Absence of Monotony and Strain Effects on Referees' Physical Performance During International Basketball Federation World Cup Basketball Competition

PURPOSE

The study aimed to conduct a comparative analysis of physical performance indicators and assess the levels of performance monotony and strain experienced by basketball referees.

METHODS

The study involved the participation of 12 basketball referees (mean age: 40.0 [4.9] y) affiliated with the International Basketball Federation. The investigation was carried out throughout 2 density tournaments, wherein the maximum heart rate, average heart rate, performance monotony, and performance strain were documented for 3 variables.

RESULTS

The findings indicated significant variations in the mean heart rate, maximum heart rate, total distance monotony, total distance strain, the total number of sprints monotony, the total number of sprints strain, calories monotony, and calories strain (P < .05). Decreasing the density of elite-level basketball competitions has been observed to reduce the monotony and strain experienced by referees. However, this action does not increase motion distance or speed zones.

CONCLUSIONS

The environmental stressors experienced by senior-level athletes (World Cup) differ from those encountered by younger athletes (World Cup Under 19). Further investigation is required to ascertain the potential effects of competition monotony and strain on decision-making processes and the overall quality of refereeing.

Physical and Physiological Demands of Amateur Portuguese Field and Assistant Football Referees

Referees are crucial elements in football, and they must meet the physical and physiological demands each match poses to them. The aim is to analyse the physical and physiological demands of amateur referees in games at the regional level (4th division), examining the differences between the first and second halves and between assistant (age: 25.10 ± 4.97) and main referees (age: 25.65 ± 5.12). A total of 29 matches were analysed with GPS devices, and internal and external load metrics were analysed. Overall, main referees, due to their central role in game management, showed higher levels of physical and physiological load than assistant referees, with more high-intensity activities, greater distance covered and higher heart rate. The results also revealed that there were no differences between the halves for total distance covered for either the main or assistant referees. However, the main referees covered a greater distance in high-intensity running during the first half (p = 0.05; d = 0.389). These findings emphasise the importance of tailored training protocols to enhance performance and reduce fatigue-related errors, highlighting the significance of endurance, high-intensity running ability, and strategies to manage transient fatigue in referee preparation.

Referee Abuse, Intention to Quit, and Well-Being

There are growing levels of abuse toward match officials in sport as well as general problems of their recruitment and retention. Purpose: This study analyzes the role that physical and nonphysical abuse has on association football referees' intentions to quit and their personal well-being. Methods: Drawing on pooled survey data of association football referees from the UK and Canada, this paper employs probit, ordinary least squares, and treatment effects regression analyses to explore the casual relationship between the physical and nonphysical abuse faced by referees, their intention to quit and their well-being. Results: Although physical abuse is less common than nonphysical abuse both affect the intention to quit and well-being of officials. Moreover, those that do not contemplate quitting also face reductions in their well-being. Conclusion: The research recommends a zero-tolerance approach to all forms of abuse of officials in sport and identifies that organizations have a duty of care for the well-being of their officials.

Assessing the Match Physical Responses of International Referees for Footballers with Cerebral Palsy: A Tournaments and Halves Comparative Analysis

Similar to conventional football, the modality dedicated to footballers with cerebral palsy (CP) requires referees who cope with the physical demands imposed during competitive matches to apply the rules of the game. While a significant body of research has explored the physical demands on referees in mainstream football, there is a noticeable lack of data regarding CP football. This study aimed to examine the physical response of international referees participating in different levels of world competitions for footballers with CP. Thirteen international referees, who officiated 49 matches in the men's 2022 World Cup (1st to 15th ranked teams) and 2022 World Championships (16th to 30th ranked teams), participated in this study. A cross-sectional design was used to determine the physical responses and compare the 1st and 2nd halves and the performance in the different tournaments, recording physical variables throughout the matches. Significant higher physical responses were observed in the World Cup in comparison to the World Championship. Overall, high-level tournaments have been shown to elicit more intense physical responses from referees officiating CP football matches compared to lower-level tournaments. For the World Cup, a significantly higher number of accelerations and decelerations were registered in the 1st half compared to the 2nd half. This information may be useful for the strength and conditioning coaches of referees to plan weekly training sessions more specifically and adjust the periodical training load and post-match recovery protocols.

