Cost of medication adherence and persistence in type 2 diabetes mellitus: a literature review

Role of compliance in Helicobacter pylori eradication treatment: Results of the European Registry on H. pylori management

BACKGROUND

Adherence to Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) eradication treatment is a cornerstone for achieving adequate treatment efficacy.

OBJECTIVE

To determine which factors influence compliance with treatment.

METHODS

A systematic prospective non-interventional registry (Hp-EuReg) of the clinical practice of European gastroenterologists. Compliance was considered adequate if ≥90% drug intake. Data were collected until September 2021 using the AEG-REDCap e-CRF and were subjected to quality control. Modified intention-to-treat analyses were performed. Multivariate analysis carried out the factors associated with the effectiveness of treatment and compliance.

RESULTS

Compliance was inadequate in 646 (1.7%) of 38,698 patients. The non-compliance rate was higher in patients prescribed longer regimens (10-, 14-days) and rescue treatments, patients with uninvestigated dyspepsia/functional dyspepsia, and patients reporting adverse effects. Prevalence of non-adherence was lower for first-line treatment than for rescue treatment (1.5% vs. 2.2%; p < 0.001). Differences in non-adherence in the three most frequent first-line treatments were shown: 1.1% with proton pump inhibitor + clarithromycin + amoxicillin; 2.3% with proton pump inhibitor clarithromycin amoxicillin metronidazole; and 1.8% with bismuth quadruple therapy. These treatments were significantly more effective in compliant than in non-compliant patients: 86% versus 44%, 90% versus 71%, and 93% versus 64%, respectively (p < 0.001). In the multivariate analysis, the variable most significantly associated with higher effectiveness was adequate compliance (odds ratio, 6.3 [95%CI, 5.2-7.7]; p < 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

Compliance with Helicobacter pylori eradication treatment is very good. Factors associated with poor compliance include uninvestigated/functional dyspepsia, rescue-treatment, prolonged treatment regimens, the presence of adverse events, and the use of non-bismuth sequential and concomitant treatment. Adequate treatment compliance was the variable most closely associated with successful eradication.

Latent Profile Analysis of Medication Beliefs in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes in the Hospital-Home Transition and Comparison with Medication Adherence

Background

The treatment of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus (T2DM) is a protracted and arduous process. Medication, being a universally crucial therapeutic measure, underscores the significance of medication adherence in managing the disease effectively. Medication beliefs have emerged as a significant predictor of adherence, attracting considerable scholarly attention in recent years. However, there remains a paucity of research utilizing individual-centered approaches to explore medication beliefs among the T2DM population during the hospital-home transition, leaving the relationship between these beliefs and medication adherence unclear.

Purpose

To investigate latent categories of medication beliefs among patients with T2DM during the transition from hospital to home, and to analyze variations in medication adherence across these categories of patients.

Patients and methods

Between August 2022 and September 2023, this study selected 304 patients with a pre-discharge diagnosis of T2DM as study subjects from a tertiary hospital in Dongguan City. The patients' profiles were assessed comprehensively via the Sociodemographic and Clinical Characteristics Questionnaire, alongside the Chinese version of Beliefs about Medicines Questionnaire-Specific and Morisky Medication Adherence Scale-8. The present study conducted latent profile analysis using Mplus 7.4 software and analyzed the influencing factors of different medication belief categories and their differences in medication adherence using SPSS 26.0 software.

Results

The medication beliefs of 304 patients were rated at 3.36±5.24 points, while medication adherence scored 6.23±1.56 points. The medication beliefs were classified into four categories: moderate necessity - low to moderate concern group (40.13%), high necessity - low concern group (9.54%), moderate necessity - moderate to high concern group (19.08%), and moderate necessity - high concern group (31.25%). Age, monthly per capita household income, and place of residence emerged as influential factors for the four categories. Moreover, the disparity in medication adherence among these categories demonstrated statistical significance (P < 0.001).

Conclusion

The medication beliefs of patients were classified into four distinct categories, and variations in medication adherence were evident across these categories. The high necessity - low concern group demonstrated the highest medication adherence scores, while the moderate necessity - high concern group exhibited the lowest scores. Healthcare providers are advised to tailor personalized medication belief enhancement programs based on patients' homogeneous beliefs, addressing specific issues encountered by each category. This approach aims to ensure optimal medication adherence across diverse medical and social environments, effectively improving patient prognosis and enhancing quality of life.

An Overview of Pharmaceutical Care in Type II Diabetes Mellitus Patients: Current Position and Prospects

Diabetes mellitus is an ongoing disease that is related to a high mortality rate due to severe complications. Diabetes mellitus type 2 (DMT2) is a persistent metabolic deficiency and its prevalence has been increasing consistently worldwide. As a result, it is rapidly turning into a plague in some parts of the world, and the number of people affected is expected to double in the following decade due to an increase in the maturing populace, adding to the overall existing importance for medical service providers, particularly in the underdeveloped nations. Extensive diabetes care is an intricate task that takes a whole group of medical care experts, including drug specialists, to provide multidisciplinary care for the patients. The duty of drug experts has changed significantly in recent years, changing from conventional drug dispensing in the drug store to patient- centered clinical support services. Upgrading the medication treatment to accomplish better remedial results without causing drug-related issues has been considered the essential objective of treatment for diabetic patients. This review discusses the healthcare needs of patients with T2DM, the current evidence for the role of pharmacists in diabetes care, and insight into the upcoming role of pharmacists in its management. The advanced role of clinical pharmacists in diabetes control through drug treatment, diabetes care centers, and diabetes health counselor schooling, is also discussed in this review.

The Impact of Psychosomatic Factors on Treatment Adherence of Acute Myocardial Infarction Survivors; A Two-Year Follow-Up Study

Backgroud

Because of the important role of adhering to treatment to reduce major adverse cardiovascular events and mortality, studying the factors affecting treatment adherence (TA) is warranted. This study aimed to identify the impact of psychosomatic factors on adhering to treatment among patients with acute myocardial infarction.

Materials and Methods

This is a cohort study as a part of the Isfahan ST-segment-elevated Myocardial Infarction Cohort Study. Psychosomatic factors such as health anxiety, illness denial, irritable mood, and demoralization were assessed among 867 patients at the first visit. The patients were followed for 2 years; TA and major adverse cardiovascular events were checked annually in survivors.

Results

The results from binary logistic regression applied to find the association between TA and psychosomatic factors showed that the patients with health anxiety, irritable mood, and demoralization were significantly poor adherent to treatment (odds ratio [95% confidence interval]: 1.39 [1.02, 2.73], 1.51 [1.02, 2.37], and 1.66 [1.02, 2.91]), respectively. The associations remained the same when adjusted for various potential confounders.

Conclusions

Psychosomatic factors played an essential role in adhering to treatment among patients with acute myocardial infarction. As a result, appropriate psychological interventions may help the patients adhere to their treatment better.

Gender-Related Factors in Medication Adherence for Metabolic and Cardiovascular Health

This review explores the impact of gender on medication adherence in the context of metabolic and cardiovascular diseases. Optimal adherence to medication is crucial for achieving treatment goals and preventing adverse outcomes in chronic diseases. The review examines specific conditions such as type 2 diabetes, hypercholesterolemia, arterial hypertension, cardiovascular diseases, and heart failure. In type 2 diabetes, female sex, younger age, new drug prescription, non-white ethnicity, low education level, and low income were identified as predictors of non-adherence. Depressive disorders were also found to influence adherence. In hypercholesterolemia, women exhibited poorer adherence to statin therapy compared to men, with statin-related side effects and patient perception being significant factors. Adherence to anti-hypertensive therapy showed conflicting results, with studies reporting both higher and lower adherence in women. Limited evidence suggests that women may have poorer adherence after acute myocardial infarction and stroke. Regarding heart failure, adherence studies have shown inconsistent findings. The reasons for gender differences in medication adherence are multifactorial and include sociodemographic, disease-related, treatment-related, and psychological factors. This review emphasizes the need for further research to better understand these differences and develop gender-customized interventions that can improve medication adherence and reduce the burden of metabolic and cardiovascular diseases.

Timely referral to health centers for the prevention of cardiovascular diseases: IraPEN national program

Introduction

The IraPEN program is an adapted version of the WHO-PEN program designed to prevent four major non-communicable diseases in Iran. This study aimed to determine the rate of compliance and related factors among individuals participating in the IraPEN program for the prevention of cardiovascular disease.

Method

In this study, compliance was defined as timely referral to the health center as scheduled, and the researchers approached four pilot sites of IraPEN from March 2016 to March 2018. Sex-stratified logistic regressions were applied to investigate factors related to compliance. However, it is important to note that in this study, compliance was defined as compliance to revisit, not compliance to taking prescribed medications or behavioral lifestyle changes.

Results

The total compliance rate, including timely compliance and early and late compliance, was 16.5% in men and 23.3% in women. The study found that cardiovascular risk factors such as diabetes, hypertension, hypercholesterolemia, and being underweight were associated with lower compliance. The higher calculated risk of CVD was associated with higher compliance, but after adjusting for cardiovascular risk factors, high-risk individuals showed lower compliance. There was negligible interaction between sex and other factors for compliance.

Conclusion

The compliance rate with scheduled programs for cardiovascular preventive strategies was very low, and high-risk individuals were less compliant, regardless of their high level of risk factors. The study recommends further training to increase awareness and knowledge regarding the IraPEN program and the prevention of non-communicable diseases among high-risk populations.

Relationship Between Medication Literacy and Beliefs Among Persons with Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus in Guangdong, China

Purpose

To establish the relationship between medication literacy and medication beliefs among persons with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM).

Patients and methods

A cross-sectional survey of 246 patients with T2DM was conducted between April and November 2022 at a tertiary hospital in Dongguan City, Guangdong Province, China. Subsequently, these patients were administered the General Information Questionnaire, the Chinese version of Medication Literacy Assessment Scale, and the Chinese version of Beliefs about Medicines Questionnaire-Specific via survey.

Results

The medication literacy score of patients with T2DM was 7.82±3.007, and the medication beliefs score was 2.26±4.011. The Pearson correlation analysis revealed a statistically significant but weakly positive correlation (r = 0.271, P < 0.001) between medication literacy and beliefs among patients diagnosed with T2DM. However, there was no significant correlation found between medication literacy and necessity (r = -0.021, P > 0.05), while a lowly negative correlation was observed between medication literacy and concerns (r = -0.307, P < 0.001). Moreover, the multiple linear regression analysis indicated that medication literacy, age, education level, and duration of medication usage were all significant factors influencing patients' medication beliefs (all P < 0.05). Together, these variables accounted for 15.3% of the total variance observed in the regression equation.

