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Yates JR, Adhikari S, Bako RE, Berling KL, Broderick MR, Mains R, Zwick B. Methamphetamine increases risky choice in rats, but only when magnitude and probability of reinforcement are manipulated within a session. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2024; 239:173751. [PMID: 38548247 PMCID: PMC11220734 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2024.173751] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2024] [Revised: 03/18/2024] [Accepted: 03/20/2024] [Indexed: 05/12/2024]
Abstract
Risky choice is associated with maladaptive behaviors, particularly substance use disorders. Current animal models of risky choice are often confounded by other constructs like behavioral flexibility and suboptimal choice. The purpose of the current experiment was to determine if the psychostimulant methamphetamine, a drug whose popularity has increased in recent years, increases risky choice in an equivalent expected value (EEV) task. In the EEV task, rats are given a choice between two reinforcer alternatives that differ in magnitude and probability of delivery, but have equivalent expected value. Forty-eight Sprague Dawley rats were tested in three versions of the EEV task. In the first version of the EEV task, both reinforcer magnitude and probability were adjusted across blocks of trials for both alternatives. In the second and the third versions of the EEV task, reinforcer magnitude was held constant across each block of trials (either 1 vs. 2 pellets or 4 vs. 5 pellets). We found that male rats preferred the "riskier" option, except when reinforcer magnitudes were held constant at 4 and 5 pellets across each block of trials. Methamphetamine (0.5 mg/kg) increased preference for the risky option in both males and females, but only when both reinforcer magnitude and probability were manipulated across blocks of trials for each alternative. The current results demonstrate that both magnitude of reinforcement and probability of reinforcement interact to influence risky choice. Overall, this study provides additional support for using reinforcers with expected value to measure risky choice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Justin R Yates
- Department of Psychological Science, Northern Kentucky University, Highland Heights, KY 41099, United States of America.
| | - Shreeukta Adhikari
- Department of Biological Sciences, Northern Kentucky University, Highland Heights, KY 41099, United States of America
| | - Rayah E Bako
- Department of Psychological Science, Northern Kentucky University, Highland Heights, KY 41099, United States of America
| | - Kevin L Berling
- Department of Biological Sciences, Northern Kentucky University, Highland Heights, KY 41099, United States of America
| | - Maria R Broderick
- Department of Biological Sciences, Northern Kentucky University, Highland Heights, KY 41099, United States of America; Jacobs School of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, University at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY 14260, United States of America
| | - Reuben Mains
- Department of Psychological Science, Northern Kentucky University, Highland Heights, KY 41099, United States of America; Department of Biological Sciences, Northern Kentucky University, Highland Heights, KY 41099, United States of America
| | - Bradley Zwick
- Department of Psychological Science, Northern Kentucky University, Highland Heights, KY 41099, United States of America; Department of Biological Sciences, Northern Kentucky University, Highland Heights, KY 41099, United States of America
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2
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Overmatching under food uncertainty in foraging pigeons. Behav Processes 2022; 201:104728. [DOI: 10.1016/j.beproc.2022.104728] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2022] [Revised: 07/07/2022] [Accepted: 08/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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3
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Johnson DA, Ferguson R. On Terms within Organizational Behavior Management. JOURNAL OF ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR MANAGEMENT 2022. [DOI: 10.1080/01608061.2022.2099504] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Rachael Ferguson
- Florida Institute of Technology, School of Behavior Analysis, Melbourne, Florida, USA
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4
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Glautier S, Eisenbarth H, Macaskill A. In Search of the Preference Reversal Zone. Exp Psychol 2022; 69:46-59. [PMID: 35579537 DOI: 10.1027/1618-3169/a000542] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
A preference reversal is observed when a preference for a larger-later (LL) reward over a smaller-sooner (SS) reward reverses as both rewards come closer in time. Preference reversals are common in everyday life and in the laboratory and are often claimed to support hyperbolic delay-discounting models which, in their simplest form, can model reversals with only one free parameter. However, it is not clear if the temporal location of preference reversals can be predicted a priori. Studies testing model predictions have not found support for them, but they overlooked the well-documented effect of reinforcer magnitude on discounting rate. Therefore, we directly tested hyperbolic and exponential model predictions in a pre-registered study by assessing individual discount rates for two reinforcer magnitudes. We then made individualized predictions about pairs of choices between which preference reversals should occur. With 107 participants, we found (1) little evidence that hyperbolic and exponential models could predict the temporal location of preference reversals, (2) some evidence that hyperbolic models had better predictive performance than exponential models, and (3) in contrast to many previous studies, that exponential models generally produced superior fits to the observed data than hyperbolic models.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Hedwig Eisenbarth
- School of Psychology, Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand
| | - Anne Macaskill
- School of Psychology, Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand
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5
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Executive Functions in Birds. BIRDS 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/birds3020013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Executive functions comprise of top-down cognitive processes that exert control over information processing, from acquiring information to issuing a behavioral response. These cognitive processes of inhibition, working memory, and cognitive flexibility underpin complex cognitive skills, such as episodic memory and planning, which have been repeatedly investigated in several bird species in recent decades. Until recently, avian executive functions were studied in relatively few bird species but have gained traction in comparative cognitive research following MacLean and colleagues’ large-scale study from 2014. Therefore, in this review paper, the relevant previous findings are collected and organized to facilitate further investigations of these core cognitive processes in birds. This review can assist in integrating findings from avian and mammalian cognitive research and further the current understanding of executive functions’ significance and evolution.
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6
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González-Barriga F, Orduña V. Spontaneously hypertensive rats show higher impulsive action, but equal impulsive choice with both positive and aversive consequences. Behav Brain Res 2022; 427:113858. [PMID: 35339564 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2022.113858] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2021] [Revised: 02/16/2022] [Accepted: 03/19/2022] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
Both positive and aversive delayed consequences play an important role in decision making. However, most of research has studied the temporal discounting of the positive consequences, while the study of the aversives is scarce in general and null in some areas. This is the case of research on impulsivity in spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR), an animal model of ADHD. To evaluate SHRs' sensitivity to aversive delayed consequences, we employed a choice procedure in which subjects chose between a smaller-amount alternative and a larger-amount alternative plus a shock; when preference for the smaller-amount alternative stabilized, five different delays to the shock were presented with the objective of analyzing the recovery of preference for the larger-amount alternative, which is related to the sensitivity to the delayed aversive consequence. To analyze the sensitivity to delayed positive consequences we employed a procedure that evaluated the preference between a smaller-amount alternative and a larger-amount alternative as a function of the delay to the later. Finally, to evaluate impulsive action we employed a DRL 10s schedule. In all tasks, Wistar rats were evaluated as control strain. The results indicated that choice impulsivity was equivalent between strains, both for positive and for aversive consequences. In contrast, we found a higher level of impulsive action in SHR.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Vladimir Orduña
- Facultad de Psicología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, México D.F. 04510, México.