Enhancing match official performance: a forward-thinking approach for football evolution

The future of football demands more from players and referees due to heightened match intensity and frequency. To optimize performance and health, collaboration among sport scientists, coaches, and medical staff is crucial. However, match officials often lack the same support as elite players, hindering their development. Granting professional status to referees, implementing evidence-based training, and adopting gender-inclusive methods are vital. Coping with future challenges requires better career support and economic conditions for officials, along with research to enhance their performance and health.

Determining the definition and components of successful soccer referee performance

There has been little work examining the intricacies of what makes a soccer referee successful. The aim of this study was to determine what the definition of a successful referee performance is and what are the characteristics of a successful referee from a broad range of stakeholders in Major League Soccer (MLS) and the Professional Referees Organisation (PRO). The study used Delphi methodology to ask 6 MLS General Managers, 2 MLS Coaches,1 MLS League Officer, 4 PRO Referees and 10 PRO Assistant Referees, 8 PRO Staff and 5 PRO Assessors, and 2 PRO2 Referees two questions: 1. Their definition of a successful referee performance. 2. Their opinion on the characteristics of a successful referee. The result was a 7-point definition of a successful referee performance and 26 characteristics of a successful referee. There were ten characteristics that overlapped with previous work examining successful referees. This study was able to develop a definition of a successful referee performance and determine the characteristics of a successful referee.

Injury prevention in ladies Gaelic football referees: Understanding the barriers, facilitators, and preferences of referees

OBJECTIVES

The injury prevalence in Gaelic games refereeing is high, however few are adopting injury prevention programmes. This study aims to identify the barriers and facilitators to injury prevention strategy success and determine Ladies Gaelic Football referees' preferences for injury prevention strategies and education.

DESIGN

Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 11 Ladies Gaelic Football referees (10 men, 1 woman). Two were club level, two were provincial level and 7 were national level referees. Interviews were audio-recorded, transcribed verbatim, and reflexive thematic analysis was completed. This analysis involved examining the data repeatedly and gradually developing sub-themes, themes, and categories related to each core concept.

RESULTS

The barriers to injury prevention success included negative attitudes, accessibility issues, lack of education, the state of refereeing and undesirable injury prevention strategy characteristics. Injury prevention promotion, suitable strategy characteristics and open communication were believed to facilitate success. Referees gave their preferences for injury prevention programmes, strategy logistics, and stakeholder roles along with their preferred topics, delivery, educators, characteristics, rollout, and timing for injury prevention education.

CONCLUSIONS

Reducing referee injury is critical to the success of Ladies Gaelic Football and other community sports. Governing bodies must develop and support injury prevention programmes and education for referees. These should be designed according to referees' preferences and consider the barriers and facilitators referees have identified to maximise adoption.

Physical Demands in the Worst-Case Scenarios of Elite Futsal Referees Using a Local Positioning System

The aim of this study is to analyze the worst-case scenarios of professional futsal referees during the first and second half of official matches in the Spanish Futsal Cup using a Local Positioning System (LPS) for monitoring their movement patterns. Eight professional futsal referees (40 ± 3.43 years; 1.80 ± 0.03 m; 72.84 ± 4.01 kg) participated in the study. The external load (total distance, high-speed running distance and efforts, sprint distance and efforts, and accelerations and decelerations distances) of the referees was monitored and collected using an LPS. The results revealed significant differences in the worst-case scenarios of the futsal referees during the match according to the time window analyzed (p < 0.05). The longest time windows (120 s, 180 s, and 300 s) showed lower relative total distances in the worst-case scenarios (p < 0.05). The high-speed running distances were significatively higher in the first half for the 120 s (+2.65 m·min-1; ES: 1.25), 180 s (+1.55 m·min-1; ES: 1.28), and 300 s (+0.95 m·min-1; ES: 1.14) time windows (p < 0.05). No differences were found between the first and second half for the high-intensity deceleration distance (p > 0.05). These results will serve to prepare the referees in the best conditions for the competition and adapt the training plans to the worst-case scenarios.

