Engineered Nanomaterials: The Challenges and Opportunities for Nanomedicines

Liposomes as versatile agents for the management of traumatic and nontraumatic central nervous system disorders: drug stability, targeting efficiency, and safety

Various nanoparticle-based drug delivery systems for the treatment of neurological disorders have been widely studied. However, their inability to cross the blood-brain barrier hampers the clinical translation of these therapeutic strategies. Liposomes are nanoparticles composed of lipid bilayers, which can effectively encapsulate drugs and improve drug delivery across the blood-brain barrier and into brain tissue through their targeting and permeability. Therefore, they can potentially treat traumatic and nontraumatic central nervous system diseases. In this review, we outlined the common properties and preparation methods of liposomes, including thin-film hydration, reverse-phase evaporation, solvent injection techniques, detergent removal methods, and microfluidics techniques. Afterwards, we comprehensively discussed the current applications of liposomes in central nervous system diseases, such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, Huntington's disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, traumatic brain injury, spinal cord injury, and brain tumors. Most studies related to liposomes are still in the laboratory stage and have not yet entered clinical trials. Additionally, their application as drug delivery systems in clinical practice faces challenges such as drug stability, targeting efficiency, and safety. Therefore, we proposed development strategies related to liposomes to further promote their development in neurological disease research.

Evaluation of size-based distribution of components in VYXEOS® liposomal formulation using asymmetric flow field-flow fractionation

VYXEOS® is the first FDA-approved dual-API liposomal formulation containing two different chemotherapeutics, daunorubicin and cytarabine at a 1:5 molar ratio. Analysis of bulk formulation does not provide insight to size-based distribution of APIs and excipients, therefore asymmetrical flow field-flow fractionation (AF4) was utilized for the size-based separation of VYXEOS® liposomes and collected size fractions were further analyzed for the concentrations of APIs, lipid excipients, and copper. Analysis results revealed a significant variation in API distribution across the size fractions, with the larger liposomes encapsulating a higher ratio of cytarabine to daunorubicin compared to the smaller liposomes, while lipid excipient composition was held constant across the size range. We attribute the size-based variation of API ratios to structural change during API loading and sequence of API loading. Cytarabine is first passively loaded into liposomes containing copper gluconate, and then daunorubicin is actively loaded using copper gradient where the daunorubicin is retained in the liposomes as a copper complex. This method can be extended to characterize various single and dual-API liposomal nanocarriers during drug product development and/or post market quality control.

Optical Properties and Antimicrobial Activity of Si/PVP Hybrid Material Combined with Antibiotics

Silica-poly (vinylpyrrolidone) hybrid material was prepared using the sol-gel method. Tetramethyl ortosilane (TMOS) was used as a silica precursor. XRD analysis established that the as-prepared material is amorphous. The morphological structure of the final product was determined by the incorporated PVP. The UV-Vis analysis showed that the obtained hybrid exhibited absorption in the ultraviolet range. The antimicrobial activity of the SiO2/15PVP hybrid material was tested on Staphylococcus epidermidis ATCC 14990, Salmonella typhimurium ATCC BAA-2162, Candida albicans, and Saccharomyces cerevisiae in combination with the following antibiotics: Vancomycin for Gram-positive bacteria, Ciprofloxacin for Gram-negative bacteria, and Nystatin for yeast. The results confirmed a concentration-dependent synergistic effect of the antibiotic in combination with the TM15/PVP hybrid particles, especially at their highest concentration of 100 mg/mL on Gram-positive bacteria and for the Gram-negative Salmonella. On Candida albicans ATCC 18804 and Saccharomyces cerevisiae CCY 21-6-3, the effect was synergistic again, and a fungicidal effect was observed at 6.25 and 1.50 mg/mL for the antibiotic concentration and concentrations of hybrid material at 100 mg/mL. The toxicity on Daphnia magna was also tested. The registered prooxidant activity of SiO2/15PVP shows possible applications at very low concentrations. The obtained results demonstrate the possibility of clinical implementations of the newly synthesized hybrid material.

miRNA-driven sensitization of breast cancer cells to Doxorubicin treatment following exposure to low dose of Zinc Oxide nanoparticles

The impact of Engineered nanomaterials (ENMs) (i.e., Zinc Oxide nanoparticles (ZnO NPs)) on human health has been investigated at high and unrealistic exposure levels, overlooking the potential indirect harm of subtoxic and long exposures. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the impacts of subtoxic concentrations of zinc oxide (ZnO NPs) on breast cancer cells' response to Doxorubicin. Zinc oxide nanoparticles caused a concentration-dependent reduction of cell viability in multiple breast cancer cell lines. A subtoxic concentration of 1.56 µg/mL (i.e., no observed adverse effect level) was used in subsequent mechanistic studies. Molecularly, miRNA profiling revealed significant downregulation of 13 oncogenic miRNAs (OncomiRs) in cells exposed to the sub-toxic dose of ZnO NPs followed by doxorubicin treatment. Our comprehensive bioinformatic analysis has identified 617 target genes enriched in ten pathways, mainly regulating gene expression and transcription, cell cycle, and apoptotic cell death. Several tumor suppressor genes emerged as validated direct targets of the 13 OncomiRs, including TFDP2, YWHAG, SMAD2, SMAD4, CDKN1A, CDKN1B, BCL2L11, and TGIF2. This study insinuates the importance of miRNAs in regulating the responsiveness of cancer cells to chemotherapy. Our findings further indicate that being exposed to environmental ENMs, even at levels below toxicity, might still modulate cancer cells' response to chemotherapy, which highlights the need to reestablish endpoints of ENM exposure and toxicity in cancer patients receiving chemotherapeutics.

Multilayer Nanocarrier for the Codelivery of Interferons: A Promising Strategy for Biocompatible and Long-Acting Antiviral Treatment

Background: Interferons (IFNs) are cytokines involved in the immune response with a synergistic regulatory effect on the immune response. They are therapeutics for various viral and proliferative conditions, with proven safety and efficacy. Their clinical application is challenging due to the molecules' size, degradation, and pharmacokinetics. We are working on new drug delivery systems that provide adequate therapeutic concentrations for these cytokines and prolong their half-life in the circulation, such as nanoformulations. Methods: Through nanoencapsulation using electrospray technology and biocompatible and biodegradable polymers, we are developing a controlled release system based on nanoparticles for viral infections of the respiratory tract. Results: We developed a controlled release system for viral respiratory tract infections. A prototype nanoparticle with a core was created, which hydrolyzed the polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) shell , releasing the active ingredients interferon-alpha (IFN-α) and interferon-gamma (IFN-γ). The chitosan (QS) core degraded slowly, with a controlled release of IFN-α. The primary and rapid effect of the interferon combination ensured an antiviral and immunoregulatory response from day one, induced by IFN-α and enhanced by IFN-γ. The multilayer design demonstrated an optimal toxicity profile. Conclusions: This formulation is an inhaled dry powder intended for the non-invasive intranasal route. The product does not require a cold chain and has the potential for self-administration in the face of emerging viral infections. This novel drug has applications in multiple infectious, oncological, and autoimmune conditions, and further development is proposed for its therapeutic potential. This prototype would ensure greater bioavailability, controlled release, fewer adverse effects, and robust biological action through the simultaneous action of both molecules.