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7
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Abstract
AbstractThis paper examines the impact of process accountability on two biases causing myopic or short-sighted decision making. These biases are strong preferences for immediate and certain outcomes known as delay and risk aversion. We hypothesize that accountability alone is insufficient to undo the biases, but if coupled with a cue on subjective discount rates, it will attenuate biases. To analyze our research question, we used a within- and between-subjects experimental design (two accountability conditions compared with a non-accountability condition and with each other) with delay and probability discounting choice tasks involving 118 students of accounting, finance and management in an online experiment. In line with our hypotheses, we find that process accountability successfully reduces excessive delay and risk aversion only if it provides a cue about the subjective discount rate. We discuss the implications of our findings for management control.
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8
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Stein JS, Madden GJ. Choice bundling, unpacked: Observed and predicted effects on intertemporal choice in an additive model of hyperbolic delay discounting. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0259830. [PMID: 34767599 PMCID: PMC8589209 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0259830] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2020] [Accepted: 10/27/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
One method known to increase preference for larger, later rewards (LLRs) over smaller, sooner rewards (SSRs) is choice bundling, in which a single choice produces a series of repeating consequences over time. The present study examined whether effects of choice bundling on preference for LLRs: (1) increase with the number of rewards in the bundle (i.e., bundle size); (2) are independent of differences in reward magnitude between conditions; and (3) accord with predictions of an additive model of hyperbolic delay discounting, in which the value of a bundle of rewards can be expressed as the summed discounted value of all rewards in that bundle. Participants (N = 252) completed a choice task to assess valuation of monetary LLRs at bundle sizes of 1 (control), 3, and 9 rewards per choice (ascending/descending order counterbalanced). To control for the magnitude effect, the total reward amounts were held constant across conditions. Choice bundling significantly increased LLR preference (p < .001), with the largest effect observed at the largest bundle size. The descending bundle-size order produced significantly greater LLR preference than the ascending order (p < .05), although order did not significantly interact with bundle size. Difference scores between observed measures and those predicted by an additive model of hyperbolic discounting were small and not significantly different than zero, but were not equivalent to zero. Future research should investigate the clinical utility of choice bundling for reducing the maladaptive health behavior (e.g., substance use) with which delay discounting is associated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey S. Stein
- Center for Health Behaviors Research, Fralin Biomedical Research Institute at Virginia Tech Carilion, Roanoke, Virginia, United States of America
- Department of Human Nutrition, Foods, and Exercise, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia, United States of America
| | - Gregory J. Madden
- Department of Psychology, Utah State University, Logan, Utah, United States of America
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9
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Ugazio G, Grueschow M, Polania R, Lamm C, Tobler P, Ruff C. Neuro-Computational Foundations of Moral Preferences. Soc Cogn Affect Neurosci 2021; 17:nsab100. [PMID: 34508645 PMCID: PMC8881635 DOI: 10.1093/scan/nsab100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2021] [Revised: 06/16/2021] [Accepted: 09/10/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Moral preferences pervade many aspects of our lives, dictating how we ought to behave, whom we can marry, and even what we eat. Despite their relevance, one fundamental question remains unanswered: Where do individual moral preferences come from? It is often thought that all types of preferences reflect properties of domain-general neural decision mechanisms that employ a common "neural currency" to value choice options in many different contexts. This view, however, appears at odds with the observation that many humans consider it intuitively wrong to employ the same scale to compare moral value (e.g., of a human life) with material value (e.g., of money). In this paper, we directly test if moral subjective values are represented by similar neural processes as financial subjective values. In a study combining fMRI with a novel behavioral paradigm, we identify neural representations of the subjective values of human lives or financial payoffs by means of structurally identical computational models. Correlating isomorphic model variables from both domains with brain activity reveals specific patterns of neural activity that selectively represent values in the moral (rTPJ) or financial (vmPFC) domain. Intriguingly, our findings show that human lives and money are valued in (at least partially) distinct neural currencies, supporting theoretical proposals that human moral behavior is guided by processes that are distinct from those underlying behavior driven by personal material benefit.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giuseppe Ugazio
- Zurich Center for Neuroeconomics (ZNE), Department of Economics, University of Zurich, Zurich 8006, Switzerland
- Moral Psychology Research Lab, Department of Psychology, Harvard University Cambridge, Cambridge, MA, USA
- Geneva Finance Research Institute, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Marcus Grueschow
- Zurich Center for Neuroeconomics (ZNE), Department of Economics, University of Zurich, Zurich 8006, Switzerland
| | - Rafael Polania
- Decision Neuroscience Lab, Department of Health Sciences and Technology, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Claus Lamm
- Social, Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience Unit, Department of Basic Psychological Research and Research Methods, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Philippe Tobler
- Zurich Center for Neuroeconomics (ZNE), Department of Economics, University of Zurich, Zurich 8006, Switzerland
| | - Christian Ruff
- Zurich Center for Neuroeconomics (ZNE), Department of Economics, University of Zurich, Zurich 8006, Switzerland
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10
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On the Appropriate Measure to Estimate Hyperbolic Discounting Rate (K) using the Method of Least Squares. Perspect Behav Sci 2021; 44:667-682. [DOI: 10.1007/s40614-021-00306-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/02/2021] [Indexed: 10/20/2022] Open
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11
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Aellen M, Dufour V, Bshary R. Cleaner fish and other wrasse match primates in their ability to delay gratification. Anim Behav 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2021.04.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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12
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Hata T, Yamashita T, Kamada T. The dorsal hippocampus is required for the formation of long-term duration memories in rats. Eur J Neurosci 2021; 54:4595-4608. [PMID: 34043849 PMCID: PMC8361988 DOI: 10.1111/ejn.15328] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/01/2021] [Revised: 05/15/2021] [Accepted: 05/23/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Interval timing—the perception of durations mainly in seconds or minutes—is a ubiquitous behavior in organisms. Animal studies have suggested that the hippocampus plays an essential role in duration memory; however, the memory processes involved are unclear. To clarify the role of the dorsal hippocampus in the acquisition of long‐term duration memories, we adapted the “time‐shift paradigm” to a peak‐interval procedure. After a sufficient number of training with an initial target duration (20 s), the rats underwent “shift sessions” with a new target duration (40 s) under a muscimol (0.5 µg per side) infusion into the bilateral dorsal hippocampus. The memory of the new target duration was then tested in drug‐free “probe sessions,” including trials in which no lever presses were reinforced. In the probe sessions, the mean response rate distribution of the muscimol group was located leftward to the control group, but these two response rate distributions were superimposed on the standardized time axis, suggesting a scalar property. In the session‐by‐session analysis, the mean peak time (an index of timing accuracy) of the muscimol group was lower than that of the control group in the probe sessions, but not in the shift sessions. These findings suggest that the dorsal hippocampus is required for the formation of long‐term duration memories within the range of interval timing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Toshimichi Hata
- Faculty of Psychology, Doshisha University, Kyotanabe, Japan
| | | | - Taisuke Kamada
- Graduate School of Psychology, Doshisha University, Kyotanabe, Japan.,Graduate School of Medicine Medical Innovation Center, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
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13
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Aparicio CF, Malonson M, Hensley J. Analyzing the magnitude effect in spontaneously hypertensive (SHR) and wistar Kyoto (WKY) rats. Behav Processes 2020; 181:104258. [PMID: 33035639 DOI: 10.1016/j.beproc.2020.104258] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2019] [Revised: 09/06/2020] [Accepted: 09/22/2020] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
We analyzed the magnitude effect in Spontaneously Hypertensive (SHR) and Wistar Kyoto (WKY) rats choosing between a smaller-sooner (SSF) and a larger-later food (LLF) in the initial link of a concurrent-chains procedure. The SSF was delivered immediately in one terminal link and the LLF delayed 0.01, 5, 10, 20, 40, or 80 s in the other terminal link. An ABABA design varied food amount, 1 vs. 4 and 3 vs. 8 food-pellets in conditions A and B, respectively. The SHRs made more impulsive choices than the WKYs. The hyperbolic-decay model and the Generalized Matching Law fitted the data well. Discounting rate (k) and the area under the discounting curve (AUC) for the choices made by the SHRs in conditions A, were like those in conditions B. For the choices that the individual WKYs made, k was slightly higher and AUC smaller in conditions B than in conditions A. For both strains sensitivity to the immediacy of the LLF (s) was slightly higher in conditions A than in conditions B. Thus, we found no conclusive, compelling evidence either supporting or discarding the magnitude effect in the SHRs and scarce evidence supporting an effect opposite to the magnitude effect in the WKYs.