Comparisons and associations among anthropometric indices of first and second division and assistant soccer referees

Introduction

Body composition is an important predictor of performance and a key component of health and physical fitness. Therefore, the purposes of this study were to compare soccer referees of the first and second divisions and field assistant referees from Iran and to analyze associations of a body shape index (ABSI), body adiposity index (BAI), abdominal volume index (AVI), body roundness index (BRI), conicity index (ConI), and body mass index (BMI) with body fat percentage (%BF).

Methods

A total of 270 male soccer referees from the first (n = 124) and second (n = 72) divisions and assistant referees (n = 74) participated in this study. Skinfold thickness (measured at the chest, biceps, triceps, subscapular, abdominal, iliac crest, and front thigh), height, weight, hip circumference, and waist circumference were assessed to evaluate waist-to-height ratio (WHtR), %BF, and also ABSI, BRI, BAI, ConI, and AVI according to the ISAK protocol.

Results

The main results indicated differences in WHR, WHtR, ABSI, BRI, AVI, ConI, and BF% with the assistant referees presenting higher values (p < 0.05). When considering the backward selection model, there were some associations with %BF in each group, specifically BMI, BAI, and ABSI in the first division; BMI, WHR, and ABSI in the second division; and BMI in the assistant referee group (all p < 0.05).

Discussion

The present study did not confirm the hypothesis that the first-division referees presented better body composition-related variables than the second division or assistant referees. Instead, it showed that the assistant referees that participated in both divisions showed a tendency to higher values which suggests that the level of division is not a major factor when analyzing body composition.

A Systematic Review of the Physical, Physiological, Nutritional and Anthropometric Profiles of Soccer Referees

BACKGROUND

The importance of soccer referees is widely accepted by international soccer organizations and governing bodies, although there is little research summarizing and appraising the literature on soccer referees. The aim of this study was to systematically review the information related to physical demands, nutrition and physiological profiling of soccer referees.

METHODS

Conforming with Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines, searches of three electronic databases (Web of Sciences, PubMed and Scopus) were conducted on 24 April 2022. The following search terms were used: (Soccer OR football AND refer*) AND (physical OR physiolo* OR load* OR "body composition" OR "fat mass" OR "fat free mass" OR "body size" OR "nutrition*" OR "nutritional assessment" OR "nutritional intake" OR "macronutrient*" OR "micronutrient*"). The inclusion criteria of the manuscripts written in English were that articles with male and/or female soccer referees and included relevant data concerning performance, physical testing, nutrition, body composition, body size and/or physiology of soccer referees. The tools developed by the National Institute of Health were used to assess risk of bias according to the study design.

RESULTS

In total, 110 manuscripts were included in the present review. Match activities of soccer referees and assistant referees are not comparable. Variation in performance is influenced by competitive level and competitive schedules. Additionally, match performance is often used to validate field protocols. The associations between match indicators and field protocols were not constant across the included studies, particularly in short-maximal tests. An age decline in physical performance was not conclusive. Body size did not discriminate between referees and assistant referees, as well as referees of different competitive levels. Few studies focused on nutritional guidelines among referees, particularly exercise energy expenditure. Energy intake was comparable across studies, but referees did not follow the daily dietary recommendations. Aerobic output was frequently assessed, and it was not comparable to the values for soccer players.