Toosendanin: upgrade of an old agent in cancer treatment

Toosendanin (TSN), a tetracyclic triterpenoid derived from Melia toosendan and M. azedarach, demonstrates broad application prospects in cancer treatment. Although previously employed as a pesticide, recent studies have revealed its potential therapeutic value in treating various types of cancer. TSN exerts an anticancer effect via mechanisms including proliferation inhibition, apoptosis induction, migration suppression, and angiogenesis inhibition. However, TSN's toxicity, particularly its hepatotoxicity, significantly limits its therapeutic application. This review explored the dual nature of TSN, evaluating both its anticancer potential and toxicological risks, emphasizing the importance of balancing these aspects in therapeutic applications. Furthermore, we investigated the incorporation of TSN into novel therapeutic strategies, such as Proteolysis-targeting chimeras (PROTAC) technology and nanotechnology-based drug delivery systems (DDS), which enhance treatment efficacy while mitigating toxicity in normal tissues.

Optimal development of apoptotic cells-mimicking liposomes targeting macrophages

Macrophages are multifunctional innate immune cells that play indispensable roles in homeostasis, tissue repair, and immune regulation. However, dysregulated activation of macrophages is implicated in the pathogenesis of various human disorders, making them a potential target for treatment. Through the expression of pattern recognition and scavenger receptors, macrophages exhibit selective uptake of pathogens and apoptotic cells. Consequently, the utilization of drug carriers that mimic pathogenic or apoptotic signals shows potential for targeted delivery to macrophages. In this study, a series of mannosylated or/and phosphatidylserine (PS) -presenting liposomes were developed to target macrophages via the design of experiment (DoE) strategy and the trial-and-error (TaE) approach. The optimal molar ratio for the liposome formulation was DOPC: DSPS: Chol: PEG-PE = 20:60:20:2 based on the results of cellular uptake and cytotoxicity evaluation on RAW 264.7 and THP-1 in vitro. Results from in vivo distribution showed that, in the DSS-induced colitis model and collagen II-induced rheumatoid arthritis model, PS-presenting liposomes (PS-Lipo) showed the highest accumulation in intestine and paws respectively, which holds promising potential for macrophage target therapy since macrophages are abundant at inflammatory sites and contribute to the progression of corresponding diseases. Organs such as the heart, liver, spleen, lung, and kidney did not exhibit histological alterations such as inflammation or necrosis when exposed to PC-presenting liposomes (PC-Lipo) or PS-Lipo. In addition, liposomes demonstrated hemobiocompatibility and no toxicity to liver or kidney for circulation and did not induce metabolic injury in the animals. Thus, the well-designed PS-Lipo demonstrated the most potential for macrophage target therapy.

The impact of nTiO2 and GO (graphene oxide), and their combinations, on freshwater Chlorella sp.: a comparative study in lake water and BG-11 media

Titanium dioxide nanoparticles (nTiO2) and graphene oxide (GO) are extensively used nanomaterials in various products and applications. Freshwater ecosystems are a crucial sink for these pollutants, posing severe threats to aquatic organisms. Although multiple studies have investigated the pristine toxicity of nTiO2 and GO in freshwater organisms, the combined toxicity of these materials remains unexplored. Interaction media is a crucial factor in evaluating toxicity nanomaterial toxicity towards algae. In this study, we have investigated the comparative effect of sterilized and filtered freshwater and BG-11 medium on the pristine and combined toxicity of nTiO2 and GO on freshwater algae Chlorella sp. Results indicated that the combination of nTiO2 and GO showed more toxicity when compared to their respective pristine forms. This could be due to the additive effect exhibited by nTiO2 and GO on Chlorella sp. The enhanced growth inhibition for the combined toxicity was in the order of 1 mg L-1 nTiO2 + 1 mg L-1 GO > 1 mg L-1 nTiO2 + 0.1 mg L-1 GO > 0.1 mg L-1 nTiO2 + 1 mg L-1 GO > 0.1 mg L-1 nTiO2 + 0.1 mg L-1 GO. All test groups that interacted in BG-11 media exhibited less toxicity when compared to corresponding groups in the lake water medium. This could be attributed to the cushioning effect of BG-11 medium, providing supplementary nutrition to the algal cells. This signifies that the environmentally relevant conditions could be more detrimental than the laboratory conditions. This study elucidates valuable insights into the potential detrimental effects associated with the combination of nTiO2 and GO on freshwater algae. Furthermore, we have evaluated the growth inhibition, oxidative stress, and photosynthetic activity of Chlorella sp. in both environmentally relevant interaction medium and well-defined culture medium.

Advanced Strategies for Strengthening the Immune Activation Effect of Traditional Antitumor Therapies

The utilization of traditional therapies (TTS), such as chemotherapy, reactive oxygen species-based therapy, and thermotherapy, to induce immunogenic cell death (ICD) in tumor cells has emerged as a promising strategy for the activation of the antitumor immune response. However, the limited effectiveness of most TTS in inducing the ICD effect of tumors hinders their applications in combination with immunotherapy. To address this challenge, various intelligent strategies have been proposed to strengthen the immune activation effect of these TTS, and then achieve synergistic antitumor efficacy with immunotherapy. These strategies primarily focus on augmenting the tumor ICD effect or facilitating the antigen (released by the ICD tumor cells) presentation process during TTS, and they are systematically summarized in this review. Finally, the existing bottlenecks and prospects of TTS in the application of tumor immune regulation are also discussed.

Transforming Healthcare with Nanomedicine: A SWOT Analysis of Drug Delivery Innovation

Objective

Nanomedicine represents a transformative approach in biomedical applications. This study aims to delineate the application of nanomedicine in the biomedical field through the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats (SWOT) analysis to evaluate its efficacy and potential in clinical applications.

Methods

The SWOT analysis framework was employed to systematically review and assess the internal strengths and weaknesses, along with external opportunities and threats of nanomedicine. This method provides a balanced consideration of the potential benefits and challenges.

Results

Findings from the SWOT analysis indicate that nanomedicine presents significant potential in drug delivery, diagnostic imaging, and tissue engineering. Nonetheless, it faces substantial hurdles such as safety issues, environmental concerns, and high development costs. Critical areas for development were identified, particularly concerning its therapeutic potential and the uncertainties surrounding long-term effects.

Conclusion

Nanomedicine holds substantial promise in driving medical innovation. However, successful clinical translation requires addressing safety, cost, and regulatory challenges. Interdisciplinary collaboration and comprehensive strategic planning are crucial for the safe and effective application of nanomedicine.

Multi-step strategies for synergistic treatment of urinary tract infections based on D-xylose-decorated antimicrobial peptide carbon dots

Urinary tract infections (UTIs) caused by Uropathogenic Escherichia coli (UPEC), often reoccur due to the formation of intracellular bacterial colonies (IBCs) and antibiotic resistance. Given the significance of YadC for UPEC infection in our previous study, we developed D-xylose-decorated ɛ-poly-L-lysine (εPL)-based carbon dots (D-xyl@εPLCDs) that can be traced, and employed multi-step approaches to elucidate the functional roles of D-xyl@εPLCDs in UPEC infection. Compared to undecorated particles, D-xyl@εPLCDs demonstrate YadC-dependent bacterial targeting and exhibit enhanced bactericidal activities both intracellularly and extracellularly. Moreover, pre-treatment of D-xyl@εPLCDs before infection blocked the subsequent adhesion and invasion of UPEC to bladder epithelial cells 5637. Increase of ROS production and innate immune responses were observed in bladder epithelial cells 5637 treated with D-xyl@εPLCDs. In addition, treatment of D-xyl@εPLCDs post-infection facilitated clearance of UPEC in the bladders of the UTI mouse model, and reduced ultimate number of neutrophils, macrophages and inflammatory responses raised by invaded bacteria. Collectively, we presented a comprehensive evaluating system to show that D-xyl@εPLCDs exhibits superior bactericidal effects against UPEC, making them a promising candidate for drug development in clinical UTI therapeutics.