Conclusion

The study found a positive correlation between medication literacy and beliefs, and a negative correlation between medication literacy and concerns. These results indicate that enhancing medication literacy can improve medication adherence among individuals with T2DM by reducing concerns and strengthening medication beliefs.

Global Impacts of Western Diet and Its Effects on Metabolism and Health: A Narrative Review

The Western diet is a modern dietary pattern characterized by high intakes of pre-packaged foods, refined grains, red meat, processed meat, high-sugar drinks, candy, sweets, fried foods, conventionally raised animal products, high-fat dairy products, and high-fructose products. The present review aims to describe the effect of the Western pattern diet on the metabolism, inflammation, and antioxidant status; the impact on gut microbiota and mitochondrial fitness; the effect of on cardiovascular health, mental health, and cancer; and the sanitary cost of the Western diet. To achieve this goal, a consensus critical review was conducted using primary sources, such as scientific articles, and secondary sources, including bibliographic indexes, databases, and web pages. Scopus, Embase, Science Direct, Sports Discuss, ResearchGate, and the Web of Science were used to complete the assignment. MeSH-compliant keywords such "Western diet", "inflammation", "metabolic health", "metabolic fitness", "heart disease", "cancer", "oxidative stress", "mental health", and "metabolism" were used. The following exclusion criteria were applied: (i) studies with inappropriate or irrelevant topics, not germane to the review's primary focus; (ii) Ph.D. dissertations, proceedings of conferences, and unpublished studies. This information will allow for a better comprehension of this nutritional behavior and its effect on an individual's metabolism and health, as well as the impact on national sanitary systems. Finally, practical applications derived from this information are made.

An Expert Opinion on the Role of the Rosuvastatin/Amlodipine Single Pill Fixed Dose Combination in Cardiovascular Prevention

Current cardiovascular disease prevention strategies are based on the management of cardiovascular risk as a continuum, redefining the therapeutic goals for each individual based on the estimated global risk profile. Given the frequent clustering of the principal cardiovascular risk factors, such as hypertension, diabetes and dyslipidaemia, in the same individual, patients are required to take multiple drugs to achieve therapeutic targets. The adoption of single pill fixed dose combinations may contribute to achieve better control of blood pressure and cholesterol compared to the separate administration of the individual drugs, mostly due to better adherence related to therapeutic simplicities. This paper reports the outcomes of an Expert multidisciplinary Roundtable. In particular, the rational and potential clinical use of the single pill fixed dose combination "Rosuvastatin-Amlodipine" for the management of concomitant hypertension/hypercholesterolemia in different clinical fields are discussed. This Expert Opinion also illustrates the importance of an early and effective management of total cardiovascular risk, highlights the substantial benefits of combining blood pressure and lipid-lowering treatments in a single-pill fixed dose combination and attempts to identify and overcome the barriers to the implementation in clinical practice of the fixed dose combinations with dual targets. This Expert Panel identifies and proposes the categories of patients who may benefit the most from this fixed dose combination.

Idealistic, realistic, and unrealistic expectations of pharmacological treatment in persons with type 2 diabetes in primary care

Introduction

Information on treatment expectations in diabetes is scarce for Mexican and Latino populations. We determined idealistic, realistic, and unrealistic expectations for metformin, insulin, and glyburide in primary care. We also explored the association between sociodemographic attributes, time since diagnosis, and expectations.

Methods

This was a cross-sectional study conducted during 2020-2022 in governmental primary care centers. We consecutively included persons with type 2 diabetes aged 30-70 years under pharmacological medication (n = 907). Questions were developed using information relevant to expectation constructs. Data were collected by interview. We used descriptive statistics, a test of the difference between two proportions, and multivariate ordinal logistic regression.

Results

A high percentage of participants would like to have fewer daily pills/injections or the option of temporarily stopping their medication. Realistic expectations ranged from 47% to 70%, and unrealistic expectations from 31 to 65%. More insulin users wished they could take a temporary break (p < 0.05) or would like to be able to change the route of administration (p < 0.001) than metformin users. More persons with diabetes on insulin expected realistic expectations compared to those on metformin or glyburide (p ≤ 0.01). Being able to interrupt medication upon reaching the glucose goal was higher in combined therapy users (p < 0.001).

Conclusion

Time since diagnosis, place of residence, sex, and diabetes education were factors associated to expectations. Management of expectations must be reinforced in primary care persons with type 2 diabetes undergoing pharmacological medication.

Cardiometabolic risk reductions in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus newly treated with a sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitor versus a dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibitor: A real-world administrative database study in Japan

AIMS/INTRODUCTION

Sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitors (SGLT2i) have shown beneficial effects on cardiometabolic risk factors (hemoglobin A1c, body mass index, systolic blood pressure) in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. We compared combined cardiometabolic effects of SGLT2i on hemoglobin A1c, body mass index and systolic blood pressure versus dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibitors (DPP4i) in Japanese patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

This Japanese retrospective cohort study used the JMDC claims database. Patients newly treated with an SGLT2i (n = 18,936) or DPP4i (n = 55,484) were enrolled (January 2015-March 2020) and matched 1:1 using the propensity score. The primary end-point was the proportion of patients achieving a composite outcome (i.e., simultaneous absolute/percent reduction in hemoglobin A1c ≥0.5%, body mass index ≥3% and systolic blood pressure ≥2 mmHg) 1 year after first SGLT2i or DPP4i prescription; Mantel-Haenszel common risk difference and its 95% confidence interval were estimated. Other end-points included treatment persistence, with the associated hazard ratio calculated using the Cox proportional hazards model.

RESULTS

After matching, patient characteristics were balanced (7,302 patients each). The proportion of patients achieving the composite outcome was significantly greater in patients receiving an SGLT2i than those receiving a DPP4i (31.0% [1,279/4,120] vs 12.9% [524/4,070], risk difference 18.6%, 95% confidence interval 16.3, 20.9, P < 0.001). Risk of treatment discontinuation was significantly lower in the SGLT2i group than in the DPP4i group (hazard ratio 0.85, 95% confidence interval 0.81, 0.90, P < 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

In the present study, SGLT2i showed favorable cardiometabolic risk reduction and longer treatment persistence than DPP4i in Japanese patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus.

Hamid AB. Strategies to improve patient loyalty and medication adherence in Syrian healthcare setting: The mediating role of patient satisfaction

The purpose of this study is to empirically examine the relationships between service quality, patient satisfaction, patient loyalty and medication adherence in the Syrian healthcare setting from a patient’s perspective. Based on random sampling technique, data collection was conducted in six hospitals located in the Syrian capital Damascus. The reliability and validity of the theoretical model had been confirmed using quantitative analyses SmartPLS software. The study indicated that our proposed model can significantly explain (35) per cent of patient satisfaction, (55) per cent of patient loyalty and (46) per cent medication adherence in a statistically manner. Our results highlighted that patient satisfaction mediated the relationship between patient loyalty and service quality (assurance, reliability and financial aspect). Besides, patient satisfaction had mediation effect on the relationship between medication adherence and service quality (reliability and financial aspect). Financial aspect had the highest impact on patient satisfaction (β = 0.242) and medication adherence (β = 0.302). In addition, reliability was the only dimension of service quality that had a significant direct impact on patient satisfaction, patient loyalty and medication adherence. To increase patient loyalty in Syrian hospitals, healthcare professionals should place a greater emphasis on the reliability and responsiveness elements of service quality. To the author’s knowledge, this is the first study conducted during the COVID pandemic to evaluate the mediating role of patient satisfaction in the relationship between service quality, patient loyalty and medication adherence in the Syrian healthcare sector.

A comparison of rural-urban differences in out-of-pocket expenses among older Mexicans with diabetes

Objective

To compare total out-of-pocket expenses for physician visits and medications among older adults living with diabetes in Mexico from urban, semi-urban, and rural areas.

Methods

The sample included 2,398 Mexicans aged 65 years and older with self-reported diabetes from the 2018 Mexican Health and Aging Study. Out-of-pocket expenses for physician visits and medications were regressed on locality, controlling for several factors.

Results

The profile of those with higher out-of-pocket medication expenditures included rural localities, higher education, unmarried, depressive symptoms, participation in Seguro Popular, and lacking insurance. In the multivariate analysis, rural older adults with diabetes paid a higher amount in medication expenditures compared with other localities.

Conclusion

Differences in locality are closely tied to the effective implementation of Seguro Popular. Although this program has improved access to care, participants have higher out-of-pocket expenditures for medications than those on employer-based plans across all localities. Among all groups, the uninsured bare the highest burden of expenditures, highlighting a continued need to address health inequities for the most underserved populations.

Medication Non-Adherence in Rheumatology, Oncology and Cardiology: A Review of the Literature of Risk Factors and Potential Interventions

Medication adherence is directly associated with health outcomes. Adherence has been reviewed extensively; however, most studies provide a narrow scope of the problem, covering a specific disease or treatment. This project's objective was to identify risk factors for non-adherence in the fields of rheumatology, oncology, and cardiology as well as potential interventions to improve adherence and their association with the risk factors. The project was developed in three phases and carried out by a Steering Committee made up of experts from the fields of rheumatology, oncology, cardiology, general medicine, and hospital and community pharmacy. In phase 1, a bibliographic review was performed, and the articles/reviews were classified according to the authors' level of confidence in the results and their clinical relevance. In phase 2, 20 risk factors for non-adherence were identified from these articles/reviews and agreed upon in Steering Committee meetings. In phase 3, potential interventions for improving adherence were also identified and agreed upon. The results obtained show that adherence is a dynamic concept that can change throughout the course of the disease, the treatments, and other factors. Educational interventions are the most studied ones and have the highest level of confidence in the authors' opinion. Information and education are essential to improve adherence in all patients.

Hospital-care utilization and medical cost patterns among patients with insulin-dependent diabetes

OBJECTIVE

Using claims data from an integrated payer-provider, we compared the costs incurred by insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (IDDM) patients who received Hospital Inpatient/Observation/Emergency Department care (HIghER care) for diabetes-related events with those who did not receive such care to identify a target population for interventions in future studies.