CONCLUSIONS

Although there are decreases in the running profiles of older referees, they maintain the same distances from the ball, and thus, age per se should not be used to define participation at the international level. The assessment of physical fitness warrants future consideration given the levels of fatigue that are apparent at the end of matches. In order to attain ideal levels of body composition, future studies need to provide guidelines for daily energy expenditure and nutritional intake.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

The protocol was published in INPLASY (International Platform of Registered Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis Protocols) with the registration number 202280052 and https://doi.org/10.37766/inplasy2022.8.005 .

The Effectiveness of Above Real Time Training for Developing Decision-Making Accuracy in Australian Football Umpires

Purpose: The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of an above real-time video-based training intervention on Australian football umpire decision-making skill. Methods: Three groups completed two testing sessions, either side of a five-week, video-based training intervention either in real time (100% speed), above real time (150% speed) or control (no training) condition. Testing included two parts: resting included 25 video clips 10 of Australian football match footage, presented in real time with participants resting; exercise included a separate 25 clips also presented at real time, during a 10 × 300 m run test. Tests were repeated within two weeks following training. Results: Decision-making accuracy significantly improved (p = .043) for the real time training group in the exercise test. There were no improvements in control or above real-time training groups in the exercise test. No significant differences were observed for decision-making accuracy in the 15 resting test for all groups. Conclusion: Above real-time video may not develop decision-making skills more effectively than real-time video for amateur Australian football umpires. For this cohort, the faster presentation of video may result in the umpires missing important perceptual cues. Real-time video-based training appears to be more beneficial for amateur officials than 150% above real-time speed.

Validity and reliability of the physiological and perceptual responses elicited during a novel treadmill-based Soccer Referee Simulation (SRS)

Purpose

This study explored the validity and reliability of the physiological and perceptual responses elicited during a novel treadmill-based Soccer Referee Simulation (SRS).

Methods

Following the collection of baseline measures and habituation procedures, eight sub-elite soccer referees completed a single trial of the SRS whereby measures of heart rate (HR), oxygen uptake (V̇O2), blood lactate concentrations ([La−]b), and differential ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) were obtained. Referees’ HR responses were also monitored during a series of competitive matches (5 match observations per referee). For the reliability aspect of the investigation, eight well-trained males with soccer playing experience and a comparable physiological profile were initially habituated, and thereafter completed three separate trials of the SRS during which the reliability of the selected outcome variables were ascertained. Trials were separated by 3–7 days and performed under standardised conditions.

Results

No differences were evidenced between the SRS and match play in relation to measures of mean HR (P = 0.444; ES = 0.29), peak HR (P = 0.074; ES = 0.74), or HR-based training impulse (P = 0.498; ES = 0.25). Additionally, no systematic differences were detected between reliability trials for any of the measured outcome variables (P ≥ 0.293), whilst good levels of reliability were observed for measures of mean HR (ICC = 0.94; CV = 3.1%), peak HR (ICC = 0.93; CV = 2.2%), HR-based training impulse (ICC = 0.95; CV = 10.0%), mean V̇O2 (ICC = 0.95; CV = 2.6%); [La−]b (ICC ≥ 0.89; CV ≤ 11.5%), and differential RPE (ICC ≥ 0.94; CV ≤ 15.1%).

Conclusion

The SRS represents a valid and reliable protocol that closely replicates the physiological and decision-making demands of soccer refereeing.