Targeted co-delivery of FOXM1 aptamer and DOX by nucleolin aptamer-functionalized pH-responsive biocompatible nanodelivery system to enhance therapeutic efficacy against breast cancer: in vitro and in vivo

Targeted nanodelivery systems offer a promising approach to cancer treatment, including the most common cancer in women, breast cancer. In this study, a targeted, pH-responsive, and biocompatible nanodelivery system based on nucleolin aptamer-functionalized biogenic titanium dioxide nanoparticles (TNP) was developed for targeted co-delivery of FOXM1 aptamer and doxorubicin (DOX) to improve breast cancer therapy. The developed targeted nanodelivery system exhibited almost spherical morphology with 124.89 ± 12.97 nm in diameter and zeta potential value of - 23.78 ± 3.66 mV. FOXM1 aptamer and DOX were loaded into the nanodelivery system with an efficiency of 100% and 97%, respectively. Moreover, the targeted nanodelivery system demonstrated excellent stability in serum and a pH-responsive sustained drug release profile over a period of 240 h following Higuchi kinetic and Fickian diffusion mechanism. The in vitro cytotoxicity experiments demonstrated that the targeted nanodelivery system provided selective internalization and strong growth inhibition effects of about 45 and 51% against nucleolin-positive 4T1 and MCF-7 breast cancer cell lines. It is noteworthy that these phenomena were not observed in nucleolin-negative cells (CHO). The preclinical studies revealed that a single-dose intravenous injection of the targeted nanodelivery system into 4T1-bearing mice inhibited tumor growth by 1.7- and 1.4-fold more efficiently than the free drug and the non-targeted nanodelivery system, respectively. Our results suggested that the developed innovative targeted pH-responsive biocompatible nanodelivery system could serve as a prospectively potential platform to improve breast cancer treatment.

Biogenic Ag-doped ZnO nanostructures induced cytotoxicity in luminal A and triple-negative human breast cancer cells

Aim: To evaluate the apoptosis-inducing properties of undoped and silver-doped-zinc-oxide nanoparticles (SDZONs) synthesized using Boswellia serrata against MCF-7 (Luminal-A) and MDA-MB-231 (Triple-negative) breast cancer cell lines.Methodology: Nanostructures were developed by facile biohydrothermal method and characterized by x-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier transform infrared (FTIR), and high resolution transmission electron microscopy (HR-TEM). The comparative effect of doping and dose concentration of nanostructures on cytotoxicity was measured using MTT and trypan-blue-exclusion assay.Results: SDZONs exhibited greater cytotoxicity (20.71%, 27.31% cell viability) as compared with undoped nanostructures (35.81%, 37.08% cell viability) against MCF 7 and MDA-MB-231, respectively.Conclusion: The activity of biogenic nanostructures was highly dependent on doping, dose, and type of cell lines used. The novel biogenic SDZONs could be exploited as a promising, cost-effective, and environmentally benign strategy to curb breast cancer.

Sustainable synthesis of bionanomaterials using non-native plant extracts for maintaining ecological balance: A computational bibliography analysis

Biological approaches via biomolecular extracts of bacteria, fungi, or plants have recently been introduced as an alternative approach to synthesizing less or nontoxic nanomaterials, compared to conventional physical and chemical approaches. Among these biological methods, plant-mediated approaches (phytosynthesis) are reported to be highly beneficial for large-scale, nontoxic nanomaterial synthesis. However, plant-mediated synthesis of nanomaterials using native plant extract can lead to bioprospecting issues and deforestation challenges. On the other hand, non-native or invasive plants are non-indigenous to a particular geographic location that can grow and spread rapidly, ultimately disrupting the local and endogenous plant communities or ecosystems. Thus, controlling or eradicating these non-native plants before they damage the ecosystem is necessary. Even though mechanical, chemical, and biological approaches are available to control non-native plants, all these methods possess certain limitations, such as environmental toxicity, disturbance in the nutrient cycle, and loss of genetic integrity. Therefore, non-native plants were recently proposed as a novel sustainable source of phytochemicals for preparing nanomaterials via green chemistry, mainly metallic nanoparticles, as an alternative to native, agriculture-based, or medicinal plants. This work aims to cover a literature gap on plant-mediated bionanomaterial synthesis with an overview and bibliography analysis of non-native plants via novel data mining and advanced visualization tools. In addition, the potential of non-native plants as a sustainable, green chemistry-based alternative for bionanomaterial preparation for maintaining ecological balance, the mechanism of formation via phytochemicals, and their possible applications to promote their control and spread were also discussed. The bibliography analysis revealed that only an average of 4 articles have been published in the last 10 years (2013-2023) on non-native/invasive plants for nanomaterial synthesis, which shows the significance of this article.

Fluoride leaching from tuff breccia and its removal by natural and commercial adsorbents

In Japan, the concentration of fluoride (F-) leached from rocks, such as tuff breccia, excavated in tunnel construction projects often exceeds the Japanese environmental standard of 0.8 mg/L. Because of this, proper disposal methods are necessary for managing F--bearing excavated rocks. One effective solution based on circular economy is the use of an adsorption layer system. This system can simultaneously prevent the migration of F- released from excavated rocks and allow the recycling of this construction waste material. To determine the most suitable material for the disposal of excavated F--bearing tuff breccia from a tunnel construction in Hokkaido, Japan, four types of natural geological materials (S-1, S-2, S-3, and S-4) obtained near the tunnel construction site, as well as three types of commercial adsorbents (calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), and CaMg adsorbents) were selected for evaluation. The batch adsorption test results showed that S-1 and S-4 had high adsorption capacities for F-, and the adsorption process followed the Langmuir isotherm. The adsorption of F- to the natural adsorbents was strongly influenced by the pH and the presence of bicarbonate ions (HCO3-), but unaffected by chloride (Cl-) and sulfate (SO42-). There was also a strong positive correlation between the abundance of amorphous aluminum (Al) and iron (Fe) extracted and the adsorption of F-, indicating the importance of ion exchange reactions associated with surface OH- in immobilizing F-. Meanwhile, the Mg-bearing adsorbent exhibited the highest adsorption affinity for F- among the commercial adsorbents. This was attributed to adsorption through electrostatic interactions and coprecipitation with magnesium hydroxide (Mg(OH)2) formed during the hydration of magnesium oxide (MgO). To effectively incorporate these adsorbents into the adsorption layer system, parameters such as permeability and residence time need to be determined in order to maximize the retention of F- through adsorption, ion exchange and coprecipitation reactions.