METHODS

A retrospective study pooled real-world claims data for IDDM with type 1 or type 2 DM between July 1, 2018 and June 30, 2019. Medical claims were used to calculate the total and diabetes-related allowed medical costs to the Enterprise and per-member per month (pmpm) costs.

RESULTS

A total of 19,378 members' medical and prescription drug coverage were analyzed. Only 8.4% of the IDDM population received HIghER care but incurred 20% of medical expenses, and nearly 40% of diabetes-related medical costs. For HIghER care patients, medical spending was higher in every inpatient and outpatient category (Wilcoxon two sample tests, all p < 0.0001). Non-diabetes related prescription drug costs were greater in this group (Wilcoxon, Z = 2.2879, p = 0.0221), but diabetes-related prescription drug costs were higher for non-HIghER care (Wilcoxon, Z = -9.5918, p < 0.0001). In a longitudinal study of 29,602 patients over 24 months, prior-year receipt of HIghER care was a significant predictor of HIghER care the subsequent year (odds ratio 3.28) CONCLUSIONS: Medical spending for HIghER care patients was disproportionately high and greater in every inpatient and outpatient category. Receipt of HIghER care in the previous year was highly predictive of HIghER care episodes the following year.

Detecting Medication-Taking Gestures Using Machine Learning and Accelerometer Data Collected Via Smartwatch Technology: A Feasibility Study (Preprint)

BACKGROUND

Medication adherence is a global public health challenge, as only approximately 50% of people adhere to their medication regimens. Medication reminders have shown promising results in terms of promoting medication adherence. However, practical mechanisms to determine whether a medication has been taken or not, once people are reminded, remain elusive. Emerging smartwatch technology may more objectively, unobtrusively, and automatically detect medication taking than currently available methods.

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to examine the feasibility of detecting natural medication-taking gestures using smartwatches.

METHODS

A convenience sample (N=28) was recruited using the snowball sampling method. During data collection, each participant recorded at least 5 protocol-guided (scripted) medication-taking events and at least 10 natural instances of medication-taking events per day for 5 days. Using a smartwatch, the accelerometer data were recorded for each session at a sampling rate of 25 Hz. The raw recordings were scrutinized by a team member to validate the accuracy of the self-reports. The validated data were used to train an artificial neural network (ANN) to detect a medication-taking event. The training and testing data included previously recorded accelerometer data from smoking, eating, and jogging activities in addition to the medication-taking data recorded in this study. The accuracy of the model to identify medication taking was evaluated by comparing the ANN's output with the actual output.

RESULTS

Most (n=20, 71%) of the 28 study participants were college students and aged 20 to 56 years. Most individuals were Asian (n=12, 43%) or White (n=12, 43%), single (n=24, 86%), and right-hand dominant (n=23, 82%). In total, 2800 medication-taking gestures (n=1400, 50% natural plus n=1400, 50% scripted gestures) were used to train the network. During the testing session, 560 natural medication-taking events that were not previously presented to the ANN were used to assess the network. The accuracy, precision, and recall were calculated to confirm the performance of the network. The trained ANN exhibited an average true-positive and true-negative performance of 96.5% and 94.5%, respectively. The network exhibited <5% error in the incorrect classification of medication-taking gestures.

CONCLUSIONS

Smartwatch technology may provide an accurate, nonintrusive means of monitoring complex human behaviors such as natural medication-taking gestures. Future research is warranted to evaluate the efficacy of using modern sensing devices and machine learning algorithms to monitor medication-taking behavior and improve medication adherence.

A personalised intervention programme aimed at improving adherence to oral antidiabetic and/or antihypertensive medication in people with type 2 diabetes mellitus, the INTENSE study: study protocol for a randomised controlled trial

BACKGROUND

Medication non-adherence is a prevalent health problem in people with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). Interventions have previously been developed to improve medication adherence, but inconsistent outcomes have been reported. A potential explanation for this inconsistency is a 'one size fits all' approach, with interventions not tailored to the needs and preferences of individuals. Therefore, the aim of this study is to evaluate the effectiveness of a personalised intervention programme aimed at improving adherence to oral antidiabetic and/or antihypertensive medication in people with T2DM.

METHODS

A parallel-group randomised controlled trial will be conducted in 40-50 community pharmacies in the Netherlands and the United Kingdom (UK). A total of 300 participants will be included and followed up for a period of 6 months. Participants will be people with T2DM identified as non-adherent to oral antidiabetic and/or antihypertensive medication, aged 35-75 years and mobile phone users. The intervention group will receive a personalised intervention programme that is based on one or more of the participants' pre-defined non-adherence profile(s), namely (I) Knowledge and perceptions, (II) Practical problems, (III) Side effects and (IV) Negative mood and beliefs. The intervention comprises of one or more supporting modules, namely (I) Brief messaging, (II) Clinical medication review, (III) Medication schedule, (IV) Reminding messaging, (V) Medication dispensing systems, (VI) Smart messaging, (VII) Referral to general practitioner and (VIII) Unguided web-based Self Help Application for low mood. The control group will receive usual care including access to a publicly available informative diabetes website. The primary study outcome is medication adherence measured with a telephone pill count. Secondary outcomes are systolic blood pressure, HbA1c level, self-reported medication adherence, attitude and beliefs toward medication, satisfaction with diabetes treatment, health status and medical consumption and productivity cost. In addition, a process evaluation will be undertaken to establish the fidelity, reach and the extent to which intervention delivery is normalised in the daily practice of community pharmacy teams.

DISCUSSION

The study can lead to a personalised intervention programme that improves medication adherence in people with T2DM that are non-adherent to oral antidiabetic and/or antihypertensive medication.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

Dutch Trial Register, Trial NL8747 , registered 02 July, 2020; ISRCTN Registry, ISRCTN36009809 , registered 05 February, 2020.

Treatment-Related Attributes of Diabetes Therapies and How People with Type 2 Diabetes Report Their Impact on Indicators of Medication-Taking Behaviors

Purpose

Understanding the treatment-related attributes influencing medication-taking behaviors in people with type 2 diabetes (T2D) is important for delivery of patient-centered care. This review aimed to identify and summarize studies in which people with T2D (PwD) directly indicated the treatment-related attributes associated with medication-taking behaviors or intentions.

Materials and Methods

EMBASE and PubMed were searched for studies (Jan 2005-May 2021) reporting the link between PwD-expressed diabetes treatment-related attributes and the decision to initiate, adhere to, or discontinue a T2D medication. Eligible studies reported attributes associated with oral antidiabetes drugs or injectables (not insulin). Studies not explicitly exploring the link between attributes and indicators of behaviors (eg most discrete-choice experiments [DCE] and those interrogating electronic medical records or claims databases) were excluded, as were studies where the link between attribute and behavior came from anyone but the PwD.

Results

Of the 6464 studies identified, 16 were included. Studies were conducted across multiple countries; the USA was most represented (n = 8 studies). The impact of treatment attributes was described on indicators of initiation (n = 3), adherence (n = 12), and discontinuation (n = 4). Some studies evaluated multiple behaviors. PwD perspectives were solicited by structured questionnaires (n = 10), qualitative approaches (n = 4), or DCE explicitly exploring the link to medication-taking behaviors (n = 2). Closed- (n = 9) and open-ended questions (n = 7) were employed. Across studies, several factors including glycemic efficacy (n = 9), weight change (n = 9), dosing frequency (n = 9), hypoglycemia (n = 8), gastrointestinal adverse events (n = 8), regimen complexity (n = 6), route of administration (n = 3), and cardiovascular risk (n = 1) were reported as influencing behaviors, being motivators or barriers to initiation, adherence, or discontinuation.

Conclusion

Several attributes influence how PwD take their medications. Insights gained directly from PwD have the potential to assist stakeholders in making more informed, patient-centered, treatment decisions, thus choosing and managing medications that PwD are comfortable initiating and persisting with over the longer term.

Examining the evidence for weight management in individuals with type 2 diabetes

The obesity epidemic has been linked to the worsening diabetes epidemic. Despite this, weight reduction for individuals with obesity is seen as a secondary, or even tertiary, consideration in the treatment of type 2 diabetes (T2D). The aim of this review is to examine the benefits of weight management in individuals with T2D. A literature review of current available published data on the benefits of weight reduction in individuals with T2D was conducted. In individuals with T2D who have obesity or overweight, modest and sustained weight reduction results in improvement in glycaemic control and decreased utilization of glucose-lowering medication. A total body weight loss of 5% or higher reduces HbA1c levels and contributes to mitigating risk factors of cardiovascular disease, such as hyperlipidaemia and hypertension, as well as other disease-related complications of obesity. Progressive improvements in glycaemic control and cardiometabolic risk factors can occur when the total body weight loss increases to 10% or more. In the approach to treating patients with T2D and obesity, prioritizing weight management and the use of therapeutics that offer glycaemic control as well as the additional weight loss should be emphasized given their potential to attenuate the progression and severity of T2D.

Adherence and persistence rates of major antidiabetic medications: a review

The objective of this paper was to review the adherence and persistence rates of major antidiabetic medication classes (i.e., metformin, sulfonylureas, sodium glucose cotransporter-2 inhibitors, dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibitors, insulin, glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists, and thiazolidinediones) by summarizing the major findings of the studies published since 2017. In addition, we reported the potential causes for low adherence and persistence of antidiabetic medications. Based on the literature, the highest rate of adherence and persistence was consistently observed in metformin users. Second to metformin were sodium glucose cotransporter-2 inhibitors. Injectable therapies such as insulin and glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists trailed low on the adherence and persistence rates. To the best of our knowledge, no studies published since the year 2017 analyzed the adherence and persistence of thiazolidinediones independently. The most frequently cited cause for low adherence and persistence was the severity of adverse events. Baseline characteristics (e.g., baseline HbA1c level), demographic information (e.g., age, gender, or ethnicity), and comorbidity profiles also had significant impacts on adherence and persistence in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus.

Weight Change and the Association with Adherence and Persistence to Diabetes Therapy: A Narrative Review

PURPOSE

Type 2 diabetes (T2D) medication adherence is poor and is impacted by individual drug characteristics. Treatment-associated weight change can affect medication-taking behavior. This review aimed to explore weight change on T2D therapy and consider its impact on adherence and discontinuation.

METHODS

Searches were conducted in MEDLINE and EMBASE (2005 to September 2020), and among recent congress abstract books for studies providing data on medication adherence or discontinuation and weight change in people with T2D (PwD).