Activity profile of elite Gaelic football referees during competitive match play

The purpose of this study was to examine the activity profile of elite Gaelic football referees (GFR) and to examine temporal changes between the first and second half and across the four quarters. Global positioning systems technology (10-Hz) was used to collect activity data during 202 competitive games from 23 elite GFR. Relative distance, peak running speed and relative distance covered in six movement categories [very low-speed movement (VLSM) (<0.70 m·s^-1), walking (≥0.70-1.65 m·s^-1), low-speed running (LSR) (≥1.66-3.27 m·s^-1), moderate-speed running (MSR) (≥3.28-4.86 m·s^-1), high-speed running (HSR) (≥4.87-6.48 m·s^-1), very high-speed running (VHSR) (≥6.49 m·s^-1)] were examined during the full game, first and second half, and across the four quarters. The relative distance covered was 122.6 ± 8.4 m·min^-1, with 13.1 ± 4.9 m·min^-1 of HSR and VHSR. The peak running speed was 6.75 ± 0.49 m·s^-1. The relative (ES=0.60), MSR (ES=0.50) and HSR (ES=0.14) distance was higher in the first half than the second half. A higher relative (ES=0.62-0.91) and HSR (ES=0.51-0.61) distance was found in the first quarter than any other period. No differences in HSR distance were found between the second, third and fourth quarters (ES=0.04-0.10). This study provides, for the first time, a detailed insight into the activity profile of elite GFR during competitive games and demonstrates the demanding, intermittent nature of elite refereeing in Gaelic football. This information may be used as a framework for coaches to design training programmes specific to GFR.

Intensity demands and peak performance of elite soccer referees during match play

OBJECTIVES

This study examined the peak physical and physiological (heart rate) performance intensities andassociated decrements in elite soccer referees during match play.

DESIGN

Longitudinal study.

METHODS

Physical performancevariables and heart rate were analyzed during 457 matches across two seasons. Differences between halves, and the rate ofdecline in peak performance intensities across moving average durations of 1-10 minutes were assessed using linear mixed models and power-law analysis, respectively.

RESULTS

Large significant differences were observed between halves for mean total distance, mean velocity, mean heart rate, and percentage of maximal heart rate (p ≤ 0.05; r = 0.51-0.64). Peak intensities (p ≤ 0.05; r = 0.15-0.17) and the rate of decline (p < 0.001; r = 0.17-0.37) were significantly higher in the 2^nd half compared to the 1^st half, for relative total distance, relative high-intensity running and mean velocity. The rate of decline was significantly greater in the 2^nd half than the 1^st half for relative distance covered by high-intensity acceleration (>2 m/s^-2/min), deceleration (<-2 m/s^-2/min), and relative mean heart rate (p < 0.001; r = 0.28-0.61). Elite soccer referees might have experienced transient fatigue during match play, as relative high-intensity running immediately following the most intense 5-minute period significantly declined by 61.2% ( p< 0.001; r = 0.94), and was 16.2% lower than the mean 5-minute period (p < 0.001; r = 0.34).

CONCLUSIONS

Increased physical and physiological demands during match play, with associated declines in the second half and transient signs of fatigue throughout the match, supports the inclusion of high-intensity interval and endurance training programs to prepare soccer referees for the intensity demands and peak performance outcomes of match play.

Physical demands in Spanish male and female elite football referees during the competition: a prospective observational study

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to analyze the physical demands of elite male and female field referees in match play and compare the physical demands between male and female football referees in the competition.

METHODS

Match data were collected from 36 elite football referees (19 males and 17 females) during a total of 409 football matches. Electronic performance and tracking systems based on global positioning systems (GPS) were used in this research.

RESULTS

Male referees experienced significantly greater physical demands (p < 0.05) in men league than female referees in women league for total distance, explosive distance, high-intensity breaking distance, total of sprints, sprinting distance, high-speed running distance, high-speed running actions, maximal speed, total of accelerations and decelerations, maximal acceleration and deceleration, acceleration/deceleration.

CONCLUSIONS

Therefore, strength and conditioning coaches should consider these gender differences in match demands to maximize the fitness-fatigue response of the referees since this may lead to a better performance during the decision-making process in the competition.