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14
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González-Torres R, Flores J, Orduña V. Suboptimal choice by pigeons is eliminated when key-pecking behavior is replaced by treadle-pressing. Behav Processes 2020; 178:104157. [PMID: 32497555 DOI: 10.1016/j.beproc.2020.104157] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2020] [Revised: 05/29/2020] [Accepted: 05/29/2020] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
In the study of suboptimal choice, a reliable result is that pigeons strongly prefer an alternative that signals whether a reinforcer will be delivered or not over another alternative without that information even if the first provides a lower probability of reinforcement. In the aforementioned research, key pecking has been the operant response and illuminated keys the discriminative stimuli. In the present study we modified both of these aspects of the procedure in order to analyze the generality of suboptimal preferences of pigeons and to investigate the effect of changes in the incentive salience of the discriminative stimuli. To accomplish this, we presented pigeons a choice situation with the same parameters of reinforcement than previous research, but with treadle pressing as the choice response and ambient lights as discriminative stimuli. Under these conditions, most of the pigeons showed optimal behavior and a high degree of discrimination of the stimuli associated with the discriminative alternative. A control condition with key pecking as choice response and keylights as discriminative stimuli showed that the same pigeons turned to be suboptimal, a result that discards the possibility that the optimality found in the main condition was a consequence of a particular characteristic of our sample of subjects or of our procedure. We discuss the influence that the attribution of incentive salience to the discriminative stimuli has on suboptimal choice in both pigeons and rats.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Julio Flores
- Facultad de Psicología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, México, DF, 04510, Mexico
| | - Vladimir Orduña
- Facultad de Psicología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, México, DF, 04510, Mexico.
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15
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Bartonicek A, Colombo M. Claw-in-the-door: pigeons, like humans, display the foot-in-the-door effect. Anim Cogn 2020; 23:893-900. [PMID: 32440793 DOI: 10.1007/s10071-020-01395-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2019] [Revised: 04/30/2020] [Accepted: 05/08/2020] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
People are more likely to comply with a large request when it is preceded by another, smaller request, and this is known as the "foot-in-the-door" (FITD). The FITD has been widely studied in social psychology and is thought to arise from mutually conflicting beliefs about past and present behavior (cognitive dissonance) or changes in self-perception. Across two experiments, we found that pigeons' latency to respond to an effortful second stimulus in a pair scales with how much effort they had exerted on the first stimulus. As such, pigeons also display a FITD-like effect. We argue that the FITD may not be caused by conflicting beliefs or changes in self-perception but may instead be the product of behavioral contrast.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Bartonicek
- Department of Psychology, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand.
| | - M Colombo
- Department of Psychology, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
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16
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Killeen PR. Addendum to Killeen's (2019) Bidding for Delayed Rewards. J Exp Anal Behav 2020; 113:680-689. [DOI: 10.1002/jeab.600] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2019] [Revised: 03/20/2020] [Accepted: 03/29/2020] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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17
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Froböse MI, Westbrook A, Bloemendaal M, Aarts E, Cools R. Catecholaminergic modulation of the cost of cognitive control in healthy older adults. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0229294. [PMID: 32084218 PMCID: PMC7034873 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0229294] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2019] [Accepted: 02/03/2020] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Catecholamines have long been associated with cognitive control and value-based decision-making. More recently, we have shown that catecholamines also modulate value-based decision-making about whether or not to engage in cognitive control. Yet it is unclear whether catecholamines influence these decisions by altering the subjective value of control. Thus, we tested whether tyrosine, a catecholamine precursor altered the subjective value of performing a demanding working memory task among healthy older adults (60-75 years). Contrary to our prediction, tyrosine administration did not significantly increase the subjective value of conducting an N-back task for reward, as a main effect. Instead, in line with our previous study, exploratory analyses indicated that drug effects varied as a function of participants' trait impulsivity scores. Specifically, tyrosine increased the subjective value of conducting an N-back task in low impulsive participants, while reducing its value in more impulsive participants. One implication of these findings is that the over-the-counter tyrosine supplements may be accompanied by an undermining effect on the motivation to perform demanding cognitive tasks, at least in certain older adults. Taken together, these findings indicate that catecholamines can alter cognitive control by modulating motivation (rather than just the ability) to exert cognitive control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monja I. Froböse
- Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
- Institute of Experimental Psychology, Heinrich-Heine University, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Andrew Westbrook
- Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
- Cognitive, Linguistic, and Psychological Sciences, Brown University, Providence, RI, United States of America
| | - Mirjam Bloemendaal
- Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Esther Aarts
- Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Roshan Cools
- Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
- Dept Psychiatry, Radboud University Medical Centre, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
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18
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Disinhibition in Frontotemporal Dementia and Alzheimer's Disease: A Neuropsychological and Behavioural Investigation. J Int Neuropsychol Soc 2020; 26:163-171. [PMID: 31543087 DOI: 10.1017/s1355617719000973] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Cognitive tests of inhibitory control show variable results for the differential diagnosis between behavioural variant of Frontotemporal Dementia (bvFTD) and Alzheimer's disease (AD). We compared the diagnostic accuracies of tests of inhibitory control and of a behavioural questionnaire, to distinguish bvFTD from AD. METHODS Three groups of participants were enrolled: 27 bvFTD patients, 25 AD patients, and 24 healthy controls. Groups were matched for gender, education, and socio-economic level. Participants underwent a comprehensive neuropsychological assessment of inhibitory control, including Hayling Test, Stroop, the Five Digits Test (FDT) and the Delay Discounting Task (DDT). Caregivers completed the Barratt Impulsiveness Scale 11th version (BIS-11). RESULTS bvFTD and AD groups showed no difference in the tasks of inhibitory control, while the caregiver questionnaire revealed that bvFTD patients were significantly more impulsive (BIS-11: bvFTD 76.1+9.5, AD 62.9+13, p < .001). CONCLUSIONS Neuropsychological tests of inhibitory control failed to distinguish bvFTD from AD. On the contrary, impulsivity caregiver-completed questionnaire provided good distinction between bvFTD and AD. These results highlight the current limits of cognitive measures of inhibitory control for the differential diagnosis between bvFTD and AD, whereas questionnaire information appears more reliable and in line with clinical diagnostics.