RESULTS

Nine studies meeting the inclusion criteria were identified from 9188 bibliographic records. All three studies exploring weight change and discontinuation reported weight loss to be associated with higher persistence. Seven studies of varying design explored weight change and adherence. Four reported absolute weight change (kg) and adherence: one pooled data from different diabetes medications and demonstrated that self-reported adherence was significantly associated with weight loss; however, three studies found that weight change in adherent PwD was in the direction of the known weight profile (loss/gain) of the evaluated drug. Categorical weight loss (≥3%) and adherence were reported in two studies: one reported that numerically more adherent versus non-adherent PwD lost ≥3% weight regardless of the drug's weight profile, the other showed that early weight loss with a glucagon-like peptide-1 agonist was significantly associated with better adherence. One study reported adherence by categorical weight change; as weight loss increased, adherence scores improved, regardless of drug type.

CONCLUSION

Findings suggest that discontinuation rates may be lower in PwD who lose as compared to those who gain weight on T2D treatment. The evidence base on adherence and weight change is more challenging to interpret due to the range of study designs. Given the importance of weight control in T2D, further research exploring the individual's treatment, weight journey, and behaviors over time should be undertaken.

Medication Adherence of Persons with Type 2 Diabetes in Malaysia: A Scoping Review and Meta-Analysis

Objective

This is a scoping review of Malaysian scientific studies on medication adherence among persons with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM).

Methodology

We conducted a bibliographic search of PubMed, Scopus and Google Scholar using the following keywords: "medication adherence," "drug compliance," "DMTAC" and "Malaysia." The search covered all publications up to 31 December 2021. Eligible articles were original studies conducted in Malaysia that measured or quantified medication adherence among persons with T2DM.

Results

We identified 64 eligible studies published between 2008 to 2021. Most studies included patients with T2DM in ambulatory facilities. Five studies were qualitative research. The quantitative research publications included clinical trials, and cross-sectional, validation, retrospective and prospective cohort studies. Thirty-eight studies used medication adherence scales. The Morisky Medication Adherence Scale (MMAS-8, used in 20 studies) and Malaysian Medication Adherence Scale (MALMAS, used in 6 studies) were the most commonly used tools. There were 6 validation studies with 4 medication adherence scales. A meta-analysis of 10 studies using MMAS-8 or MALMAS revealed that the pooled prevalence of low medication adherence is 34.2% (95% CI: 27.4 to 41.2, random effects model). Eighteen publications evaluated various aspects of the Diabetes Medication Therapy Adherence Clinics (DMTAC).

Conclusion

This scoping review documented extensive research on medication adherence among persons with diabetes in Malaysia. The quantitative meta-analysis showed a pooled low medication adherence rate.

Short-Term Effectiveness and Reduction in Insulin Requirements in Patients With Type 2 Diabetes Treated With IdegLira in a Real-World Setting

BACKGROUND

Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) is a chronic, highly prevalent disease with a significant impact on health. Appropriate treatment requires effective and timely escalation to achieve metabolic control. To evaluate the effectiveness and safety of IDegLira on adults with T2DM previously treated with oral antidiabetics and/or insulin in a real-life setting.

METHODS

An observational study in a real-world setting was conducted. Patients were selected from the outpatient clinic of two centers dedicated to specialized diabetes care. Main outcomes were HbA1c, body weight, insulin dose changes, hypoglycemia, and other adverse events.

RESULTS

67 T2DM patients treated with IDegLira were monitored between 3 and 7 months. At the end of foll ow-up, the median change in HbA1c was -1.05% (CI95% -1.45, -0.65), and a decrease in insulin requirement was also observed (mean difference -10 TDD units (CI95% - 17 to -2.5). No treatment discontinuation was reported, hypoglycemia events were reported in 3 patients at the end of follow-up versus 8 patients at baseline.

CONCLUSIONS

This real-life study shows the effectiveness in glycemic control of IDegLira use in T2DM patients who do not achieve goals with other therapies, with an adequate safety profile. The findings need to be confirmed with evaluation of therapeutic results in larger cohorts.

An Unsafe/Safe Typology in People with Type 2 Diabetes: Bridging Patients' Expectations, Personality Traits, Medication Adherence, and Clinical Outcomes

BACKGROUND

Support programs are provided to people with diabetes to help them manage their disease. However, adherence to and persistence in support programs are often low, making it difficult to demonstrate their effectiveness.

AIM

To identify the determinants of patients' perceived interest in diabetes support programs because it may be a powerful determinant of effective participation in such programs.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

An online study conducted in April 2021 in metropolitan France on 600 people with diabetes recruited from a consumer panel. A 64-item psychosocial questionnaire including a question asking to evaluate the helpfulness of a support program was used. Univariate, multivariate, and multiple correspondence analyses were performed.

RESULTS

The existence of a typology, known as Unsafe/Safe, was discovered, in which patients with type 2 diabetes respond in two distinct ways. Type U (unsafe) patients, who believe that a support program would be helpful, are more likely to be nonadherent to their treatment, have high hemoglobin A1c levels, have at least one diabetic complication, lack information regarding their disease and treatment, rate the burden of their disease and impairment of their quality of life as high, worry about their future, and are pessimistic. Type S (safe) patients have the opposite characteristics. Type U patients can be dichotomized into two broad classes: one in which they lack information regarding disease and treatment and the other in which alterations in the quality of life and burden of the disease predominate. Insulin-treated patients give more importance to the lack of information, whereas noninsulin-treated patients complain primarily about the burden of the disease and impairment of quality of life.

CONCLUSION

This study describes this new U/S typology, proposes a simple method based on a nine-item questionnaire to identify type U patients by calculating a Program Helpfulness Score described herein, and clarifies the nature of the intervention to be provided to them. This novel approach could be applied to other chronic diseases.

Association between medication adherence and non-drug healthcare utilisation and costs: a retrospective longitudinal cohort study among US women age 65 and older

OBJECTIVES

To explore the association between hormone therapy (HT) adherence and non-drug healthcare utilisation and healthcare costs among patients with breast cancer.

DESIGN

Retrospective longitudinal cohort study.

SETTING

The US Medicare beneficiaries in the SEER-Medicare-linked database PARTICIPANTS: Women aged ≥ 65 with hormone-receptor positive breast cancer from 2007 through mid-2009 in the USA.

INTERVENTIONS

We examined the relationship between HT and adherence and outcomes of our interests.

PRIMARY AND SECONDARY OUTCOME MEASURES

Our study cohort's HT adherence, non-drug healthcare utilisation and healthcare costs for the first year of HT and each year, thereafter, for a total of 5 years.

RESULTS

6045 eligible Medicare beneficiaries that met our selection criteria were included. We found that patients who were adherent to HT were associated with lower healthcare utilisation of all kinds (inpatient (0.35 vs 0.43, p<0.001), length of study during hospitalisation (4.19 vs 4.89, p<0.01), physician office visits (25.16 vs 26.17, p<0.001)), and significant reductions in many types of medical costs and neutral total healthcare costs despite the increased pharmacy costs. Half of the total medical cost reduction came from savings in hospitalisation costs.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study suggests that the added cost of HT adherence was all but offset by the reduced cost for other medical care. Our study provides evidence on the potential success of implementing value-based insurance design (VBID) plans among patients with breast cancer to improve their long-term oral medication adherence. Policymakers should consider adherence improvement strategies such as VBID plans, given that the costs likely will not surpass the total savings.

Monitoring adherence to pharmacological therapy and follow-up examinations among patients with type 2 diabetes in community pharmacies. Results from an experience in Italy

Introduction

Type 2 diabetes is an important public health issue, yet adherence to drugs and regular clinical follow-up is still suboptimal. This study aims to evaluate a community pharmacy programme for monitoring and enhancing adherence to prescribed pharmacological therapies and recommended examinations among patients with confirmed diabetes.

Methods

The intervention was conducted in different Italian areas between April 2017 and January 2018. All adult patients who entered a pharmacy with a personal prescription for any antidiabetic drug and agreed to participate, were interviewed. Those found to be non-adherent received counselling from the pharmacists. All patients were invited for a follow-up interview after 3 months.

Results

Overall, 930 patients were enrolled and completed the baseline interview. We found low rates of non-adherence, ranging from 8% to 13% for prescribed pharmacological therapies, and 11–29% for the recommended clinical examinations. Non-adherence to oral therapies was higher among younger and recently diagnosed patients; that to clinical examinations was higher in men, those with an intermediate duration of diabetes and less educated patients. Large geographical differences persisted after the adjustment for individual factors. Only 306 patients (32.9%) returned for the follow-up interview, most of whom were already adherent at baseline.

Conclusions

Poor adherence to drugs or clinical examinations is not easy to identify in the usual operating setting of community pharmacies. Furthermore, the majority of patients did not return for follow-up, making it impossible to evaluate the efficacy of the pharmacists’ counselling. It might be more effective to plan interventions addressed to specific subgroups of patients or areas.

The utilisation of public and private health care among Australian women with diabetes: Findings from the 45 and Up Study

Aim

To describe the prevalence of health care utilisation and out-of-pocket expenditure associated with the management of diabetes among Australian women aged 45 years and older.

Design

Cross-sectional survey design.

Methods

The questionnaire was administered to 392 women (a cohort of the 45 and Up Study) reporting a diagnosis of diabetes between August and November 2016. It asked about the use of conventional medicine, complementary medicine (CM) and self-prescribed treatments for diabetes and associated out-of-pocket spending.

Results

Most women (88.3%; n = 346) consulted at least one health care practitioner in the previous 12 months for their diabetes; 84.6% (n = 332) consulted a doctor, 44.4% (n = 174) consulted an allied health practitioner, and 20.4% (n = 80) consulted a CM practitioner. On average, the combined annual out-of-pocket health care expenditure was AU$492.6 per woman, which extrapolated to approximately AU$252 million per annum. Of this total figure, approximately AU$70 million was spent on CM per annum.

Conclusions

Women with diabetes use a diverse range of health services and incur significant out-of-pocket expense to manage their health. The degree to which the health care services women received were coordinated, or addressed their needs and preferences, warrants further exploration. Limitations of this study include the use of self-report and inability to generalise findings to other populations.

The effect of pillbox use and education by pharmacist toward medication adherence in diabetes mellitus patients in a Primary Health Care Center in Mataram

OBJECTIVES

Nonadherence to a long-term therapy, including diabetes mellitus, is one of the global problems that need to be overcome. This study aims to determine the effect of pillbox use and education by pharmacists toward medication adherence in patients with diabetes mellitus in a Primary Health Care Center in Mataram.