RELACIÓN ENTRE LA CARGA INTERNA Y EXTERNA EN ÁRBITROS DE BALONCESTO

El objetivo del presente trabajo consistió en analizar las relaciones existentes entre los parámetros de carga interna (objetiva y subjetiva) y externa. La muestra estuvo compuesta por un total de 15 partidos disputados en el Eurobasket femenino U-16, donde participaron un total de nueve árbitros (6 masculinos y 3 femeninos). Las variables analizadas de carga interna fueron la frecuencia cardiaca y la percepción subjetiva de esfuerzo. Las variables de carga externa se dividieron en cinemáticas y neuromusculares, medidas a través de dispositivos inerciales. Los resultados explican que existen relaciones entre los valores de carga interna objetiva y carga externa, así como entre las variables de carga externa. En cambio, no existen relaciones entre la carga interna subjetiva y las variables de carga interna y externa objetiva, exceptuando el PowerMetabolic. Estos resultados demuestran que la competición y el nivel de los árbitros influyen en gran medida en las variables subjetivas.

Association between Fitness Level and Physical Match Demands of Professional Female Football Referees

The aim of this study was to examine the physical demands for elite female referees during competitive matches and to evaluate the relationship between match performance and fitness levels. Seventeen female elite field referees were fitness-tested (29.0 ± 5.2 (SD) years, 163.8 ± 6.7 cm, 54.0 ± 5.1 kg, Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery Test Level 1 (YYIR1) performance 1610 ± 319 m) and were analysed during a total of 187 football matches. Global positioning systems (GPS) were used in this research. The physical demands were significantly lower (p < 0.05) in the second half of matches compared to the first half. Regarding the acceleration-related variables, the female referees revealed a higher number of high-intensity actions in the first half compared to the second half. However, higher low-intensity demands were observed for the females referees in the second half compared to the first half in the total number of accelerations (ACC) (~70.48 n; ES = 0.61; p < 0.05) and decelerations (DEC) (~71.11 n; ES = 0.62; p < 0.05); total number of ACC in zone 1 (~85.27 n; ES = 0.70; p < 0.05) and DEC in zone 1 (Z1) (~83.98 n; ES = 0.71; p < 0.05); and distance covered accelerating and decelerating in Z1. The distance covered in YYIR1 and the performance in the repeated sprint ability test correlated with the physical demands during matches for female football referees (p < 0.05). In conclusion, this study described the physical performance profile of female football referees and differences between the first and second halves of matches were observed. The results of this study revealed positive correlations between intermittent exercise fitness levels, the repeated sprint ability performance and match performance in female football referees, and thus this information can be implemented in their training plan designs.

Effects of Warm-Up Training on Psychomotor Vigilance and Repeated-Sprint Ability of Professional Soccer Referees: A Pilot Study

For this research, we analyzed the immediate effects of warm-up condition (WC) or without warm-up condition (WWC) on amateur referees' physical and cognitive functioning. Eight professional soccer referees from the Balearic Committee of Football Referees were the participants of this study. Body composition characteristics were measured and the scores on three tests were recorded: the Yo-Yo intermittent recovery, repeated-sprint ability, and psychomotor vigilance task. Regarding results, the psychomotor vigilance task was performed better after warm-up training (p = .002, η2 = .79) with faster reaction times following WC (M = 318.2, SD = 27.1 ms) than WWC (M = 334.9, SD = 26.1). Similarly, the referees' performance was better on the repeated-sprint ability test after WC (p = .002, d = 0.53) than WWC, with minimum and average power values higher after WC (M = 626.77, SD = 112.57) than WWC (M = 562.35, SD = 79.63). We conclude that re-warm-up training may mitigate the vigilance performance changes caused by effects of rest on soccer referees.

Match activity profile and heart rate responses of top-level soccer referees during Brazilian National First and Second Division and regional championships