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19
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Ventral striatum supports Methylphenidate therapeutic effects on impulsive choices expressed in temporal discounting task. Sci Rep 2020; 10:716. [PMID: 31959838 PMCID: PMC6971276 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-57595-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2019] [Accepted: 01/03/2020] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Methylphenidate (MPH) is a dopamine transporter (DAT) inhibitor used to treat attention-deficit/hyperactivity-disorder (ADHD). ADHD patients make impulsive choices in delay discounting tasks (DDT) and MPH reduces such impulsivity, but its therapeutic site of action remains unknown. Based on the high density of DAT in the striatum, we hypothesized that the striatum, especially the ventral striatum (VS) and caudate nucleus which both encode temporal discounting, can be preferential MPH action sites. To determine whether one of these striatal territories is predominantly involved in the effect of MPH, we trained monkeys to make choices during DDT. First, consistent with clinical observations, we found an overall reduction of impulsive choices with a low dose of MPH administered via intramuscular injections, whereas we reported sedative-like effects with a higher dose. Then, using PET-imaging, we found that the therapeutic reduction of impulsive choices was associated with selective DAT occupancy of MPH in the VS. Finally, we confirmed the selective involvement of the VS in the effect of MPH by testing the animals’ impulsivity with microinjections of the drug in distinct striatal territories. Together, these results show that the therapeutic effect of MPH on impulsive decisions is mainly restricted to its action in the VS.
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20
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Sawicki P, Markiewicz Ł, Białek M. Magnitude effect contributes to the domain specificity in delay discounting. JOURNAL OF BEHAVIORAL DECISION MAKING 2019. [DOI: 10.1002/bdm.2159] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Przemysław Sawicki
- Centre for Economic Psychology and Decision SciencesKozminski University, Jagiellońska Warsaw Poland
| | - Łukasz Markiewicz
- Centre for Economic Psychology and Decision SciencesKozminski University, Jagiellońska Warsaw Poland
| | - Michał Białek
- Centre for Economic Psychology and Decision SciencesKozminski University, Jagiellońska Warsaw Poland
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Martinez E, Pasquereau B, Saga Y, Météreau É, Tremblay L. The anterior caudate nucleus supports impulsive choices triggered by pramipexole. Mov Disord 2019; 35:296-305. [PMID: 31737954 DOI: 10.1002/mds.27898] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2019] [Revised: 09/30/2019] [Accepted: 10/06/2019] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Pramipexole is a dopamine agonist used as a treatment in PD and restless legs syndrome to reduce motor symptoms, but it often induces impulse control disorders. In particular, patients with impulse control disorders tend to make more impulsive choices in the delay discounting task, that is, they choose small immediate rewards over larger delayed ones more often than patients without impulse control disorders and healthy subjects do. Yet the site of action of pramipexole that produces these impulsive choices remains unknown. Based on the heterogeneity of corticostriatal projections and the massive dopamine innervation of the striatum, we hypothesized that impulsive choices triggered by dopamine treatments may be supported by a specific striatal territory. OBJECTIVES This study aims to determine by which anteriorstriatum territory the Pramipexole trigger impulsive choices; the caudate nucleus, the ventral striatum or the putamen. METHODS We compared pramipexole intramuscular injections to intracerebral microinjections within the three striatal territories in healthy monkeys trained to execute the delay discounting task, a behavioral paradigm typically used to evaluate impulsive choices. RESULTS We found that pramipexole intramuscular injections induced impulsive choices in all monkeys. Local microinjections were performed inside the anterior caudate nucleus, ventral striatum, and anterior putamen and reproduced those impulsive choices when pramipexole was directly injected into the caudate nucleus, whereas injections into the ventral striatum or putamen had no effect on monkeys' choices. CONCLUSIONS These results, consistent with clinical studies, suggest that impulsive choices triggered by pramipexole are supported by the caudate nucleus, allowing us to emphasize the importance of dopamine modulation inside this striatal territory in decision processes underlying impulsive behaviors. © 2019 International Parkinson and Movement Disorder Society.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eva Martinez
- Institut des Sciences Cognitives Marc Jeannerod, UMR-5229, Bron, France.,Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, Villeurbanne, France
| | | | - Yosuke Saga
- Institut des Sciences Cognitives Marc Jeannerod, UMR-5229, Bron, France
| | - Élise Météreau
- Institut des Sciences Cognitives Marc Jeannerod, UMR-5229, Bron, France
| | - Léon Tremblay
- Institut des Sciences Cognitives Marc Jeannerod, UMR-5229, Bron, France.,Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, Villeurbanne, France
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22
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Miller R, Boeckle M, Jelbert SA, Frohnwieser A, Wascher CAF, Clayton NS. Self-control in crows, parrots and nonhuman primates. WILEY INTERDISCIPLINARY REVIEWS. COGNITIVE SCIENCE 2019; 10:e1504. [PMID: 31108570 PMCID: PMC6852083 DOI: 10.1002/wcs.1504] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2019] [Revised: 04/16/2019] [Accepted: 04/20/2019] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Self-control is critical for both humans and nonhuman animals because it underlies complex cognitive abilities, such as decision-making and future planning, enabling goal-directed behavior. For instance, it is positively associated with social competence and life success measures in humans. We present the first review of delay of gratification as a measure of self-control in nonhuman primates, corvids (crow family) and psittacines (parrot order): disparate groups that show comparable advanced cognitive abilities and similar socio-ecological factors. We compare delay of gratification performance and identify key issues and outstanding areas for future research, including finding the best measures and drivers of delayed gratification. Our review therefore contributes to our understanding of both delayed gratification as a measure of self-control and of complex cognition in animals. This article is categorized under: Cognitive Biology > Evolutionary Roots of Cognition Psychology > Comparative Psychology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachael Miller
- Department of PsychologyUniversity of CambridgeCambridgeUK
| | - Markus Boeckle
- Department of PsychologyUniversity of CambridgeCambridgeUK
- Department of Cognitive BiologyUniversity of ViennaViennaAustria
- Department of PsychotherapyBertha von Suttner Private UniversityAustria
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23
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Killeen PR. Bidding for delayed rewards: Accumulation as delay discounting, delay discounting as regulation, demand functions as corollary. J Exp Anal Behav 2019; 112:111-127. [PMID: 31589338 DOI: 10.1002/jeab.545] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2018] [Revised: 06/18/2019] [Accepted: 08/23/2019] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
In the accumulation paradigm animals press one manipulandum to accumulate pellets or seconds of access to food, and then press another manipulandum, or run some distance, to collect it. The accumulation may be interpreted as delay discounting, with the animals adjusting the distal amount to compensate for its distance or delay. The amount accumulated before being collected is a linear function of the distance or time that the experimental paradigm stipulates for collecting it. That linear function follows from the Unit-Price/Unit-Amount axiom. The inverse of the linear compensation functions gives a delay-discount hyperbola. The advantages of the accumulation paradigm and analytic framework for delay discounting studies are noted. Compensation functions are then derived from a behavioral regulation model, which generalizes them to contexts where the individual's budget for response cost becomes over-taxed. In turn, such compensation/regulation models lead directly to representative demand functions. In sum, regulation models provide a theoretical grounding for demand functions, compensation functions, and delay discounting hyperbolas. The parameter that links them is the unit amount k, the slope of the compensation function and of the discount function, the setpoint for consumption in a regulation model, and the ideal quantity consumed at minimal price in a demand analysis.