Silica nanoparticles in medicine: overcoming pathologies through advanced drug delivery, diagnostics, and therapeutic strategies

Over the last decades, silica nanoparticles (SiNPs) have been studied for their applications in biomedicine as an alternative used for conventional diagnostics and treatments. Since their properties can be modified and adjusted for the desired use, they have many different potential applications in medicine: they can be used in diagnosis because of their ability to be loaded with dyes and their increased selectivity and sensitivity, which can improve the quality of the diagnostic process. SiNPs can be functionalized by targeting ligands or molecules to detect certain cellular processes or biomarkers with better precision. Targeted delivery is another fundamental use of SiNPs. They could be used as drug delivery systems (DDS) since their structure allows the loading of therapeutic agents or other compounds, and studies have demonstrated their biocompatibility. When SiNPs are used as DDS, the drug's toxicity and the off-target effects are reduced significantly, and they can be used to treat conditions like cancer and neurological diseases and even aid in regenerative processes, such as wound healing or bone repair. However, safety concerns must be considered before SiNPs can be used extensively in clinical practice because NPs can cause toxicity in certain conditions and accumulate at undesired locations. Therefore, an overview of the potential applications that SiNPs could have in medicine, as well as their safety concerns, will be covered in this review paper.

Ecotoxicity Assessment of Nanomaterials: Latest Advances and Prospects

In the fast-evolving landscape of nanotechnology, the widespread applications of engineered nanomaterials (ENMs) have undoubtedly revolutionized various industries, ranging from healthcare and electronics to agriculture and environmental remediation [...].

An Erythrocyte Membrane-Derived Nanosystem for Efficient Reversal of Endothelial Injury in Sepsis

Sepsis is caused by a disordered host immune in response to infection and endothelial cells perform a crucial role in boosting immunity reaction in the pathophysiology of sepsis and septic organ failure. The aim of this study is to construct a novel erythrocyte membrane-derived nanosystems to reverse endothelial damage in sepsis. Herein, an innovative nanometer calcium metal-organic framework (Ca-MOF) is generated for the first time by using chelidonic acid as a ligand and calcium chloride as an ion donor for anti-inflammation. Then, zoliflodacin is loaded into Ca-MOF (CMZ) to sterilize and nanoscale erythrocyte membrane vesicles are prepared by modification with a γ3 peptide on the surface (γ3-RM) for precise targeting. Finally, γ3-RM camouflages the nanocore CMZ, to form novel erythrocyte membrane-camouflaged nanoparticle γ3-RCMZ. The superior performance of novel nanosystem results from its suitable biocompatibility, nontoxicity, specific targeting, and anti-inflammatory and bactericidal effects. Its anti-inflammatory mechanism mainly involves inhibiting the Caspase1-nuclear factor kappa-B (Caspase1-NF-κB) pathway and oxidative stress reduction to alleviate endothelial damage. Moreover, the findings have revealed for the first time that the bactericidal drug zoliflodacin also has anti-inflammatory effects in vivo and in vitro. Therefore, the novel nanosystem (γ3-RCMZ) provides a new nanotherapy strategy for sepsis treatment.

Magnetic graphene oxide nanocomposites induce cytotoxicity in ADSCs via GPX4 regulating ferroptosis

Magnetic graphene oxide nanocomposites (MGO NPs) have been widely studied in biomedical applications. However, their cytotoxicity and underlying mechanisms remain unclear. In this study, the biosafety of MGO NPs was investigated, and the mechanism involved in ferroptosis was further explored. MGO can produce cytotoxicity in ADSCs, which is dependent on their concentration. Ferroptosis was involved in MGO NP-induced ADSC survival inhibition by increasing total ROS and lipid ROS accumulation as well as regulating the expression levels of ferroptosis-related genes and proteins. GPX4 played a critical role in the MGO NP-induced ADSC ferroptosis process, and overexpressing GPX4 suppressed ferroptosis to increase cell survival. This study provides a theoretical basis for the biosafety management of MGO NPs used in the field of biomedical treatment.

Nanomaterials for detection of biomolecules and delivering therapeutic agents in theragnosis: A review

Nanomaterials are emerging facts used to deliver therapeutic agents in living systems. Nanotechnology is used as a compliment by implementing different kinds of nanotechnological applications such as nano-porous structures, functionalized nanomaterials, quantum dots, carbon nanomaterials, and polymeric nanostructures. The applications are in the initial stage, which led to achieving several diagnoses and therapy in clinical practice. This review conveys the importance of nanomaterials in post-genomic employment, which includes the design of immunosensors, immune assays, and drug delivery. In this view, genomics is a molecular tool containing large databases that are useful in choosing an apt molecular inhibitor such as drug, ligand and antibody target in the drug delivery process. This study identifies the expression of genes and proteins in analysis and classification of diseases. Experimentally, the study analyses the design of a disease model. In particular, drug delivery is a boon area to treat cancer. The identified drugs enter different phase trails (Trails I, II, and III). The genomic information conveys more essential entities to the phase I trials and helps to move further for other trails such as trails-II and III. In such cases, the biomarkers play a crucial role by monitoring the unique pathological process. Genetic engineering with recombinant DNA techniques can be employed to develop genetically engineered disease models. Delivering drugs in a specific area is one of the challenging issues achieved using nanoparticles. Therefore, genomics is considered as a vast molecular tool to identify drugs in personalized medicine for cancer therapy.

Unleashing novel horizons in advanced prostate cancer treatment: investigating the potential of prostate specific membrane antigen-targeted nanomedicine-based combination therapy

Prostate cancer (PCa) is a prevalent malignancy with increasing incidence in middle-aged and older men. Despite various treatment options, advanced metastatic PCa remains challenging with poor prognosis and limited effective therapies. Nanomedicine, with its targeted drug delivery capabilities, has emerged as a promising approach to enhance treatment efficacy and reduce adverse effects. Prostate-specific membrane antigen (PSMA) stands as one of the most distinctive and highly selective biomarkers for PCa, exhibiting robust expression in PCa cells. In this review, we explore the applications of PSMA-targeted nanomedicines in advanced PCa management. Our primary objective is to bridge the gap between cutting-edge nanomedicine research and clinical practice, making it accessible to the medical community. We discuss mainstream treatment strategies for advanced PCa, including chemotherapy, radiotherapy, and immunotherapy, in the context of PSMA-targeted nanomedicines. Additionally, we elucidate novel treatment concepts such as photodynamic and photothermal therapies, along with nano-theragnostics. We present the content in a clear and accessible manner, appealing to general physicians, including those with limited backgrounds in biochemistry and bioengineering. The review emphasizes the potential benefits of PSMA-targeted nanomedicines in enhancing treatment efficiency and improving patient outcomes. While the use of PSMA-targeted nano-drug delivery has demonstrated promising results, further investigation is required to comprehend the precise mechanisms of action, pharmacotoxicity, and long-term outcomes. By meticulous optimization of the combination of nanomedicines and PSMA ligands, a novel horizon of PSMA-targeted nanomedicine-based combination therapy could bring renewed hope for patients with advanced PCa.

