved bright colours to advertise their unpalatability to predators, i.e. they are aposematic. This often comes with a cost. In this study, we examined the costs and benefits of sequestration of iridoid glycosides (IGs) by the generalist aposematic herbivore, the wood tiger moth, Parasemia plantaginis. We also asked whether the defence against one enemy (a predator) is also effective against another (a parasitoid). We found that the larvae excrete most of the IGs and only small amounts are found in the larvae. Nevertheless, the amounts present in the larvae are sufficient to deter ant predators and also play a role in defence against parasitoids. However, excreting and handling these defensive plant compounds is costly, leading to longer development time and lower pupal mass. Interestingly, the warning signal efficiency and the amount of IGs in the larvae of P. plantaginis are negatively correlated; larvae with less efficient warning signals contain higher levels of chemical defence compounds. Our results may imply that there is a trade-off between production and maintenance of coloration and chemical defence. Although feeding on a diet containing IGs can have life-history costs, it offers multiple benefits in the defence against predators and parasitoids.
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Affiliation(s)
- J H Reudler
- Department of Biology and Environmental Science, Centre of Excellence in Biological Interactions, University of Jyvaskyla, P.O. Box 35, 40014, Jyväskylä, Finland.
| | - C Lindstedt
- Department of Biology and Environmental Science, Centre of Excellence in Biological Interactions, University of Jyvaskyla, P.O. Box 35, 40014, Jyväskylä, Finland
| | - H Pakkanen
- Department of Chemistry, Laboratory of Applied Chemistry, University of Jyvaskyla, P.O. Box 35, 40014, Jyväskylä, Finland
| | - I Lehtinen
- Department of Biology and Environmental Science, Centre of Excellence in Biological Interactions, University of Jyvaskyla, P.O. Box 35, 40014, Jyväskylä, Finland
- Department of Environmental Sciences, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 65, 00014, Helsinki, Finland
| | - J Mappes
- Department of Biology and Environmental Science, Centre of Excellence in Biological Interactions, University of Jyvaskyla, P.O. Box 35, 40014, Jyväskylä, Finland
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43
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Affiliation(s)
- Peri A. Mason
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology University of Colorado Boulder UCB 334 Colorado 80309 USA
| | - Michael S. Singer
- Biology Department Wesleyan University Middletown Connecticut 06459 USA
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Lampert EC, Bowers MD. Incompatibility Between Plant-Derived Defensive Chemistry and Immune Response of Two Sphingid Herbivores. J Chem Ecol 2014; 41:85-92. [DOI: 10.1007/s10886-014-0532-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2014] [Revised: 11/09/2014] [Accepted: 11/10/2014] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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45
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Sendoya SF, Oliveira PS. Ant-caterpillar antagonism at the community level: interhabitat variation of tritrophic interactions in a neotropical savanna. J Anim Ecol 2014; 84:442-52. [PMID: 25251455 DOI: 10.1111/1365-2656.12286] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2014] [Accepted: 08/28/2014] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Ant foraging on foliage can substantially affect how phytophagous insects use host plants and represents a high predation risk for caterpillars, which are important folivores. Ant-plant-herbivore interactions are especially pervasive in cerrado savanna due to continuous ant visitation to liquid food sources on foliage (extrafloral nectaries, insect honeydew). While searching for liquid rewards on plants, aggressive ants frequently attack or kill insect herbivores, decreasing their numbers. Because ants vary in diet and aggressiveness, their effect on herbivores also varies. Additionally, the differential occurrence of ant attractants (plant and insect exudates) on foliage produces variable levels of ant foraging within local floras and among localities. Here, we investigate how variation of ant communities and of traits among host plant species (presence or absence of ant attractants) can change the effect of carnivores (predatory ants) on herbivore communities (caterpillars) in a cerrado savanna landscape. We sampled caterpillars and foliage-foraging ants in four cerrado localities (70-460 km apart). We found that: (i) caterpillar infestation was negatively related with ant visitation to plants; (ii) this relationship depended on local ant abundance and species composition, and on local preference by ants for plants with liquid attractants; (iii) this was not related to local plant richness or plant size; (iv) the relationship between the presence of ant attractants and caterpillar abundance varied among sites from negative to neutral; and (v) caterpillars feeding on plants with ant attractants are more resistant to ant predation than those feeding on plants lacking attractants. Liquid food on foliage mediates host plant quality for lepidopterans by promoting generalized ant-caterpillar antagonism. Our study in cerrado shows that the negative effects of generalist predatory ants on herbivores are detectable at a community level, affecting patterns of abundance and host plant use by lepidopterans. The magnitude of ant-induced effects on caterpillar occurrence across the cerrado landscape may depend on how ants use plants locally and how they respond to liquid food on plants at different habitats. This study enhances the relevance of plant-ant and ant-herbivore interactions in cerrado and highlights the importance of a tritrophic perspective in this ant-rich environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sebastián F Sendoya