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24
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Yoon S, Lim S, Kwon J, Kralik JD, Jeong J. Preference-based serial decisions are counterintuitively influenced by emotion regulation and conscientiousness. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0222797. [PMID: 31584942 PMCID: PMC6777784 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0222797] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2019] [Accepted: 09/06/2019] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Our decisions have a temporally distributed order, and different choice orders (e.g., choosing preferred items first or last) can lead to vastly different experiences. We previously found two dominant strategies (favorite-first and favorite-last) in a preference-based serial choice setting (the 'sushi problem'). However, it remains unclear why these two opposite behavioral patterns arise: i.e., the mechanisms underlying them. Here we developed a novel serial-choice task, using pictures based on attractiveness, to test for a possible shared mechanism with delay discounting, the 'peak-end' bias (i.e., preference for experienced sequences that end well), or working-memory capacity. We also collected psychological and clinical metric data on personality, depression, anxiety, and emotion regulation. We again found the two dominant selection strategies. However, the results of the delay, peak-end bias, and memory capacity tasks were not related to serial choice, while two key psychological metrics were: emotion regulation and conscientiousness (with agreeableness also marginally related). Favorite-first strategists actually regulated emotions better, suggesting better tolerance of negative outcomes. Whereas participants with more varied strategies across trials were more conscientious (and perhaps agreeable), suggesting that they were less willing to settle for a single, simpler strategy. Our findings clarify mechanisms underlying serial choice and show that it may reflect a unique ability to organize choices into sequences of events.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sangsup Yoon
- Department of Bio and Brain Engineering, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), Daejeon, Republic of Korea
| | - Sewoong Lim
- Department of Bio and Brain Engineering, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), Daejeon, Republic of Korea
| | - Jaehyung Kwon
- Department of Bio and Brain Engineering, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), Daejeon, Republic of Korea
| | - Jerald D. Kralik
- Department of Bio and Brain Engineering, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), Daejeon, Republic of Korea
- * E-mail: (JJ); (JDK)
| | - Jaeseung Jeong
- Department of Bio and Brain Engineering, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), Daejeon, Republic of Korea
- * E-mail: (JJ); (JDK)
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25
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Holt DD, Wolf MR. Delay discounting in the pigeon: In search of a magnitude effect. J Exp Anal Behav 2019; 111:436-448. [DOI: 10.1002/jeab.515] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2018] [Accepted: 02/02/2019] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
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26
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Genomic basis of delayed reward discounting. Behav Processes 2019; 162:157-161. [PMID: 30876880 DOI: 10.1016/j.beproc.2019.03.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2018] [Revised: 03/04/2019] [Accepted: 03/09/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Delayed reward discounting (DRD) is a behavioral economic measure of impulsivity, reflecting how rapidly a reward loses value based on its temporal distance. In humans, more impulsive DRD is associated with susceptibility to a number of psychiatric diseases (e.g., addiction, ADHD), health outcomes (e.g., obesity), and lifetime outcomes (e.g., educational attainment). Although the determinants of DRD are both genetic and environmental, this review focuses on its genetic basis. Both rodent studies using inbred strains and human twin studies indicate that DRD is moderately heritable, a conclusion that was further supported by a recent human genome-wide association study (GWAS) that used single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP) to estimate heritability. The GWAS of DRD also identified genetic correlations with psychiatric diagnoses, health outcomes, and measures of cognitive performance. Future research priorities include rodent studies probing putative genetic mechanisms of DRD and human GWASs using larger samples and non-European cohorts. Continuing to characterize genomic influences on DRD has the potential to yield important biological insights with implications for a variety of medically and socially important outcomes.
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27
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Lukinova E, Wang Y, Lehrer SF, Erlich JC. Time preferences are reliable across time-horizons and verbal versus experiential tasks. eLife 2019; 8:e39656. [PMID: 30719974 PMCID: PMC6363390 DOI: 10.7554/elife.39656] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2018] [Accepted: 01/16/2019] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Individual differences in delay-discounting correlate with important real world outcomes, for example education, income, drug use, and criminality. As such, delay-discounting has been extensively studied by economists, psychologists and neuroscientists to reveal its behavioral and biological mechanisms in both human and non-human animal models. However, two major methodological differences hinder comparing results across species. Human studies present long time-horizon options verbally, whereas animal studies employ experiential cues and short delays. To bridge these divides, we developed a novel language-free experiential task inspired by animal decision-making studies. We found that the ranks of subjects' time-preferences were reliable across both verbal/experiential and second/day differences. Yet, discount factors scaled dramatically across the tasks, indicating a strong effect of temporal context. Taken together, this indicates that individuals have a stable, but context-dependent, time-preference that can be reliably assessed using different methods, providing a foundation to bridge studies of time-preferences across species. Editorial note This article has been through an editorial process in which the authors decide how to respond to the issues raised during peer review. The Reviewing Editor's assessment is that all the issues have been addressed (see decision letter).
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Affiliation(s)
- Evgeniya Lukinova
- NYU-ECNU Institute of Brain and Cognitive Science at NYU ShanghaiShanghaiChina
- NYU ShanghaiShanghaiChina
| | - Yuyue Wang
- NYU-ECNU Institute of Brain and Cognitive Science at NYU ShanghaiShanghaiChina
- NYU ShanghaiShanghaiChina
| | - Steven F Lehrer
- NYU-ECNU Institute of Brain and Cognitive Science at NYU ShanghaiShanghaiChina
- NYU ShanghaiShanghaiChina
- School of Policy Studies and Department of EconomicsQueen’s UniversityKingstonCanada
- The National Bureau of Economic ResearchCambridgeUnited States
| | - Jeffrey C Erlich
- NYU-ECNU Institute of Brain and Cognitive Science at NYU ShanghaiShanghaiChina
- NYU ShanghaiShanghaiChina
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Brain Functional Genomics (Ministry of Education)East China Normal UniversityShanghaiChina
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28
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Białaszek W, Marcowski P, Ostaszewski P. Risk inherent in delay accounts for magnitude effects in intertemporal decision making. CURRENT PSYCHOLOGY 2018. [DOI: 10.1007/s12144-018-0092-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
AbstractIf the future is indeed uncertain, then is the subjective riskiness of future gains and losses amount-dependent? To address this question, we performed two experiments, one regarding hypothetical monetary gains and the other regarding hypothetical monetary losses. Our main objective was to determine whether the magnitude effect observed in delay discounting can be explained by the subjective probability of receiving a future outcome. We employed a well-grounded discounting paradigm with a fixed-sequence procedure and the Subjective Probability Questionnaire across different magnitudes of gains and losses. We replicated prior findings indicating that the magnitude effect (observed in delay discounting) or the reverse magnitude effect (observed in probability discounting) are present for monetary gains but not for monetary losses. We found that the subjective probability of receiving future outcomes is amount-dependent for gains but not for losses. We propose that the magnitude effect can be a by-product of the risk associated with future payoffs of different magnitudes, as shown by mediation analysis. Our secondary goal was to investigate the form of the subjective probability function over time to determine if the change in risk inherent in delay is best described by the hyperbolic or exponential equations. We demonstrate that delay and probability discounting, as well as the subjective probability function, are best described by a simple hyperbolic model.