Unleashing novel horizons in advanced prostate cancer treatment: investigating the potential of prostate specific membrane antigen-targeted nanomedicine-based combination therapy

Prostate cancer (PCa) is a prevalent malignancy with increasing incidence in middle-aged and older men. Despite various treatment options, advanced metastatic PCa remains challenging with poor prognosis and limited effective therapies. Nanomedicine, with its targeted drug delivery capabilities, has emerged as a promising approach to enhance treatment efficacy and reduce adverse effects. Prostate-specific membrane antigen (PSMA) stands as one of the most distinctive and highly selective biomarkers for PCa, exhibiting robust expression in PCa cells. In this review, we explore the applications of PSMA-targeted nanomedicines in advanced PCa management. Our primary objective is to bridge the gap between cutting-edge nanomedicine research and clinical practice, making it accessible to the medical community. We discuss mainstream treatment strategies for advanced PCa, including chemotherapy, radiotherapy, and immunotherapy, in the context of PSMA-targeted nanomedicines. Additionally, we elucidate novel treatment concepts such as photodynamic and photothermal therapies, along with nano-theragnostics. We present the content in a clear and accessible manner, appealing to general physicians, including those with limited backgrounds in biochemistry and bioengineering. The review emphasizes the potential benefits of PSMA-targeted nanomedicines in enhancing treatment efficiency and improving patient outcomes. While the use of PSMA-targeted nano-drug delivery has demonstrated promising results, further investigation is required to comprehend the precise mechanisms of action, pharmacotoxicity, and long-term outcomes. By meticulous optimization of the combination of nanomedicines and PSMA ligands, a novel horizon of PSMA-targeted nanomedicine-based combination therapy could bring renewed hope for patients with advanced PCa.

Effects of Hydrophobic Gold Nanoparticles on Structure and Fluidity of SOPC Lipid Membranes

Gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) are promising candidates in various biomedical applications such as sensors, imaging, and cancer therapy. Understanding the influence of AuNPs on lipid membranes is important to assure their safety in the biological environment and to improve their scope in nanomedicine. In this regard, the present study aimed to analyze the effects of different concentrations (0.5, 1, and 2 wt.%) of dodecanethiol functionalized hydrophobic AuNPs on the structure and fluidity of zwitterionic 1-stearoyl-2-oleoyl-sn-glycerol-3-phosphocholine (SOPC) lipid bilayer membranes using Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy and fluorescent spectroscopy. The size of AuNPs was found to be 2.2 ± 1.1 nm using transmission electron microscopy. FTIR results have shown that the AuNPs induced a slight shift in methylene stretching bands, while the band positions of carbonyl and phosphate group stretching were unaffected. Temperature-dependent fluorescent anisotropy measurements showed that the incorporation of AuNPs up to 2 wt.% did not affect the lipid order in membranes. Overall, these results indicate that the hydrophobic AuNPs in the studied concentration did not cause any significant alterations in the structure and membrane fluidity, which suggests the suitability of these particles to form liposome-AuNP hybrids for diverse biomedical applications including drug delivery and therapy.

Application of Nano-Delivery Systems in Lymph Nodes for Tumor Immunotherapy

Immunotherapy has become a promising research "hotspot" in cancer treatment. "Soldier" immune cells are not uniform throughout the body; they accumulate mostly in the immune organs such as the spleen and lymph nodes (LNs), etc. The unique structure of LNs provides the microenvironment suitable for the survival, activation, and proliferation of multiple types of immune cells. LNs play an important role in both the initiation of adaptive immunity and the generation of durable anti-tumor responses. Antigens taken up by antigen-presenting cells in peripheral tissues need to migrate with lymphatic fluid to LNs to activate the lymphocytes therein. Meanwhile, the accumulation and retaining of many immune functional compounds in LNs enhance their efficacy significantly. Therefore, LNs have become a key target for tumor immunotherapy. Unfortunately, the nonspecific distribution of the immune drugs in vivo greatly limits the activation and proliferation of immune cells, which leads to unsatisfactory anti-tumor effects. The efficient nano-delivery system to LNs is an effective strategy to maximize the efficacy of immune drugs. Nano-delivery systems have shown beneficial in improving biodistribution and enhancing accumulation in lymphoid tissues, exhibiting powerful and promising prospects for achieving effective delivery to LNs. Herein, the physiological structure and the delivery barriers of LNs were summarized and the factors affecting LNs accumulation were discussed thoroughly. Moreover, developments in nano-delivery systems were reviewed and the transformation prospects of LNs targeting nanocarriers were summarized and discussed.

Ultrasound-mediated nano drug delivery for treating cancer: Fundamental physics to future directions

The application of biocompatible nanocarriers in medicine has provided several benefits over conventional treatment methods. However, achieving high treatment efficacy and deep penetration of nanocarriers in tumor tissue is still challenging. To address this, stimuli-responsive nano-sized drug delivery systems (DDSs) are an active area of investigation in delivering anticancer drugs. While ultrasound is mainly used for diagnostic purposes, it can also be applied to affect cellular function and the delivery/release of anticancer drugs. Therapeutic ultrasound (TUS) has shown potential as both a stand-alone anticancer treatment and a method to induce targeted drug release from nanocarrier systems. TUS approaches have been used to overcome various physiological obstacles, including endothelial barriers, the tumor microenvironment (TME), and immunological hurdles. Combining nanomedicine and ultrasound as a smart DDS can increase in situ drug delivery and improve access to impermeable tissues. Furthermore, smart DDSs can perform targeted drug release in response to distinctive TMEs, external triggers, or dual/multi-stimulus. This results in enhanced treatment efficacy and reduced damage to surrounding healthy tissue or organs at risk. Integrating DDSs and ultrasound is still in its early stages. More research and clinical trials are required to fully understand ultrasound's underlying physical mechanisms and interactions with various types of nanocarriers and different types of cells and tissues. In the present review, ultrasound-mediated nano-sized DDS, specifically focused on cancer treatment, is presented and discussed. Ultrasound interaction with nanoparticles (NPs), drug release mechanisms, and various types of ultrasound-sensitive NPs are examined. Additionally, in vitro, in vivo, and clinical applications of TUS are reviewed in light of the critical challenges that need to be considered to advance TUS toward an efficient, secure, straightforward, and accessible cancer treatment. This study also presents effective TUS parameters and safety considerations for this treatment modality and gives recommendations about system design and operation. Finally, future perspectives are considered, and different TUS approaches are examined and discussed in detail. This review investigates drug release and delivery through ultrasound-mediated nano-sized cancer treatment, both pre-clinically and clinically.

Nanoparticles for cancer therapy: a review of influencing factors and evaluation methods for biosafety

Nanoparticles are widely used in the biomedical field for diagnostic and therapeutic purposes due to their small size, high carrier capacity, and ease of modification, which enable selective targeting and as contrast agents. Over the past decades, more and more nanoparticles have received regulatory approval to enter the clinic, more nanoparticles have shown potential for clinical translation, and humans have increasing access to them. However, nanoparticles have a high potential to cause unpredictable adverse effects on human organs, tissues, and cells due to their unique physicochemical properties and interactions with DNA, lipids, cells, tissues, proteins, and biological fluids. Currently, issues, such as nanoparticle side effects and toxicity, remain controversial, and these pitfalls must be fully considered prior to their application to body systems. Therefore, it is particularly urgent and important to assess the safety of nanoparticles acting in living organisms. In this paper, we review the important factors influencing the biosafety of nanoparticles in terms of their properties, and introduce common methods to summarize the biosafety evaluation of nanoparticles through in vitro and in body systems.