METHODS

This research was an experimental research design with pretest-posttest with control group design. The study was conducted from October to December 2019 at Tanjung Karang Primary Health Care Center, Mataram. Measurement of adherence was done using the Adherence to Refill and Medication Scale questionnaire. The higher the score, the more nonadherence the patients. Patients were divided into three groups, which were the control group, educational intervention group, and pillbox and educational intervention group. Each group consisted of 11 patients.

RESULTS

Patients' medication adherence increased from 19.54 (SD 4.37) to 15.18 (SD 2.64) in the education and pillbox intervention group (p=0.004). Whereas, in the education and control group, the adherence did not provide a significant change (p>0.05). Based on the difference in adherence scores, it was known that what contributed to changes in compliance was refilling medicine and intentional nonadherence in taking medicine subscale (p=0.024).

CONCLUSIONS

Providing education and pillbox done by pharmacists at the Primary Health Care Center can increase adherence to the therapy of diabetes mellitus patients. Pharmacists at the Primary Health Care Center can use the intervention model to improve the level of adherence of patients with chronic illness.

Machine Learning Approaches to Predict Risks of Diabetic Complications and Poor Glycemic Control in Nonadherent Type 2 Diabetes

Purpose: The objective of this study was to evaluate the efficacy of machine learning algorithms in predicting risks of complications and poor glycemic control in nonadherent type 2 diabetes (T2D). Materials and Methods: This study was a real-world study of the complications and blood glucose prognosis of nonadherent T2D patients. Data of inpatients in Sichuan Provincial People's Hospital from January 2010 to December 2015 were collected. The T2D patients who had neither been monitored for glycosylated hemoglobin A nor had changed their hyperglycemia treatment regimens within the last 12 months were the object of this study. Seven types of machine learning algorithms were used to develop 18 prediction models. The predictive performance was mainly assessed using the area under the curve of the testing set. Results: Of 800 T2D patients, 165 (20.6%) met the inclusion criteria, of which 129 (78.2%) had poor glycemic control (defined as glycosylated hemoglobin A ≥7%). The highest area under the curves of the testing set for diabetic nephropathy, diabetic peripheral neuropathy, diabetic angiopathy, diabetic eye disease, and glycosylated hemoglobin A were 0.902 ± 0.040, 0.859 ± 0.050, 0.889 ± 0.059, 0.832 ± 0.086, and 0.825 ± 0.092, respectively. Conclusion: Both univariate analysis and machine learning methods reached the same conclusion. The duration of T2D and the duration of unadjusted hypoglycemic treatment were the key risk factors of diabetic complications, and the number of hypoglycemic drugs was the key risk factor of glycemic control of nonadherent T2D. This was the first study to use machine learning algorithms to explore the potential adverse outcomes of nonadherent T2D. The performances of the final prediction models we developed were acceptable; our prediction performances outperformed most other previous studies in most evaluation measures. Those models have potential clinical applicability in improving T2D care.

Treatment persistence in patients with type 2 diabetes treated with glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists in clinical practice in Sweden

AIM

To compare treatment persistence in patients with type 2 diabetes initiating the glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists (GLP-1 RAs) dulaglutide, exenatide once-weekly (QW), liraglutide or lixisenatide in routine clinical practice in Sweden and assess clinical outcomes.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We performed a retrospective study using data from several nationwide Swedish health registries, including the National Diabetes Register and other mandatory and population-based registries. Individual level data were collected from 17 361 patients who initiated GLP-1 RA treatment from 23 May 2015 to 15 October 2017, up to 2.5 years postindex (treatment start date). Treatment persistence and modification, predictors of discontinuation, HbA1c and body weight were recorded. Non-persistence was defined as a treatment gap of more than 45 days. Treatment modification included switching and augmentation. Confounding was addressed through the use of propensity scores.

RESULTS

Treatment persistence was higher and treatment modifications were lower in patients initiating dulaglutide compared with those on exenatide QW, liraglutide and lixisenatide. Patients who remained on the same treatment for 1-year postindex experienced greater HbA1c reductions and a steadier decrease in body weight.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study suggests that in clinical practice in Sweden there is a greater persistence of treatment among patients initiating dulaglutide compared with those on exenatide QW, liraglutide and lixisenatide. Persistence with the index GLP-1 RA was closely correlated with positive clinical outcomes and thus should be considered a critical factor of patient-centric treatment in Sweden.

Adherence and persistence among patients with type 2 diabetes initiating dulaglutide compared with semaglutide and exenatide BCise: 6-month follow-up from US real-world data

AIM

To compare 6-month adherence, persistence and treatment patterns among patients initiating once-weekly glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists (GLP-1RAs), dulaglutide versus semaglutide, and dulaglutide versus exenatide BCise, using claims from the HealthCore Integrated Research Database.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Patients aged ≥18 years, with type 2 diabetes, ≥1 claim for dulaglutide, semaglutide or exenatide BCise during the index period February 2018 to December 2018 (index date = earliest GLP-1RA fill date), no claim for GLP-1RAs in the 6-month pre-index period, and continuous enrolment 6 months pre- and post-index were included. Dulaglutide users were propensity-matched 1:1 to semaglutide users (3852 pairs) or exenatide BCise users (1879 pairs). The proportions of adherent (proportion of days covered ≥80%) patients were compared using chi-squared tests. Persistence, measured as days to discontinuation, was analysed using a Cox regression model.

RESULTS

Matched cohorts (dulaglutide:semaglutide and dulagutide:exenatide BCise) were balanced in baseline characteristics and the mean age was 54 and 55 years, respectively, with approximately 51% and 49% women, respectively. At 6 months, significantly more dulaglutide users were adherent than semaglutide (59.7% vs. 42.7%; P <0.0001) or exenatide BCise users (58.1% vs. 40.3%; P <0.0001). Cox regression showed that dulaglutide users were less likely to discontinue therapy than semaglutide (hazard ratio [HR] 0.71, 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.66, 0.76) or exenatide BCise users (HR 0.59, 95% CI 0.53, 0.65; P <0.0001, both).

CONCLUSION

At 6-month follow-up, a higher proportion of patients initiating dulaglutide were adherent to and persistent with their treatment, compared to matched patients initiating either semaglutide or exenatide BCise.

Real-world adherence, persistence, and in-class switching during use of dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibitors: a systematic review and meta-analysis involving 594,138 patients with type 2 diabetes

AIMS

Medication adherence and persistence are important determinants of treatment success in type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). This systematic review and meta-analysis evaluated the real-world adherence, persistence, and in-class switching among patients with T2DM prescribed dipeptidyl peptidase-4 (DPP4) inhibitors.

METHODS

MEDLINE, EMBASE, Cochrane Library, PsychINFO, and CINAHL were searched for relevant observational studies published in the English language up to 20 December 2019. This was supplemented by manual screening of the references of included papers. Random-effects meta-analysis was performed.

RESULTS

Thirty-four cohort studies involving 594,138 patients with T2DM prescribed DPP4 inhibitors from ten countries were included. The pooled proportion adherent (proportion of days covered (PDC) or medication possession ratio (MPR) ≥ 0.80) was 56.9% (95% confidence interval [CI] 49.3-64.4) at one year and 44.2% (95% CI 36.4-52.1) at two years. The proportion persistent with treatment decreased from 75.6% (95% CI 71.5-79.5) at six months to 52.8% (95% CI 51.6-59.8) at two years. No significant differences in adherence and persistence were observed between individual DPP4 inhibitors. At one year, just 3.2% (95% CI 3.1-3.3) of patients switched from one DPP4 inhibitor to another. Switching from saxagliptin and alogliptin to others was commonest.

CONCLUSIONS

Adherence to and persistence with DPP4 inhibitors is suboptimal but similar across all medications within the class. While in-class switching is uncommon, saxagliptin and alogliptin are the DPP4 inhibitors most commonly switched. Interventions to improve treatment adherence and persistence among patients with T2DM prescribed DPP4 inhibitors may be warranted.

Evaluating the relationship between quality measure adherence definitions and economic outcomes in commercial health plans: a retrospective diabetes cohort study

BACKGROUND: Diabetes is a prevalent chronic condition in the United States that results in considerable morbidity and mortality, frequent use of the health care system, and high health care expenditures. Adherence to antidiabetic medications can help improve health outcomes and lower health care utilization and expenditures. The Pharmacy Quality Alliance (PQA) Proportion of Days Covered (PDC): Diabetes All Class medication adherence measure was developed and endorsed to improve adherence to noninsulin antidiabetic medications; however, it has not been assessed in a commercial population of diabetes patients over a 1-year time frame. OBJECTIVE: To determine the association between adherence, as defined in the PQA medication adherence measures, and health care utilization and expenditure among commercially insured individuals using antidiabetic medications. METHODS: This 1-year retrospective study evaluated a cohort of individuals from IBM MarketScan Research Databases (2009-2015) with noninsulin antidiabetic medications. Eligible study subjects included adults (aged ≥ 18 years at index date) with continuous enrollment in their health plans for 6 months before (i.e., baseline period) and 12 months after (i.e., study period) the index date and ≥ 2 prescriptions dispensed for any medication included in the PQA PDC Diabetes All Class medication adherence measure, with at least 150 days between the first and last fill during the study period. The index date was defined as the first fill for a medication included in the PQA PDC Diabetes All Class adherence measure after a 180-day baseline period. Generalized linear models with log link and gamma distribution (expenditure) or negative binomial distribution (utilization) assessed relationships between adherence (≥ 80% PDC) and health care utilization and expenditure while adjusting for potential confounders. Cost ratios (CR) and rate ratios (RR) were computed using beta coefficients. Cohort characteristics were compared using t-tests, Wilcoxon rank sum tests, or chi-square tests with an alpha level of 0.001 set a priori. RESULTS: A total of 1,576,112 individuals were eligible; of these, 1,028,176 (65.2%) were adherent. Significant differences in demographic characteristics were observed between adherent and nonadherent groups (P < 0.001). Multivariable analyses demonstrated that adherence was associated with the following: (a) 16.6% fewer inpatient (RR = 0.834, 95% CI = 0.819-0.850) and 3.6% more outpatient service visits (RR = 1.036, 95% CI = 1.032-1.039) and (b) 16.8% lower inpatient expenditures (CR = 0.833, 95% CI = 0.829-0.836); 2.6% lower outpatient expenditures (CR = 0.974, 95% CI = 0.970-0.978); 16.4% higher prescription drug expenditures (CR = 1.164, 95% CI = 1.159-1.169); and 4.2% lower total (CR = 0.958, 95% CI = 0.954-0.962) expenditures. Adherent subjects were associated with lower incremental per member per month expenditures for inpatient (-$31.74), outpatient (-$10.09), and total (-$30.82) expenditures, yet higher prescription drug expenditures ($25.60) compared with nonadherent subjects. CONCLUSIONS: Adherence to noninsulin antidiabetic medications was associated with more outpatient and fewer inpatient visits, as well as lower total expenditures compared with nonadherence. DISCLOSURES: Funding was provided by grants from Pharmacy Quality Alliance, Merck & Co. (Kenilworth, NJ), and SinfoniaRx. In addition, Chinthammit reports personal fees from Eli Lilly and Company, outside the submitted work. Axon reports grants from the American Association of Colleges of Pharmacy and the Arizona Department of Health Services, outside the submitted work. Taylor reports grants from the Arizona Department of Health Services, outside the submitted work. Warholak reports grants from Novartis and the Arizona Department of Health Services, outside the submitted work. Chinthammit and Campbell disclose that this work was completed during their employment at the University of Arizona. This research was presented as a poster at the AMCP Annual Meeting 2019; March 25-28, 2019; San Diego, CA.