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29
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Holt DD, Wolf MR, Skytta RD. Towards validation of delay discounting in the pigeon. J Exp Anal Behav 2018; 110:394-411. [PMID: 30221351 DOI: 10.1002/jeab.470] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2018] [Accepted: 08/11/2018] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
A series of procedures were conducted in an attempt to assess various forms of validity related to the use of pigeons in research on delay discounting. In separate experimental arrangements, pigeons pressed a treadle, pecked a lit key, pecked a darkened key, or pecked a lit key with a hold as the required response. First, the obtained results were consistent with what would be necessary if the construct of delay discounting were being measured, which provides evidence of face validity. Second, criterion validity was assessed by comparing individual differences in rates of discounting across procedures. Third, to assess internal validity, each pigeon repeated the Treadle, Key Peck, and Dark Key procedures. Again, at both the aggregate and individual levels, the obtained indifference points did not differ systematically between replications. Finally, to assess external validity, discounting was observed regardless of the procedure, where the patterns of data at the aggregate level, and generally at the individual level, were orderly and well described by a hyperbolic function. In addition, rates of discounting were similar when pigeons pecked a lit key, a dark key, or a key with a hold; and each of those rates of discounting tended to be steeper than when treadle pressing. Generally speaking, pigeons that discounted relatively steeply on one procedure also tended to discount relatively steeply on the other procedures. The procedures evidence some of the necessary elements involved with the use of pigeons in research on delay discounting.
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30
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Brady K, Hewison L, Wright H, Zulch H, Cracknell N, Mills D. A spatial discounting test to assess impulsivity in dogs. Appl Anim Behav Sci 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.applanim.2018.01.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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31
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Choosing the right delay-discounting task: Completion times and rates of nonsystematic data. Behav Processes 2018; 151:119-125. [PMID: 29604331 DOI: 10.1016/j.beproc.2018.03.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2017] [Revised: 03/13/2018] [Accepted: 03/27/2018] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
A variety of delay discounting tasks are widely used in human studies designed to quantify the degree to which individuals discount the value of delayed rewards. It is currently unknown which task(s) yields the largest proportion of valid and systematic data using standard criteria (Johnson & Bickel, 2008). The goal of this study was to compare three delay-discounting tasks on task duration and amount of valid and systematic data produced. In Experiment 1, 180 college students completed one of three tasks online (fixed alternatives, titrating, or visual analogue scale [VAS]). Invalid and nonsystematic data, identified using standard criteria, were most prevalent with the VAS (47.3% of participants). The other tasks produced more (and similar amounts of) valid and systematic data, but required more time to complete than the VAS. Viewing systematic data as more important than completion times, Experiment 2 (n = 153 college students) sought to reduce the amount of invalid datasets in the fixed-alternatives task, and compare amounts of nonsystematic data with the titrating task. Completion times were superior in the titrating task, which produced modestly more systematic data than the fixed-alternatives task. Causes of invalid and nonsystematic data are discussed, as are methods for reducing data exclusion.
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32
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Delay Gradients for Spout-Licking and Magazine-Entering Induced by a Periodic Food Schedule. PSYCHOLOGICAL RECORD 2018. [DOI: 10.1007/s40732-018-0275-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
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33
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Consistency and flexibility in solving spatial tasks: different horses show different cognitive styles. Sci Rep 2017; 7:16557. [PMID: 29185468 PMCID: PMC5707407 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-16729-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2017] [Accepted: 11/16/2017] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Individual animals vary in their behaviour and reactions to novel situations. These differences may extend to differences in cognition among individuals. We tested twenty-six horses for their ability to detour around symmetric and asymmetric obstacles. All of the animals were able to get around the barrier to reach a food target, but varied in their approach. Some horses moved slowly but were more accurate in choosing the shortest way. Other horses acted quickly, consistently detoured in the same direction, and did not reliably choose the shortest way. The remaining horses shifted from a faster, directionally consistent response with the symmetric barrier, to a slower but more accurate response with the asymmetric barrier. The asymmetric barrier induced a reduction in heart rate variability, suggesting that this is a more demanding task. The different approaches used to solve the asymmetric task may reflect distinct cognitive styles in horses, which vary among individuals, and could be linked to different personality traits. Understanding equine behaviour and cognition can inform horse welfare and management.
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34
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Ballard IC, Kim B, Liatsis A, Aydogan G, Cohen JD, McClure SM. More Is Meaningful: The Magnitude Effect in Intertemporal Choice Depends on Self-Control. Psychol Sci 2017; 28:1443-1454. [PMID: 28858559 PMCID: PMC5959284 DOI: 10.1177/0956797617711455] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2014] [Accepted: 05/03/2017] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Impulsivity is a variable behavioral trait that depends on numerous factors. For example, increasing the absolute magnitude of available choice options promotes farsighted decisions. We argue that this magnitude effect arises in part from differential exertion of self-control as the perceived importance of the choice increases. First, we demonstrated that frontal executive-control areas were more engaged for more difficult decisions and that this effect was enhanced for high-magnitude rewards. Second, we showed that increased hunger, which is associated with lower self-control, reduced the magnitude effect. Third, we tested an intervention designed to increase self-control and showed that it reduced the magnitude effect. Taken together, our findings challenge existing theories about the magnitude effect and suggest that visceral and cognitive factors affecting choice may do so by influencing self-control.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Jonathan D. Cohen
- Princeton Neuroscience Institute,
Princeton University
- Western Psychiatric Institute and
Clinic, University of Pittsburgh
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35
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36
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McKerchar TL, Renda CR. Delay and Probability Discounting in Humans: An Overview. PSYCHOLOGICAL RECORD 2017. [DOI: 10.1007/bf03395837] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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37
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Abstract
Although increased impulsivity (delay discounting) is an important risk factor for drug abuse, the impact of delay on drug taking has received relatively little attention. This study examined delay discounting of the μ-opioid receptor agonist remifentanil in rhesus monkeys (n=4) responding for intravenous infusions under a concurrent choice procedure. Dose-effect curves for remifentanil were determined by varying the dose available on one lever (0.001-0.32 μg/kg/infusion) while keeping the dose available on the other lever (0.1 μg/kg/infusion) the same. Dose-effect curves were determined when both infusions were delivered immediately and when delivery of the fixed dose was delayed (15-180 s). When both doses of remifentanil were delivered immediately, monkeys chose the large dose. Delaying delivery of the fixed dose reduced choice of that dose and increased choice of small immediately available doses. Extending previous studies, these results show that the effects of delay on choice between two doses of a μ-opioid receptor agonist are consistent with hyperbolic discounting. Delaying delivery of a preferred reinforcer (e.g. large dose of drug) reduces its effectiveness and increases the effectiveness of small immediately available doses. This effect of delay, particularly on drug self-administration, might contribute to drug abuse.