- Departamento de Biologia Animal, Universidade Estadual de Campinas, C.P. 6109, 13083-862, Campinas, SP, Brazil
| | - Paulo S Oliveira
- Departamento de Biologia Animal, Universidade Estadual de Campinas, C.P. 6109, 13083-862, Campinas, SP, Brazil
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46
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The cost of autotomy caused by the parasitoid fly Blaesoxipha japonensis (Diptera: Sarcophagidae): an interspecific comparison between two sympatric grasshopper host species. Ecol Res 2014. [DOI: 10.1007/s11284-014-1202-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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47
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Quintero C, Lampert EC, Bowers MD. Time is of the essence: direct and indirect effects of plant ontogenetic trajectories on higher trophic levels. Ecology 2014. [DOI: 10.1890/13-2249.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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48
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Mason PA, Bernardo MA, Singer MS. A mixed diet of toxic plants enables increased feeding and anti-predator defense by an insect herbivore. Oecologia 2014; 176:477-86. [DOI: 10.1007/s00442-014-3029-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2014] [Accepted: 07/19/2014] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
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49
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Sugiura S, Yamazaki K. Caterpillar hair as a physical barrier against invertebrate predators. Behav Ecol 2014. [DOI: 10.1093/beheco/aru080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
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50
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Vogelweith F, Thiéry D, Moret Y, Colin E, Motreuil S, Moreau J. Defense strategies used by two sympatric vineyard moth pests. JOURNAL OF INSECT PHYSIOLOGY 2014; 64:54-61. [PMID: 24662468 DOI: 10.1016/j.jinsphys.2014.03.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2013] [Revised: 02/17/2014] [Accepted: 03/14/2014] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Natural enemies including parasitoids are the major biological cause of mortality among phytophagous insects. In response to parasitism, these insects have evolved a set of defenses to protect themselves, including behavioral, morphological, physiological and immunological barriers. According to life history theory, resources are partitioned to various functions including defense, implying trade-offs among defense mechanisms. In this study we characterized the relative investment in behavioral, physical and immunological defense systems in two sympatric species of Tortricidae (Eupoecilia ambiguella, Lobesia botrana) which are important grapevine moth pests. We also estimated the parasitism by parasitoids in natural populations of both species, to infer the relative success of the investment strategies used by each moth. We demonstrated that larvae invest differently in defense systems according to the species. Relative to L. botrana, E. ambiguella larvae invested more into morphological defenses and less into behavioral defenses, and exhibited lower basal levels of immune defense but strongly responded to immune challenge. L. botrana larvae in a natural population were more heavily parasitized by various parasitoid species than E. ambiguella, suggesting that the efficacy of defense strategies against parasitoids is not equal among species. These results have implications for understanding of regulation in communities, and in the development of biological control strategies for these two grapevine pests.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fanny Vogelweith
- Université de Bourgogne, Equipe Ecologie Evolutive, UMR 6282 Biogéosciences, 6 Bd Gabriel, F-21000 Dijon, France; INRA UMR 1065 Santé et Agroecologie du Vignoble, Institut des Science de la Vigne et du Vin, Ave E. Bourleaux, F-33883 Villenave d'Ornon Cedex, France.
| | - Denis Thiéry
- INRA UMR 1065 Santé et Agroecologie du Vignoble, Institut des Science de la Vigne et du Vin, Ave E. Bourleaux, F-33883 Villenave d'Ornon Cedex, France; Université de Bordeaux, INRA UMR 1065, Save, Bordeaux Sciences Agro, Ave E. Bourleaux, 33883 Villenave d'Ornon Cedex, France
| | - Yannick Moret
- Université de Bourgogne, Equipe Ecologie Evolutive, UMR 6282 Biogéosciences, 6 Bd Gabriel, F-21000 Dijon, France
| | - Eloïse Colin
- Université de Bourgogne, Equipe Ecologie Evolutive, UMR 6282 Biogéosciences, 6 Bd Gabriel, F-21000 Dijon, France
| | - Sébastien Motreuil
- Université de Bourgogne, Equipe Ecologie Evolutive, UMR 6282 Biogéosciences, 6 Bd Gabriel, F-21000 Dijon, France
| | - Jérôme Moreau
- Université de Bourgogne, Equipe Ecologie Evolutive, UMR 6282 Biogéosciences, 6 Bd Gabriel, F-21000 Dijon, France
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