Chiral inorganic nanomaterials for biological applications

Chiral nanomaterials in biology play indispensable roles in maintaining numerous physiological processes, such as signaling, site-specific catalysis, transport, protection, and synthesis. Like natural chiral nanomaterials, chiral inorganic nanomaterials can also be established with similar size, charge, surface properties, and morphology. However, chiral inorganic nanomaterials usually exhibit extraordinary properties that are different from those of organic materials, such as high g-factor values, broad distribution range, and symmetrical mirror configurations. Because of these unique characteristics, there is great potential for application in the fields of biosensing, drug delivery, early diagnosis, bio-imaging, and disease therapy. Related research is summarized and discussed in this review to showcase the bio-functions and bio-applications of chiral inorganic nanomaterials, including the construction methods, classification and properties, and biological applications of chiral inorganic nanomaterials. Moreover, the deficiencies in existing studies are noted, and future development is prospected. This review will provide helpful guidance for constructing chiral inorganic nanomaterials with specific bio-functions for problem solving in living systems.

Re-envisioning the design of nanomedicines: harnessing automation and artificial intelligence

INTRODUCTION

Interest in nanomedicines has surged in recent years due to the critical role they have played in the COVID-19 pandemic. Nanoformulations can turn promising therapeutic cargo into viable products through improvements in drug safety and efficacy profiles. However, the developmental pathway for such formulations is non-trivial and largely reliant on trial-and-error. Beyond the costly demands on time and resources, this traditional approach may stunt innovation. The emergence of automation, artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning (ML) tools, which are currently underutilized in pharmaceutical formulation development, offers a promising direction for an improved path in the design of nanomedicines.

AREAS COVERED

the potential of harnessing experimental automation and AI/ML to drive innovation in nanomedicine development. The discussion centers on the current challenges in drug formulation research and development, and the major advantages afforded through the application of data-driven methods.

EXPERT OPINION

The development of integrated workflows based on automated experimentation and AI/ML may accelerate nanomedicine development. A crucial step in achieving this is the generation of high-quality, accessible datasets. Future efforts to make full use of these tools can ultimately contribute to the development of more innovative nanomedicines and improved clinical translation of formulations that rely on advanced drug delivery systems.

Oxidative Stress and Inflammatory Biomarkers for Populations with Occupational Exposure to Nanomaterials: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Exposure to nanomaterials (NMs) is suggested to have the potential to cause harmful health effects. Activations of oxidative stress and inflammation are assumed as main contributors to NM-induced toxicity. Thus, oxidative stress- and inflammation-related indicators may serve as biomarkers for occupational risk assessment. However, the correlation between NM exposure and these biomarkers remains controversial. This study aimed to perform a meta-analysis to systematically investigate the alterations of various biomarkers after NM exposure. Twenty-eight studies were found eligible by searching PubMed, EMBASE and Cochrane Library databases. The pooled results showed NM exposure was significantly associated with increases in the levels of malonaldehyde (MDA) [standardized mean difference (SMD) = 2.18; 95% confidence interval (CI), 1.50-2.87], 4-hydroxy-2-nonhenal (HNE) (SMD = 2.05; 95% CI, 1.13-2.96), aldehydes C6-12 (SMD = 3.45; 95% CI, 2.80-4.10), 8-hydroxyguanine (8-OHG) (SMD = 2.98; 95% CI, 2.22-3.74), 5-hydroxymethyl uracil (5-OHMeU) (SMD = 1.90; 95% CI, 1.23-2.58), o-tyrosine (o-Tyr) (SMD = 1.81; 95% CI, 1.22-2.41), 3-nitrotyrosine (3-NOTyr) (SMD = 2.63; 95% CI, 1.74-3.52), interleukin (IL)-1β (SMD = 1.76; 95% CI, 0.87-2.66), tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α (SMD = 1.52; 95% CI, 1.03-2.01), myeloperoxidase (MPO) (SMD = 0.25; 95% CI, 0.16-0.34) and fibrinogen (SMD = 0.11; 95% CI, 0.02-0.21), and decreases in the levels of glutathione peroxidase (GPx) (SMD = -0.31; 95% CI, -0.52--0.11) and IL-6 soluble receptor (IL-6sR) (SMD = -0.18; 95% CI, -0.28--0.09). Subgroup analysis indicated oxidative stress biomarkers (MDA, HNE, aldehydes C6-12, 8-OHG, 5-OHMeU, o-Tyr, 3-NOTyr and GPx) in exhaled breath condensate (EBC) and blood samples were strongly changed by NM exposure; inflammatory biomarkers (IL-1β, TNF-α, MPO, fibrinogen and IL-6sR) were all significant in EBC, blood, sputum and nasal lavage samples. In conclusion, our findings suggest that these oxidative stress and inflammatory indicators may be promising biomarkers for the biological monitoring of occupationally NM-exposed workers.

Silver Nanoparticle-Based Combinations with Antimicrobial Agents against Antimicrobial-Resistant Clinical Isolates

The increasing prevalence of antimicrobial-resistant (AMR) bacteria along with the limited development of antimicrobials warrant investigating novel antimicrobial modalities. Emerging inorganic engineered nanomaterials (ENMs), most notably silver nanoparticles (AgNPs), have demonstrated superior antimicrobial properties. However, AgNPs, particularly those of small size, could exert overt toxicity to mammalian cells. This study investigated whether combining AgNPs and conventional antimicrobials would produce a synergistic response and determined the optimal and safe minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) range against several wild-type Gram-positive and -negative strains and three different clinical isolates of AMR Klebsiella pneumoniae. Furthermore, the cytotoxicity of the synergistic combinations was assessed in a human hepatocyte model. The results showed that the AgNPs (15-25 nm) were effective against Gram-negative bacteria (MIC of 16-128 µg/mL) but not Gram-positive strains (MIC of 256 µg/mL). Both wild-type and AMR K. pneumoniae had similar MIC values following exposure to AgNPs. Importantly, co-exposure to combinations of AgNPs and antimicrobial agents, including kanamycin, colistin, rifampicin, and vancomycin, displayed synergy against both wild-type and AMR K. pneumoniae isolates (except for vancomycin against AMR strain I). Notably, the tested combinations demonstrated no to minimal toxicity against hepatocytes. Altogether, this study indicates the potential of combining AgNPs with conventional antimicrobials to overcome AMR bacteria.