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38
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The domain effect in delay discounting: The roles of fungibility and perishability. Behav Processes 2016; 131:47-52. [DOI: 10.1016/j.beproc.2016.08.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2016] [Revised: 08/05/2016] [Accepted: 08/15/2016] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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39
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Reyes-Huerta HE, Dos Santos CV. The absence of numbers to express the amount may affect delay discounting with humans. J Exp Anal Behav 2016; 106:117-33. [PMID: 27539224 DOI: 10.1002/jeab.218] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2015] [Accepted: 07/06/2016] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
Human delay discounting is usually studied with experimental protocols that use symbols to express delay and amount. In order to further understand discounting, we evaluated whether the absence of numbers to represent reward amounts affects discount rate in general, and whether the magnitude effect is generalized to nonsymbolic situations in particular. In Experiment 1, human participants were exposed to a delay-discounting task in which rewards were presented using dots to represent monetary rewards (nonsymbolic); under this condition the magnitude effect did not occur. Nevertheless, the magnitude effect was observed when equivalent reward amounts were presented using numbers (symbolic). Moreover, in estimation tasks, magnitude increments produced underestimation of large amounts. In Experiment 2, participants were exposed only to the nonsymbolic discounting task and were required to estimate reward amounts in each trial. Consistent with Experiment 1, the absence of numbers representing reward amounts produced similar discount rates of small and large rewards. These results suggest that value of nonsymbolic rewards is a nonlinear function of amount and that value attribution depends on perceived difference between the immediate and the delayed nonsymbolic rewards.
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40
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Krebs CA, Reilly WJ, Anderson KG. Reinforcer magnitude affects delay discounting and influences effects of d-amphetamine in rats. Behav Processes 2016; 130:39-45. [PMID: 27418423 DOI: 10.1016/j.beproc.2016.07.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2016] [Revised: 07/05/2016] [Accepted: 07/07/2016] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Impulsive choice in humans can be altered by changing reinforcer magnitude; however, this effect has not been found in rats. Current levels of impulsive choice can also influence effects of d-amphetamine. This study used a within-subject assessment to determine if impulsive choice is sensitive to changes in reinforcer magnitude, and whether effects of d-amphetamine are related to current levels of impulsive choice. A discounting procedure in which choice was for a smaller reinforcer available immediately or a larger reinforcer available after a delay that increased within session was used. Reinforcer magnitude was manipulated between conditions and impulsive choice was quantified using area under the curve (AUC). In the Smaller-Magnitude (SM) Condition, choice was between one food pellet and three food pellets. In the Larger-Magnitude (LM) Condition, choice was between two food pellets and six food pellets. Impulsive choice was greater in the SM Condition compared to the LM Condition. Further, effects of d-amphetamine (0.1-1.8mg/kg) were related to differences in impulsive choice. d-Amphetamine increased impulsive choice in the LM Condition, but had no effect on impulsive choice in the SM Condition. Overall, these results show that impulsive choice in rats is sensitive to changes in reinforcer magnitude, and that effects of d-amphetamine are influenced by current levels of impulsive choice.
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41
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Chong TTJ, Bonnelle V, Husain M. Quantifying motivation with effort-based decision-making paradigms in health and disease. PROGRESS IN BRAIN RESEARCH 2016; 229:71-100. [PMID: 27926453 DOI: 10.1016/bs.pbr.2016.05.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/02/2022]
Abstract
Motivation can be characterized as a series of cost-benefit valuations, in which we weigh the amount of effort we are willing to expend (the cost of an action) in return for particular rewards (its benefits). Human motivation has traditionally been measured with self-report and questionnaire-based tools, but an inherent limitation of these methods is that they are unable to provide a mechanistic explanation of the processes underlying motivated behavior. A major goal of current research is to quantify motivation objectively with effort-based decision-making paradigms, by drawing on a rich literature from nonhuman animals. Here, we review this approach by considering the development of these paradigms in the laboratory setting over the last three decades, and their more recent translation to understanding choice behavior in humans. A strength of this effort-based approach to motivation is that it is capable of capturing the wide range of individual differences, and offers the potential to dissect motivation into its component elements, thus providing the basis for more accurate taxonomic classifications. Clinically, modeling approaches might provide greater sensitivity and specificity to diagnosing disorders of motivation, for example, in being able to detect subclinical disorders of motivation, or distinguish a disorder of motivation from related but separate syndromes, such as depression. Despite the great potential in applying effort-based paradigms to index human motivation, we discuss several caveats to interpreting current and future studies, and the challenges in translating these approaches to the clinical setting.
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Affiliation(s)
- T T-J Chong
- Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW, Australia; ARC Centre of Excellence in Cognition and its Disorders, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW, Australia; Monash Institute of Cognitive and Clinical Neurosciences, Monash University, Clayton, VIC, Australia.
| | - V Bonnelle
- University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - M Husain
- University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom; John Radcliffe Hospital, Oxford, United Kingdom
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42
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Fagnani J, Barrera G, Carballo F, Bentosela M. Tolerance to delayed reward tasks in social and non-social contexts. Behav Processes 2016; 130:19-30. [PMID: 27343621 DOI: 10.1016/j.beproc.2016.06.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2016] [Revised: 06/15/2016] [Accepted: 06/21/2016] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Domestic dogs have demonstrated striking social skills towards humans, however, there are few studies investigating impulsivity with delay-choice tasks in communicative contexts. In Study 1 we introduced a novel social delay-choice task in which subjects had to choose between one human cueing an immediate, low quality reward and another human signaling a delayed, high quality reward. In Study 2 we evaluated the tolerance to increasing delays using social and non-social cues. We also explored if more self-controlled dogs show any distinct behaviours during delays. Finally, we correlated all results with the Dog Impulsivity Assessment Scale (Wright et al., 2011). In Study 1 dogs reached an average maximum delay of 11.55s. In Study 2 that average was 52.14s with social cues and 40.2s with non-social, but differences were not significant. Tolerance to delays showed high interindividual variation. Dogs remained mostly standing and near the delayed experimenter in the social tasks although we could not to find any distinct coping strategies. No significant correlations were found between the delay reached and behaviours, neither with the scale. These results show the relevance of the parameters and methods used to investigate tolerance to delay of reinforcements. More investigations are required, especially an assessment of the same subjects performing the same tasks using different contexts.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Fagnani
- Instituto de Ciencias Veterinarias del Litoral (ICIVET Litoral), UNL-CONICET, Argentina; Grupo de Investigación del Comportamiento en Cánidos (ICOC), Argentina
| | - G Barrera
- Instituto de Ciencias Veterinarias del Litoral (ICIVET Litoral), UNL-CONICET, Argentina; Grupo de Investigación del Comportamiento en Cánidos (ICOC), Argentina
| | - F Carballo
- Grupo de Investigación del Comportamiento en Cánidos (ICOC), Argentina; Instituto de Investigaciones Biológicas y Biomédicas del Sur (INBIOSUR; CONICET-UNS), Argentina
| | - M Bentosela
- Grupo de Investigación del Comportamiento en Cánidos (ICOC), Argentina; Instituto de Investigaciones Médicas (IDIM-CONICET), Argentina.