Validation of the Lebanese Medication Adherence Scale among Lebanese diabetic patients

Background Adherence to oral antidiabetics plays a pivotal role in controlling diabetes. Healthcare workers evaluate this adherence when visited by patients. Objectives The primary objective of this study was to validate the existing LMAS-14 (Lebanese Medication Adherence Scale) in Lebanese diabetic adults. The secondary objective was to evaluate factors affecting adherence among this population. Setting The main five Lebanese governorates. Methods This study was conducted between May and September 2019, and community dwelling adult participants were enrolled using a proportionate random sample. The scale was validated using factor analysis and reliability testing, while bivariate and multivariable analyses assessed correlates of adherence. Main outcomes measures Validity of LMAS-14. Results A total of 308 participants were included, and the response rate was 91.25%. All LMAS-14 items converged over a solution of four factors, explaining a total of 64.39% of the variance (α = 0.859). The cutoff point between controlled and uncontrolled patients was set at 11. The sensitivity and specificity were good at this cutoff (71.1% and 94.74%, respectively). Results showed that 167 (57.2%) patients had good medication adherence. Advanced age (Beta = 0.046; p = 0.001) and having medical coverage (Beta = 1.452; p = 0.005) were significantly associated with higher adherence. Furthermore, adherence to oral antidiabetic drugs (Beta = 1.197; p = 0.018), female gender (Beta = 2.695; p = 0.011), and taking dyslipidemia medication (Beta = 3.527; p = 0.005) predicted higher diabetes control. Conclusion This study validated the LMAS among Lebanese adult diabetic patients taking oral antidiabetic drug. Advanced age and having medical coverage were associated with higher medication adherence. Further national studies are warranted to corroborate our findings.

The Impact of Prescription Medication Cost Coverage on Oral Medication Use for Hypertension and Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus

BACKGROUND

No previous study, to the best of our knowledge, has examined both the time trend and impact of not having insurance or prescription medication cost coverage (PMCC) on the usage of type 2 diabetes and hypertension oral medications in Ontario and New Brunswick, Canada.

METHODS

We used data from the Canadian Community Health Survey (CCHS) from 2007 to 2014 to examine the time trend and impact of PMCC. A multivariable-adjusted logistic regression model was fitted.

RESULTS

The pseudo-cohort included 23,215 individuals representing a population of approximately 8.7 million people. Overall, 20.0% of respondents reported absence of PMCC. This proportion increased slightly from 19.6% (95% confidence interval [CI] 95% CI [17.5, 22.5]) to 20.7% (95% CI [16.9, 23.1]). Adjusted odds ratios (OR) showed that uninsured individuals were 23% less likely to use their medications (OR = 0.77, 95% CI [0.657, 0.911]).

CONCLUSION

There was a slight decline in PMCC over time and this decline was associated with reduced use of medications for type 2 diabetes and hypertension.

An assessment of physician reasons for prescribing Insulin Lispro 200 units/ml in Germany

OBJECTIVE

To understand physicians' reasons for prescribing Insulin Lispro 200 units/ml (IL200) and their experience with IL200 treatment in Germany.

METHODS

The survey consisted of 28 questions on physician's profile, average IL200 patients' characteristics and rationales for prescribing IL200. Questions were rated on a scale of 0 ('not at all important'/'strongly disagree') to 4 ('absolutely important'/'strongly agree').

RESULTS

The surveyed physicians had a mean (SD) experience of 18.1 (7.0) years managing diabetes, consulted an average of 226.8 patients with diabetes/month and prescribed IL200 to 56.1% of their patients on mealtime insulin (MTI). About 80.0% of IL200 patients had type 2 diabetes mellitus, were overweight/obese, and received >20 units/day of MTI. More than 70.0% of physicians rated patient's insulin dose, pattern of self-measured glucose levels, hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) (clinical); adherence, hypoglycemia knowledge, motivation to improve lifestyle, desire to reduce injection volume and emotional struggle with controlling HbA1c (behavioral) as 'very important'/'absolutely important' factors when prescribing IL200.

CONCLUSION

Physicians considered IL200 a promising treatment option that reduces the injection burden for patients on MTI. Physicians adopted a patient-centered perspective by aligning IL200 prescribing decisions with each patient's medical needs and non-clinical preferences, with an aim to encourage treatment adherence through resorting to IL200's advantageous attributes.

Association of Medication Adherence with Hospital Utilization and Costs Among Elderly with Diabetes Enrolled in a State Pharmaceutical Assistance Program

BACKGROUND

Medication adherence is crucial for the successful treatment among elderly patients with diabetes taking oral antidiabetic medications (OAMs). Cost of medications, lack of insurance coverage, and low income are major contributing factors towards medication nonadherence. State pharmaceutical assistance programs (SPAPs) provide medications at little or no cost to income-eligible patients and have potential to improve medication adherence among elderly patients. Despite this, limited research has focused on the association of medication adherence with health care utilization among elderly patients enrolled in SPAPs, and inclusion of health care costs as an outcome is even rarer.

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the relationship between adherence to OAMs and hospital utilization and costs among elderly patients with diabetes who were enrolled in a SPAP.

METHODS

This retrospective observational study included elderly patients with diabetes enrolled in Pennsylvania's Pharmaceutical Assistance Contract for the Elderly (PACE) program in 2015. Medication adherence was estimated as the proportion of days covered (PDC; adherent: PDC≥80%, nonadherent: PDC < 80%). Hospital utilization and costs were estimated using hospital discharge records from the Pennsylvania Health Care Cost Containment Council. Multiple adjusted regression analyses were used to examine the association of medication adherence with hospital utilization (all-cause and diabetes-related number of inpatient hospital visits and length of stay [LOS]) and costs.

RESULTS

Among 9,497 elderly PACE enrollees with diabetes, 81% were adherent, and 21% were hospitalized. Compared with adherent patients, patients who were nonadherent to OAMs had twice the odds of all-cause and diabetes-related hospitalization. Controlling for covariates, nonadherent patients had 27% more all-cause (95% CI = 9%-36%) and 21% more diabetes-related (95% CI = 5%-40%) hospital visits than adherent patients. Covariate-adjusted LOS for nonadherent patients was 24% longer than that of adherent patients for all-cause hospitalization (95% CI = 1.171-1.311) and 12.7% longer for diabetes-related hospitalization (95% CI = 1.036-1.227). Medication nonadherence was associated with significantly greater all-cause ($22,670 vs. $16,383; P < 0.0001) and diabetes-related ($13,518 vs. $12,634; P = 0.0003) hospitalization costs.

CONCLUSIONS

Among SPAP-enrolled elderly patients, nonadherence to OAMs was significantly associated with increased risk of hospitalization, longer hospital stays, and greater hospitalization costs. Attention is needed to improve medication adherence among elderly receiving financial assistance to pay their prescriptions to reduce economic burden on the health care system.

DISCLOSURES

No outside funding supported this study. The authors have nothing to disclose.

The Association Between Adherence to Insulin Therapy and Health Care Costs for Adults with Type 2 Diabetes: Evidence from a U.S. Retrospective Claims Database

BACKGROUND

Research has shown that many patients with type 2 diabetes (T2D) are not adherent to their medication regimen.

OBJECTIVE

To examine the association between adherence to insulin therapy and all-cause health care costs for patients with T2D.

METHODS

This study used the IQVIA PharMetrics Plus Linkable to Ambulatory Electronic Medical Record data from January 1, 2012, through September 30, 2017. Patients were included if they were identified with T2D and initiated therapy on basal insulin (BAS) or basal-bolus (BAS-BOL) combination at any time from January 1, 2013, through October 1, 2016. Patients aged < 18 years, who used an insulin pump, identified as pregnant, or did not have continuous insurance coverage from 1 year before initiation on insulin therapy through 1 year after initiation were excluded. Descriptive statistics compared patient characteristics and costs (in U.S. 2017 dollars) between patients who were adherent or nonadherent to their insulin therapy in the 1-year postperiod, where adherence was defined as having proportion of days covered (PDC) of at least 80%. In addition, generalized linear models were used to compare costs between adherent and nonadherent patients, while controlling for patient characteristics, previous general health and comorbidities, resource utilization, medication use and type of insulin.

RESULTS

13,296 patients were included in the BAS cohort (5,502 adherent; 7,794 nonadherent) and 10,069 in the BAS-BOL cohort (2,006 adherent; 8,063 nonadherent). Adherent patients had significantly lower all-cause total unadjusted costs following initiation on BAS ($29,322 vs. $31,888, P = 0.0134) and BAS-BOL combination ($36,229 vs. $40,147, P = 0.0078). Drug costs comprised 39.5%-45.4% of costs among adherent patients and 23.0%-25.9% of costs among nonadherent patients. Multivariable analyses revealed that adherent patients had significantly lower adjusted all-cause total costs than nonadherent patients in the BAS cohort ($30,127 vs. $37,049, 95% CI for difference -$8,460 to -$5,384) and the BAS-BOL cohort ($36,603 vs. $44,702, 95% CI for difference -$9,129 to -$6,980).