Protein Cages Engineered for Interaction-Driven Selective Encapsulation of Biomolecules

Hollow protein cages have become attractive drug delivery vehicles with high biocompatibility and precise functional/structural manipulability. However, difficulties in effective cargo loading inside the cages have been limiting further development of protein cage-based drug carriers. Here, we developed a specific interaction-driven encapsulation and cellular delivery strategy for various biomolecules by engineering a porous protein cage. The computationally designed hyperstable mi3 protein cage was circularly permuted to fuse the cancer targeting RGD tripeptide to the cage surface and SpyTag (ST), which forms a covalent bond with SpyCatcher (SC), to the cage inner cavity. SC-fused proteins with different sizes and charges could be stably and actively encapsulated in the engineered nanocage via the ST/SC reaction. Cargo protein encapsulation inside the cage was directly confirmed by cryo-electron microscopy (EM) structure determination. In addition, SC-fused monomeric avidin was added to the nanocage to encapsulate various biotinylated (nonprotein) cargos such as oligonucleotides and the anticancer drug doxorubicin. All cargo molecules loaded onto the engineered mi3 were effectively delivered to cells. This work introduces a highly versatile cargo loading/delivery strategy, where loading/delivery interactions, cargo molecules, and cell targeting moieties can be further varied for optimal cellular drug delivery.

siRNA-based nanotherapeutics as emerging modalities for immune-mediated diseases: A preliminary review

Immune‐mediated diseases (IMDs) are chronic conditions that have an immune‐mediated etiology. Clinically, these diseases appear to be unrelated, but pathogenic pathways have been shown to connect them. While inflammation is a common occurrence in the body, it may either stimulate a favorable immune response to protect against harmful signals or cause illness by damaging cells and tissues. Nanomedicine has tremendous promise for regulating inflammation and treating IMIDs. Various nanoparticles coated with nanotherapeutics have been recently fabricated for effective targeted delivery to inflammatory tissues. RNA interference (RNAi) offers a tremendous genetic approach, particularly if traditional treatments are ineffective against IMDs. In cells, several signaling pathways can be suppressed by using RNAi, which blocks the expression of particular messenger RNAs. Using this molecular approach, the undesirable effects of anti‐inflammatory medications can be reduced. Still, there are many problems with using short‐interfering RNAs (siRNAs) to treat IMDs, including poor localization of the siRNAs in target tissues, unstable gene expression, and quick removal from the blood. Nanotherapeutics have been widely used in designing siRNA‐based carriers because of the restricted therapy options for IMIDs. In this review, we have discussed recent trends in the fabrication of siRNA nanodelivery systems, including lipid‐based siRNA nanocarriers, liposomes, and cationic lipids, stable nucleic acid‐lipid particles, polymeric‐based siRNA nanocarriers, polyethylenimine (PEI)‐based nanosystems, chitosan‐based nanoformulations, inorganic material‐based siRNA nanocarriers, and hybrid‐based delivery systems. We have also introduced novel siRNA‐based nanocarriers to control IMIDs, such as pulmonary inflammation, psoriasis, inflammatory bowel disease, ulcerative colitis, rheumatoid arthritis, etc. This study will pave the way for new avenues of research into the diagnosis and treatment of IMDs.

Nanocellulose in tissue engineering and bioremediation: mechanism of action

Nanocellulose are nano-sized components which are biodegradable, biocompatible and renewable. It offers mechanical strength and chemical stability in plants and bacteria. The environmental contamination is reduced by employing various bioremediation techniques which usesmicroorganisms like algae, bacteria and fungi as bio-adsorbents. The bio adsorbent property of nanocellulose contribute more for the bioremediation methods and the detailed study of its mechanism and application is essential which is discussed here. The mechanism happening between the contaminant and nanocellulose adsorbent should be explored in detail in order to develop effective new bioremediation strategies. Nanocellulose structural functionalization helps to modify the nanocellulose structure based on which it can be utilized for specific functions. Exploring the mechanisms that contribute to the implementation of nanocellulose in tissue engineering helps for further developments and advancement in the biomedical application of nanocellulose. Not much studies are available that elucidate and study the basic steps involved in the biomedical and environmental usage of nanocellulose. This review has focussed on the basic mechanisms involved in the use of nanocellulose in tissue engineering and bioremediation processes.

Metallic Engineered Nanomaterials and Ocular Toxicity: A Current Perspective

The ocular surface, comprised of the transparent cornea, conjunctiva, and protective tear film, forms a protective barrier defending deeper structures of the eye from particulate matter and mechanical trauma. This barrier is routinely exposed to a multitude of naturally occurring and engineered nanomaterials (ENM). Metallic ENMs are particularly ubiquitous in commercial products with a high risk of ocular exposure, such as cosmetics and sunscreens. Additionally, there are several therapeutic uses for metallic ENMs owing to their attractive magnetic, antimicrobial, and functionalization properties. The increasing commercial and therapeutic applications of metallic ENMs come with a high risk of ocular exposure with poorly understood consequences to the health of the eye. While the toxicity of metallic ENMs exposure has been rigorously studied in other tissues and organs, further studies are necessary to understand the potential for adverse effects and inform product usage for individuals whose ocular health may be compromised by injury, disease, or surgical intervention. This review provides an update of current literature on the ocular toxicity of metallic ENMs in vitro and in vivo, as well as the risks and benefits of therapeutic applications of metallic ENMs in ophthalmology.

Molecular Imaging and Nanotechnology-Emerging Tools in Diagnostics and Therapy

Personalized medicine is emerging as a new goal in the diagnosis and treatment of diseases. This approach aims to establish differences between patients suffering from the same disease, which allows to choose the most effective treatment. Molecular imaging (MI) enables advanced insight into molecule interactions and disease pathology, improving the process of diagnosis and therapy and, for that reason, plays a crucial role in personalized medicine. Nanoparticles are widely used in MI techniques due to their size, high surface area to volume ratio, and multifunctional properties. After conjugation to specific ligands and drugs, nanoparticles can transport therapeutic compounds directly to their area of action and therefore may be used in theranostics—the simultaneous implementation of treatment and diagnostics. This review summarizes different MI techniques, including optical imaging, ultrasound imaging, magnetic resonance imaging, nuclear imaging, and computed tomography imaging with theranostics nanoparticles. Furthermore, it explores the potential use of constructs that enables multimodal imaging and track diseases in real time.

The Hitchhiker's Guide to Human Therapeutic Nanoparticle Development

Nanomedicine plays an essential role in developing new therapies through novel drug delivery systems, diagnostic and imaging systems, vaccine development, antibacterial tools, and high-throughput screening. One of the most promising drug delivery systems are nanoparticles, which can be designed with various compositions, sizes, shapes, and surface modifications. These nanosystems have improved therapeutic profiles, increased bioavailability, and reduced the toxicity of the product they carry. However, the clinical translation of nanomedicines requires a thorough understanding of their properties to avoid problems with the most questioned aspect of nanosystems: safety. The particular physicochemical properties of nano-drugs lead to the need for additional safety, quality, and efficacy testing. Consequently, challenges arise during the physicochemical characterization, the production process, in vitro characterization, in vivo characterization, and the clinical stages of development of these biopharmaceuticals. The lack of a specific regulatory framework for nanoformulations has caused significant gaps in the requirements needed to be successful during their approval, especially with tests that demonstrate their safety and efficacy. Researchers face many difficulties in establishing evidence to extrapolate results from one level of development to another, for example, from an in vitro demonstration phase to an in vivo demonstration phase. Additional guidance is required to cover the particularities of this type of product, as some challenges in the regulatory framework do not allow for an accurate assessment of NPs with sufficient evidence of clinical success. This work aims to identify current regulatory issues during the implementation of nanoparticle assays and describe the major challenges that researchers have faced when exposing a new formulation. We further reflect on the current regulatory standards required for the approval of these biopharmaceuticals and the requirements demanded by the regulatory agencies. Our work will provide helpful information to improve the success of nanomedicines by compiling the challenges described in the literature that support the development of this novel encapsulation system. We propose a step-by-step approach through the different stages of the development of nanoformulations, from their design to the clinical stage, exemplifying the different challenges and the measures taken by the regulatory agencies to respond to these challenges.