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Greenhow AK, Hunt MJ, Macaskill AC, Harper DN. The effect of reinforcer magnitude on probability and delay discounting of experienced outcomes in a computer game task in humans. J Exp Anal Behav 2016; 104:186-97. [PMID: 26377438 DOI: 10.1002/jeab.166] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2014] [Accepted: 08/05/2015] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Delay and uncertainty of receipt both reduce the subjective value of reinforcers. Delay has a greater impact on the subjective value of smaller reinforcers than of larger ones while the reverse is true for uncertainty. We investigated the effect of reinforcer magnitude on discounting of delayed and uncertain reinforcers using a novel approach: embedding relevant choices within a computer game. Participants made repeated choices between smaller, certain, immediate outcomes and larger, but delayed or uncertain outcomes while experiencing the result of each choice. Participants' choices were generally well described by the hyperbolic discounting function. Smaller numbers of points were discounted more steeply than larger numbers as a function of delay but not probability. The novel experiential choice task described is a promising approach to investigating both delay and probability discounting in humans.
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Smith AP, Peterson JR, Kirkpatrick K. Reward Contrast Effects on Impulsive Choice and Timing in Rats. TIMING & TIME PERCEPTION 2016; 4:147-166. [PMID: 27867839 DOI: 10.1163/22134468-00002059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
Despite considerable interest in impulsive choice as a predictor of a variety of maladaptive behaviors, the mechanisms that drive choice behavior are still poorly understood. The present study sought to examine the influence of one understudied variable, reward magnitude contrast, on choice and timing behavior as changes in magnitude commonly occur within choice procedures. In addition, assessments of indirect effects on choice behavior through magnitude-timing interactions were assessed by measuring timing within the choice task. Rats were exposed to choice procedures composed of different pairs of magnitudes of rewards for either the smaller-sooner (SS) or larger-later (LL) option. In Phase 2, the magnitude of reward either increased or decreased by 1 pellet in different groups (LL increase = 1v1→1v2; SS decrease = 2v2 → 1v2; SS increase = 1v2 → 2v2), followed by a return to baseline in Phase 3. Choice behavior was affected by the initial magnitudes experienced in the task, demonstrating a strong anchor effect. The nature of the change in magnitude affected choice behavior as well. Timing behavior was also affected by the reward contrast manipulation albeit to a lesser degree and the timing and choice effects were correlated. The results suggest that models of choice behavior should incorporate reinforcement history, reward contrast elements, and magnitude-timing interactions, but that direct effects of reward contrast on choice should be given more weight than the indirect reward-timing interactions. A better understanding of the factors that contribute to choice behavior could supply key insights into this important individual differences variable.
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Teichroeb JA, Aguado WD. Foraging vervet monkeys optimize travel distance when alone but prioritize high-reward food sites when in competition. Anim Behav 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2016.02.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Zoratto F, Laviola G, Adriani W. The subjective value of probabilistic outcomes: Impact of reward magnitude on choice with uncertain rewards in rats. Neurosci Lett 2016; 617:225-31. [PMID: 26905669 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2016.02.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2015] [Revised: 01/29/2016] [Accepted: 02/12/2016] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Interest is rising for animal modelling of Gambling disorder (GD), which is rapidly emerging as a mental health concern. In the present study, we assessed gambling proneness in male Wistar-Han rats using the "Probabilistic Delivery Task" (PDT). This operant protocol is based on choice between either certain, small amounts of food (SS) or larger amounts of food (LLL) delivered (or not) depending on a given (and progressively decreasing) probability. Here, we manipulated the ratio between large and small reward size to assess the impact of different magnitudes on rats' performance. Specifically, we drew a comparison between threefold (2 vs 6 pellets) and fivefold (1 vs 5 pellets) sizes. As a consequence, the "indifferent point" (IP, at which either choice is mathematically equivalent in terms of total foraging) was at 33% and 20% probability of delivery, respectively. Animals tested with the sharper contrast (i.e. fivefold ratio) exhibited sustained preference for LLL far beyond the IP, despite high uncertainty and low payoff, which rendered LLL a sub-optimal option. By contrast, animals facing a slighter contrast (i.e. threefold ratio) were increasingly disturbed by progressive rarefaction of rewards, as expressed by enhanced inadequate nose-poking: this was in accordance with their prompt shift in preference to SS, already shown around the IP. In conclusion, a five-folded LLL-to-SS ratio was not only more attractive, but also less frustrating than a three-folded one. Thus, a profile of gambling proneness in the PDT is more effectively induced by marked contrast between alternative options.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesca Zoratto
- Section of Behavioural Neuroscience, Department of Cell Biology and Neurosciences, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Viale Regina Elena 299, I-00161 Rome, Italy
| | - Giovanni Laviola
- Section of Behavioural Neuroscience, Department of Cell Biology and Neurosciences, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Viale Regina Elena 299, I-00161 Rome, Italy
| | - Walter Adriani
- Section of Behavioural Neuroscience, Department of Cell Biology and Neurosciences, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Viale Regina Elena 299, I-00161 Rome, Italy.
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Reed DD, Becirevic A, Atchley P, Kaplan BA, Liese BS. Validation of a Novel Delay Discounting of Text Messaging Questionnaire. PSYCHOLOGICAL RECORD 2016. [DOI: 10.1007/s40732-016-0167-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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Vanderveldt A, Oliveira L, Green L. Delay discounting: Pigeon, rat, human--does it matter? JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY-ANIMAL LEARNING AND COGNITION 2016; 42:141-62. [PMID: 26881899 DOI: 10.1037/xan0000097] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Delay discounting refers to the decrease in subjective value of an outcome as the time to its receipt increases. Across species and situations, animals discount delayed rewards, and their discounting is well-described by a hyperboloid function. The current review begins with a comparison of discounting models and the procedures used to assess delay discounting in nonhuman animals. We next discuss the generality of discounting, reviewing the effects of different variables on the degree of discounting delayed reinforcers by nonhuman animals. Despite the many similarities in discounting observed between human and nonhuman animals, several differences have been proposed (e.g., the magnitude effect; nonhuman animals discount over a matter of seconds whereas humans report willing to wait months, if not years before receiving a reward), raising the possibility of fundamental species differences in intertemporal choice. After evaluating these differences, we discuss delay discounting from an adaptationist perspective. The pervasiveness of discounting across species and situations suggests it is a fundamental process underlying decision making.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Luís Oliveira
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Washington University
| | - Leonard Green
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Washington University
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Being Kind to Your Future Self: Probability Discounting of Health Decision-Making. Ann Behav Med 2015; 50:297-309. [DOI: 10.1007/s12160-015-9754-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
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