CONCLUSIONS

In patients with T2D who initiated BAS or BAS-BOL combination therapy, adherence was associated with significantly lower all-cause total health care costs, despite significantly higher drug costs. These results illustrate the potential economic benefits associated with adherence to insulin therapy. DISCLOSURES": Eli Lilly and Company funded this study and was responsible for study design and execution. Bajpai, Eby, Faries, and Haynes are employees and own stock in Eli Lilly and Company. Lage received compensation from Eli Lilly and Company for her work on this research project.

Patient factors associated with diabetes medication adherence at different health literacy levels: a cross-sectional study at a family medicine clinic

BACKGROUND

Type 2 diabetes (T2D) incurs tremendous health costs associated with various complications due to poor diabetes control. Medication adherence, which is correlated with patients' health literacy, should be consistently practiced achieving optimal diabetes control. A deeper understanding of the specific communication and psychosocial factors related to medication-taking behaviors across different levels of health literacy among people with T2D will guide the development of effective interventions and strategies to enhance medication adherence.

OBJECTIVES

This cross-sectional study aimed to identify salient patient factors associated with diabetes medication adherence across different levels of health literacy.

METHODS

A questionnaire was administered via a face-to-face approach with 205 participants at a family medicine clinic. Study participants were all above 20 years of age with T2D, were prescribed at least one oral diabetes medication, and understood English. The questionnaire assessed participants' health literacy, self-efficacy for medication use, beliefs in medicines, patient-provider communication, perceived barriers to medication adherence, and self-reported medication adherence. Separate analysis of covariance was used to compare the mean scores of patient factors related to medication adherence across people with different health literacy levels.

RESULTS

The mean age of participants was 61 years old, and the majority of the participants were female (57%), White (75%), and college educated (62%). Thirty-three percent of the participants had adequate health literacy, but only 43% of them reported high adherence to their diabetes medications. Analysis of covariance showed that having stronger self-efficacy (P < 0.001), lower concern beliefs about medication (P = 0.047), and fewer perceived barriers to medication-taking (P < 0.001), are necessary for better medication adherence.

CONCLUSION

Findings suggest that practitioners should address concern beliefs among low-adherent patients with low health literacy, help improve self-efficacy, and address perceived barriers to medication adherence among all low-adherent patients to optimally support patients' diabetes care.

Adherence to oral anticoagulants among patients with atrial fibrillation: a systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies

INTRODUCTION

Medications cannot exert their effect if not taken as prescribed by patients. Our objective was to summarise the observational evidence on adherence to oral anticoagulants (OACs) among patients with atrial fibrillation (AF).

METHODS

In March 2019, we systematically searched PubMed/Medline, Embase, CINAHL and PsycINFO (from inception) for observational studies measuring adherence, its determinants and impacts in patients with AF. Mean adherence measures and corresponding proportions of adherent patients were pooled using random effects models. Factors shown to be independently associated with adherence were extracted as well as the clinical and economic outcomes of adherence.

RESULTS

We included 30 studies. Pooled mean adherence scores of over half a million patients with AF 6 months and 1 year after therapy initiation were 77 (95% CI: 74-79) and 74 (68-79) out of 100, respectively. Drug-specific pooled mean adherence score at 6 months and 1 year were as follows: rivaroxaban: 78 (73-84) and 77 (69-86); apixaban: 77 (75-79) and 82 (74-89); dabigatran: 74 (69-79) and 75 (68-82), respectively. There was inadequate information on warfarin for inclusion in meta-analysis.Factors associated with increased adherence included: older age, higher stroke risk, once-daily regimen, history of hypertension, diabetes or stroke, concomitant cardiovascular medications, living in rural areas and being an experienced OAC user. Non-adherent patients were more likely to experience stroke and death, and incurred higher medical costs compared with patients with poor adherence.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings show that up to 30% of patients with AF are non-adherent, suggesting an important therapeutic challenge in this patient population.

Comparison of persistence and adherence between DPP-4 inhibitor administration frequencies in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus in Japan: a claims-based cohort study

Objective: To explore persistence and adherence with once-daily, twice-daily, or once-weekly DPP-4 inhibitors (DPP-4i) in Japanese patients with type 2 diabetes.Methods: This retrospective, longitudinal, observational cohort study used data from the Japanese nationwide hospital-based Medical Data Vision (MDV) administrative claims database. Data were collected for patients given a new DPP-4i prescription between May 2015 and June 2017 with 1-year follow-up until May 2018. Treatment persistence was defined as the total duration of continuous prescription. Adherence to treatment was measured as the proportion of days covered (PDC).Results: A total of 598,419 patients with a prescription for DPP-4i treatment were identified in the MDV database. Of the 39,826 patients who met the inclusion criteria, 82.4% were receiving once-daily DPP-4i, 15.6% twice-daily DPP-4i, and 2.0% once-weekly DPP-4i. Twelve-month persistence rates with once-daily regimens were 66.3% versus 64.7% with twice-daily (p = .1187), and versus 38.8% with once-weekly, regimens (p < .0001) in the overall population (including untreated [UT] and previously treated [PT] patients); 62.8% with once-daily versus 58.3% with twice-daily (p = .0309), and versus 12.3% with once-weekly regimens (p < .0001) in the UT cohort; and 68.6% with once-daily versus 67.9% with twice-daily (p = .5471), and versus 49.1% with once-weekly regimens (p < .0001) in the PT cohort. In the overall population, 97.8% of patients had a mean PDC of 0.97 with once- and twice-daily, and 65.8% of patients had a mean PDC of 0.74 with once-weekly, DPP-4i regimens.Conclusions: Overall, persistence at 12 months was highest in patients receiving once-daily DPP-4i regimens.

Burden and Consequences of Financial Hardship From Medical Bills Among Nonelderly Adults With Diabetes Mellitus in the United States

Background:

The trend of increasing total and out-of-pocket expenditure among patients with diabetes mellitus represents a risk of financial hardship for Americans and a threat to medical and nonmedical needs. We aimed to describe the national scope and associated tradeoffs of financial hardship from medical bills among nonelderly individuals with diabetes mellitus.

Methods and Results:

We used the National Health Interview Survey data from 2013 to 2017, including adults ≤64 years old with a self-reported diagnosis of diabetes mellitus. Among 164 696 surveyed individuals, 8967 adults ≤64 years old reported having diabetes mellitus, representing 13.1 million individuals annually across the United States. The mean age was 51.6 years (SD 10.3), and 49.1% were female. A total of 41.1% were part of families that reported having financial hardship from medical bills, with 15.6% reporting an inability to pay medical bills at all. In multivariate analyses, individuals who lacked insurance, were non-Hispanic black, had low income, or had high-comorbidity burden were at higher odds of being in families with financial hardship from medical bills. When comparing the graded categories of financial hardship, there was a stepwise increase in the prevalence of high financial distress, food insecurity, cost-related nonadherence, and foregone/delayed medical care, reaching 70.5%, 49.4%, 49.5%, and 74% among those unable to pay bills, respectively. Compared with those without diabetes mellitus, individuals with diabetes mellitus had higher odds of financial hardship from medical bills (adjusted odds ratio [aOR], 1.27 [95% CI, 1.18–1.36]) or any of its consequences, including high financial distress (aOR, 1.14 [95% CI, 1.05–1.24]), food insecurity (aOR, 1.27 [95% CI, 1.16–1.40]), cost-related medication nonadherence (aOR, 1.43 [95% CI, 1.30–1.57]), and foregone/delayed medical care (aOR, 1.30 [95% CI, 1.20–1.40]).

Conclusions:

Nonelderly patients with diabetes mellitus have a high prevalence of financial hardship from medical bills, with deleterious consequences.

Real-World Adherence and Discontinuation of Glucagon-Like Peptide-1 Receptor Agonists Therapy in Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus Patients in the United States

AIM

To assess adherence and discontinuation of injectable glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists (GLP-1 RA) at 12 and 24 months among adult type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) patients in the United States initiating GLP-1 RA using the administrative claims-based database, Optum Clinformatics^® Data Mart 7.1.

METHODS

A retrospective study was conducted from 01/2009 to 12/2017. Patients were required to be continuously enrolled for 12 months prior to their first GLP-1 RA prescription. Proportion of days covered (PDC) from prescription claims ≥0.80 defined adherence. Discontinuation was defined as a ≥90-day gap from the last date of GLP-1 RA supply to the first date of subsequent prescription claim.

RESULTS

A total of 4791 T2DM patients had ≥1 and 3907 had ≥2 GLP-1 RA prescription claims. 50.9% and 47.4% of patients were adherent at 12 and 24 months, respectively. Adherence was significantly higher among patients on weekly vs daily doses (p<0.001). Median time to discontinuation was 13 months. The discontinuation rate was 47.7% and 70.1% at 12 and 24 months, respectively, with differences at 24 months for age and dosing frequency (p<0.001 for both).

CONCLUSION

Over half of T2DM patients initiating GLP-1 RA were non-adherent and the majority (70.1%) discontinued therapy by 24 months. Reasons for non-adherence and discontinuation merit further research.

Evaluating Glycemic Control in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes Suboptimally Controlled on Basal Insulin: UK ATTAIN Real-World Study

INTRODUCTION

This retrospective, observational cohort study evaluated the effect of therapy intensification on change in glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c) at 6 and 12 months post intensification in patients with type 2 diabetes (T2D) suboptimally controlled on basal insulin (BI) (i.e., HbA1c ≥ 7.5% [≥ 58 mmol/mol]).

METHODS

Patients with T2D with suboptimal glycemic control using BI were identified from The Health Improvement Network (THIN) database. Patients who underwent therapy intensification (intensifiers) within 12 months of index 1 (the date of the first incidence of suboptimally controlled HbA1c) were matched (1:1) to patients who did not intensify therapy (non-intensifiers). Index 2 was the date of therapy intensification for intensifiers, or a pseudo date for non-intensifiers that resulted in the same duration from index 1 to index 2 as their matched intensifier patient. Primary outcomes were HbA1c change and proportion of patients achieving the HbA1c target at 6 and 12 months post index 2.