Novel insights into nanomaterials for immunomodulatory bone regeneration

Bone defect repair caused by trauma, congenital malformation, tumors, infection or systemic diseases remains the focus of attention in regeneration medicine. Recent advances in osteoimmunology indicate that immune cells and correlative cytokines modulate the delicate balance between osteoblasts and osteoclasts and induce a favorable microenvironment for bone regeneration. With superior attributes that imitate the three-dimensional architecture of natural bone, excellent fabricability, mechanical and biological properties, nanomaterials (NMs) are becoming attractive in the field of bone tissue engineering. Particularly, it could be an effective strategy for immunomodulatory bone regeneration by engineering NMs involved in composition nature, nanoarchitectural morphology, surface chemistry, topography and biological molecules, whose mechanisms potentially refer to regulating the phenotype of high-plastic immune cells and inducing cytokine secretion to accelerate osteogenesis. Despite these prominent achievements, the employment of NMs is poorly translated into clinical trials due to the lack of knowledge about the interaction between NMs and the immune system. For this reason, we sketch out the hierarchical structure of bone and its natural healing process, followed by discussion about the effects of immune cells on bone regeneration. Novel horizons focusing on recent progressions in the architectural and physicochemical performances of NMs and their impacts on the body defence mechanism are also emphasized, hoping to provide novel insights for the fabrication of bone graft materials in tissue engineering.

Abdalla M, Bechelany M. Review on Natural, Incidental, Bioinspired, and Engineered Nanomaterials: History, Definitions, Classifications, Synthesis, Properties, Market, Toxicities, Risks, and Regulations

Nanomaterials are becoming important materials in several fields and industries thanks to their very reduced size and shape-related features. Scientists think that nanoparticles and nanostructured materials originated during the Big Bang process from meteorites leading to the formation of the universe and Earth. Since 1990, the term nanotechnology became very popular due to advances in imaging technologies that paved the way to specific industrial applications. Currently, nanoparticles and nanostructured materials are synthesized on a large scale and are indispensable for many industries. This fact fosters and supports research in biochemistry, biophysics, and biochemical engineering applications. Recently, nanotechnology has been combined with other sciences to fabricate new forms of nanomaterials that could be used, for instance, for diagnostic tools, drug delivery systems, energy generation/storage, environmental remediation as well as agriculture and food processing. In contrast with traditional materials, specific features can be integrated into nanoparticles, nanostructures, and nanosystems by simply modifying their scale, shape, and composition. This article first summarizes the history of nanomaterials and nanotechnology. Followed by the progress that led to improved synthesis processes to produce different nanoparticles and nanostructures characterized by specific features. The content finally presents various origins and sources of nanomaterials, synthesis strategies, their toxicity, risks, regulations, and self-aggregation.

Advances in Use of Nanomaterials for Musculoskeletal Regeneration

Since the worldwide incidence of bone disorders and cartilage damage has been increasing and traditional therapy has reached its limits, nanomaterials can provide a new strategy in the regeneration of bones and cartilage. The nanoscale modifies the properties of materials, and many of the recently prepared nanocomposites can be used in tissue engineering as scaffolds for the development of biomimetic materials involved in the repair and healing of damaged tissues and organs. In addition, some nanomaterials represent a noteworthy alternative for treatment and alleviating inflammation or infections caused by microbial pathogens. On the other hand, some nanomaterials induce inflammation processes, especially by the generation of reactive oxygen species. Therefore, it is necessary to know and understand their effects in living systems and use surface modifications to prevent these negative effects. This contribution is focused on nanostructured scaffolds, providing a closer structural support approximation to native tissue architecture for cells and regulating cell proliferation, differentiation, and migration, which results in cartilage and bone healing and regeneration.

Role of nanostructures in allergy: Diagnostics, treatments and safety

Nanotechnology is science, engineering and technology conducted at the nanoscale, which is about 1-100 nm. It has led to the development of nanomaterials, which behave very differently from materials with larger scales and can have a wide range of applications in biomedicine. The physical and chemical properties of materials of such small compounds depend mainly on the size, shape, composition and functionalization of the system. Nanoparticles, carbon nanotubes, liposomes, polymers, dendrimers and nanogels, among others, can be nanoengineeried for controlling all parameters, including their functionalization with ligands, which provide the desired interaction with the immunological system, that is dendritic cell receptors to activate and/or modulate the response, as well as specific IgE, or effector cell receptors. However, undesired issues related to toxicity and hypersensitivity responses can also happen and would need evaluation. There are wide panels of accessible structures, and controlling their physico-chemical properties would permit obtaining safer and more efficient compounds for clinical applications goals, either in diagnosis or treatment. The application of dendrimeric antigens, nanoallergens and nanoparticles in allergy diagnosis is very promising since it can improve sensitivity by increasing specific IgE binding, mimicking carrier proteins or enhancing signal detection. Additionally, in the case of immunotherapy, glycodendrimers, liposomes, polymers and nanoparticles have shown interest, behaving as platforms of allergenic structures, adjuvants or protectors of allergen from degradation or having a depot capacity. Taken together, the application of nanotechnology to allergy shows promising facts facing important goals related to the improvement of diagnosis as well as specific immunotherapy.

The nano-based theranostics for respiratory complications of COVID-19

High morbidity and mortality caused by the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) has made coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) the leading challenge for health experts all over the world. Currently, there is no specific treatment for COVID-19; however, thanks to worldwide intense attempts, novel vaccines such as mRNA-1273 (Moderna TX, Inc.) and BNT162b2 (Biontech/Pfizer) were developed very fast and FDA approved them for emergency use. Nanomedicine-based drug delivery can be an advanced therapeutic strategy to deal with clinical complications of COVID-19. Given the fact that SARS-CoV-2 typically affects the respiratory tract, application of inhalable nanoparticles (NPs) for targeted drug delivery to the alveolar space appears to be an effective and promising therapeutic strategy. Loading the medicinal components into NPs enhances the stability, bioavailability, solubility and sustained release of them. This approach can circumvent major challenges in efficient drug delivery such as solubility and any adverse impact of medicinal components due to off-targeted delivery and resulting systemic complications. Inhalable NPs could be delivered through nasal sprays, inhalers, and nebulizers. NPs also could interfere in virus attachment to host cells and prevent infection. Moreover, nanomedicine-based technologies can facilitate accurate and rapid detection of virus compared to the conventional methods. In this review, the nano-based theranostics modalities for the management of respiratory complications of COVID-19 were discussed.

A Review on Conventional and Advanced Methods for Nanotoxicology Evaluation of Engineered Nanomaterials

Nanotechnology can be defined as the field of science and technology that studies material at nanoscale (1-100 nm). These nanomaterials, especially carbon nanostructure-based composites and biopolymer-based nanocomposites, exhibit excellent chemical, physical, mechanical, electrical, and many other properties beneficial for their application in many consumer products (e.g., industrial, food, pharmaceutical, and medical). The current literature reports that the increased exposure of humans to nanomaterials could toxicologically affect their environment. Hence, this paper aims to present a review on the possible nanotoxicology assays that can be used to evaluate the toxicity of engineered nanomaterials. The different ways humans are exposed to nanomaterials are discussed, and the recent toxicity evaluation approaches of these nanomaterials are critically assessed.