RESULTS

A total of 1342 patients (n = 646 intensifiers; n = 696 non-intensifiers) were included in the analysis. At post index 2, mean HbA1c change was substantially greater at 6 months for intensifiers than for non-intensifiers (- 0.81% vs. - 0.35%), with no additional benefit at 12 months (- 0.81% vs. - 0.49%, respectively). Compared with non-intensifiers, a greater proportion of intensifiers achieved target HbA1c at 6 months (25.1% vs. 18.8%) and at 12 months (33.4% vs. 28.2%).

CONCLUSIONS

Many real-world patients with T2D suboptimally controlled with BI do not have their therapy intensified. The results of this study suggest that in this patient population, therapy intensification achieves significant reductions in HbA1c at 6 months post intensification, with little additional clinical benefit at 12 months. This suggests that, for patients who fail to achieve their glycemic targets at 6 months, since no meaningful additional clinical benefit is observed at 12 months when continuing the same therapy, further therapy intensification or change should be promptly considered.

FUNDING

This study and the Rapid Service Fees were funded by Sanofi.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

17THIN068.

Persistence with Basal-Bolus Insulin Therapy in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus and Effect on Clinical and Economic Outcomes: A Retrospective Claims Database Study

BACKGROUND

Persistence with multiple daily insulin injections (MDI) may be challenging for patients with type 2 diabetes (T2DM). However, limited information is available regarding the effect of persistence with MDI on outcomes.

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate persistence with basal and bolus insulin therapy and assess its relationship with clinical and economic outcomes in a real-world setting.

METHODS

This retrospective matched cohort study used 2012-2015 data from multiple U.S. commercial health plans (IBM MarketScan). Patients with T2DM aged 18-64 years with ≥ 2 basal and ≥ 2 bolus insulin claims during a 12-month period were eligible for inclusion if they had 18 months of continuous health plan enrollment (6-month baseline and 12-month post-index). Persistence during 12 months post-index was defined using 2 methods: (a) method 1, ≤ 90-day gaps in both basal and bolus insulin claims and (b) method 2, ≥ 1 basal and ≥ 1 bolus insulin claim every quarter (every 90 days) for 4 consecutive quarters after index bolus claim. Propensity score matching was used to match persistent and nonpersistent method 2 cohorts. Mean per-patient all-cause and diabetes-related medical costs (2015 U.S. dollars, excluding outpatient drugs) and health care resource use (HCRU) were calculated. For patients with hemoglobin A1c (A1c) values during baseline and post-index months 10-12, treatment success was defined as (a) A1c decrease from baseline of ≥ 1% and/or (b) baseline A1c ≥ 7% with post-index A1c < 7%. Baseline characteristics of matched cohorts were compared using standardized mean differences (SMDs). Outcome variables were compared using t-tests, chi-square tests, and generalized linear models.

RESULTS

Characteristics of 12,882 eligible patients and 12-month persistence rates were similar as defined by method 1 (22.4%) and method 2 (21.1%). After matching, the method 2 cohorts included 2,723 and 8,169 persistent and nonpersistent patients, respectively, with well-balanced baseline characteristics (mean age 53 years; 58% men; all SMDs < 0.1). All-cause annual medical costs were lower for the persistent cohort (mean $13,499 vs. $17,362; P < 0.0001), as were annual diabetes-related costs (mean $6,392 vs. $8,376; P < 0.0001). In persistent versus nonpersistent cohorts, 11% versus 15% of patients, respectively, experienced ≥ 1 hospitalization; 21% versus 24%, respectively, had ≥ 1 ED visit; 9% versus 12%, respectively, experienced ≥ 1 diabetes-related hospitalization; and 13% versus 15%, respectively, had ≥ 1 diabetes-related ED visit (P ≤ 0.005 for all). Mean baseline A1c was similar in persistent and nonpersistent cohorts (9.7% vs. 9.6%, respectively; P = 0.63). Persistence with MDI was associated with greater mean reduction in A1c (-1.3% vs. -0.8%, respectively; P = 0.006) and greater percentages of patients achieving treatment success (55% vs. 39%, respectively, for nonpersistent; P = 0.009).

CONCLUSIONS

Poor persistence with basal-bolus insulin therapy over 12 months of follow-up was prevalent and was associated with greater medical costs, greater HCRU, and poorer glycemic control than for patients who were persistent. Interventions are needed to improve persistence with insulin therapy and aid patients with T2DM to achieve glycemic control.

DISCLOSURES

Funding for this study was provided by Becton, Dickinson and Company (BD). All authors except Edelman are employees and stockholders of BD. Edelman reports board membership at Senseonics and participation in advisory board/speakers bureau at Lilly USA, MannKind, Novo Nordisk, Sanofi-Aventis U.S., Merck, and AstraZeneca, all unrelated to this study. A poster for this study was presented at the AMCP Managed Care & Specialty Pharmacy Annual Meeting 2018; April 23-26, 2018; Boston MA.

Oral antidiabetic medication adherence and glycaemic control among patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus: a cross-sectional retrospective study in a tertiary hospital in Saudi Arabia

OBJECTIVES

The purpose of this study is to measure the adherence rates of oral antidiabetic drugs (OADs) in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) and assess the relationship of glycaemic control and adherence to OADs after controlling for other associated factors.

DESIGN

Cross-sectional retrospective study.

SETTING

Large tertiary hospital in the central region of Saudi Arabia.

PARTICIPANTS

5457patients aged 18 years and older diagnosed with T2DM during the period from 1 January 2016 to 31 December 2016.

PRIMARY AND SECONDARY OUTCOME MEASURES

The modified medication possession ratio (mMPR) was calculated as a proxy measure for adherence of OADs. The factors associated with OADs non-adherence and medication oversupply were assessed using multinomial logistic regression models. The secondary outcomes were to measure the association between OADs adherence and glycaemic control.

RESULTS

Majority of patients with T2DM were females (n=3400, 62.3%). The average glycated haemoglobin was 8.2±1.67. Among the study population, 48.6% had good adherence (mMPR >0.8) and 8.6% had a medication oversupply (mMPR >1.2). Good adherence was highest among those using repaglinide (71.0%) followed by pioglitazone (65.0%) and sitagliptin (59.0%). In the multivariate analysis, women with T2DM were more likely to have poor adherence (adjusted OR (AOR)=0.76, 95% CI=0.67, 0.86) compared with men. Also, medication oversupply was more likely among patients with hyperpolypharmacy (AOR=1.88, 95% CI=1.36, 2.63), comorbid osteoarthritis (AOR=1.72, 95% CI=1.20, 02.45) and non-Saudi patients (AOR=1.53, 95% CI=1.16, 2.01). However, no association was found between glycaemic control and adherence to OADs.

CONCLUSION

The study findings support the growing concern of non-adherence to OADs among patients with T2DM in Saudi Arabia. Decision makers have to invest in behavioural interventions that will boost medication adherence rates. This is particularly important in patients with polypharmacy and high burden of comorbid conditions.

Beliefs about medicines as mediators in medication adherence in type 2 diabetes

AIMS

This study analysed whether beliefs about medicines mediated the relationship between illness representations and medication adherence.

BACKGROUND

Adherence to medication is required in diabetes treatment, contributing to decreased blood glycaemic levels. The knowledge and perception of patients about diabetes as well as the beliefs about medicines are considered to be key factors for medication adherence.

DESIGN

The study used a cross-sectional design that included 387 patients recently diagnosed with type 2 diabetes.

METHODS

Participants were assessed, between 2010 and 2013, and answered the Medication Adherence Scale, the Beliefs about Medicines Questionnaire, and the Brief Illness Perception Questionnaire.

RESULTS

The results of the path analysis showed that beliefs about medicines had a mediating role on self-report medication adherence with the exception of beliefs about specific concerns with medicines. Therefore, both general beliefs and specific needs about medicines mediated the relationship between diabetes consequences and self-report medication adherence as well as between treatment control and self-report medication adherence. Needs about medicines mediated the relationship between personal control and self-report medication adherence.

CONCLUSION

Health professionals should target beliefs about medicines besides illness representations regarding medication adherence. The current study may help optimize adherence to medication in early-diagnosed type 2 diabetes patients.

GLP-1 RA Treatment and Dosing Patterns Among Type 2 Diabetes Patients in Six Countries: A Retrospective Analysis of Pharmacy Claims Data

INTRODUCTION

The glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonist (GLP-1 RA) class is evolving and expanding. This retrospective database study evaluated recent real-world treatment and dosing patterns of patients with type 2 diabetes (T2D) initiating GLP-1 RAs in Belgium (BE), France (FR), Germany (DE), Italy (IT), the Netherlands (NL), and Canada (CA).

METHODS

Adult T2D patients initiating GLP-1 RA therapy (dulaglutide [DULA], exenatide twice daily [exBID], exenatide once weekly [exQW], liraglutide [LIRA], or lixisenatide [LIXI]) from 2015 to 2016 were identified using the IQVIA (IQVIA, Durham, NC, and Danbury, CT, USA) Real-World Data Adjudicated Pharmacy Claims. The therapy initiation date was termed the 'index date.' Eligible patients had ≥ 180 days pre-index and ≥ 360 days post-index. Persistence (until discontinuation or switch) was evaluated over the variable follow-up using Kaplan-Meier (KM) survival analysis. Average daily dose (ADD) was calculated until discontinuation or switch.

RESULTS

A total of 34,649 DULA, 3616 exBID, 11,138 exQW, 48,317 LIRA, and 2,204 LIXI patients were included in the analysis (34.9-63.2% female; median age range 53-62 years; median follow-up 16-30 months). Proportion persistent at 1-year post-index was 36.8-67.2% for DULA, 5.9-44.4% for exBID, 24.7-44.2% for exQW, 22.2-57.5% for LIRA, and 15.5-40.0% for LIXI. Median time persistent (days) was 245-381 for DULA, 62-243 for exBID, 121-319 for exQW, 103-507 for LIRA, and 99-203 for LIXI. Mean ADD was 13.21-20.43 µg for exBID, 1.44-1.68 mg for LIRA, and 19.88-20.54 µg for LIXI. Mean average weekly dose (AWD) ranged from 2.03 to 2.14 mg for exQW. Mean AWD for DULA was 1.25 mg in Canada and ranged from 1.43 to 1.53 mg in the other countries.

CONCLUSION

Across six countries, persistence was highest among DULA patients and generally lowest among exBID patients. ADD/AWD for all GLP-1 RAs was in line with the recommended label. Longer-term data would be useful to obtain a better understanding of GLP-1 RA treatment patterns over time.

FUNDING

Eli Lilly and Company, Indianapolis, IN, USA.