This study aimed to examine the differences in physical match activities and heart rate (HR) responses experienced by Brazilian field referees (FRs) and assistant referees (ARs) during official matches from three different championship levels (Serie A, Serie B and Regional). The sample was composed of 51 FRs (age: 36.3 ± 4.7 years) and 87 ARs (age: 35.0 ± 5.6 years). Match activities derived from Global Position System and HR response (expressed as average %HRmax) were collected during official soccer matches (91 and 146 individual observations for FRs and ARs, respectively). FRs and ARs covered higher distances at high-intensity running (HIR; d = 1.17 and 2.53, p < 0.001), sprinting (d = 0.82 and 0.48, p < 0.005) and high-intensity activities (HIA; d = 1.07 and 1.97, p < 0.001) in Serie A and Serie B than in Regional. Changes in the distances covered at HIR (0.80 < d < 3.25, p < 0.005), sprinting (d = 0.42, p = 0.050), and HIA (0.93 < d < 3.01, p < 0.005) from one half-match to the other were observed only in Serie A and Serie B for FRs and ARs. The average %HRmax was progressively increased in both half-matches for FRs (1.28 < d < 3.05, p < 0.003) and ARs (0.85 < d < 3.54, p < 0.001) during all championships. Serie A and Regional elicited higher average %HRmax (0.80 < d < 1.37, p < 0.030) than Serie B in FRs. For ARs, Serie A and Serie B elicited higher average %HRmax (2.14 < d < 3.87, p < 0.001) than Regional. In conclusion, the physical match activities and average %HRmax of Brazilian FRs and ARs differ across soccer championship levels. Thus, FRs and ARs require specific training for different championship levels. In particular, FRs and ARs acting in Regional soccer championships are likely to need specific preparation to support the higher physical demand observed at higher competition levels.

Examining the mental health status of referees in the turkish professional football league

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of the study was to evaluate the mental health (MH) status of referees who officiate in the Turkish professional football leagues.

METHOD

An online survey was sent to all referees in the Turkish professional football leagues (n = 630) incorporating standardized scales assessing depression, anxiety, and stress.

RESULTS

A total of 433 referees participated in the study, yielding a response rate of 68.7%. Younger referees (18-27 years) reported higher depression (p = 0.01), anxiety (p < 0.01), and stress (p < 0.01) scores than older (>38 years) refereees. Depression, anxiety, and stress scores of single referees were higher compared to married referees (all p < 0.01). Lower-level referees reported higher depression (p < 0.01), anxiety (p = 0.01), and stress (p < 0.01) scores than their higher-level counterparts. Higher depression, anxiety, and stress scores were also associated with less income, performance concerns, severe injury history, and inadequate social support.

CONCLUSION

MH problems in referees were associated with a wide range of variables including younger age, being single, refereeing at lower-levels, performance concerns, and inadequate social support. In light of these results, MH assessments should be undertaken with referees to detect which officials are at greater risk of MH problems. Doing so will help to enable appropriate and timely MH interventions.

Effects of training on plasmatic cortisol and testosterone in football female referees

There is very little about the impact that sports training has on female football referees. Therefore, we determined the effects of a 40-week physical preparation, including a full football season, on plasma testosterone and cortisol concentrations and physical performance in female football referees. Plasma cortisol and testosterone concentrations were assayed together with fitness tests at the beginning of the training period (T0, in September), after 8 weeks from T0 (T1), at the mid of the season (T2, 24 weeks after T0), and at the end of the season (T3, in June, 40 weeks after T0). Plasma cortisol increased during the first period and up to T2 (from 15.4 ± 4.7 to 28.5 ± 3.9 µg/dl; p < 0.001), and then decreased at the end of the season (T3: 16.0 ± 2.4 µg/dl). Plasma testosterone concentration in T0 was 14.2±0.37 µg/dl and increased in T1 (57.1 ± 3.7 µg/dl) and T2 (47 ± 3.7 µg/dl) and then decreased in T3 (33.5 ± 2.8 µg/dl). Resting testosterone levels in women were very low (14,2 ± 0.37 µg/dl) (Figure 3c). Testosterone increased in T1 (57.1 ± 3.7 µg/dl) and T2 (47 ± 3.7 µg/dl) whilst, at the end of the season, its concentration decreased (33.5 ± 2.8 µg/dl) (Figure 3c). Significant improvements were observed in all physical performances during the observed period (ANOVA, p < 0.05). Finally, testosterone and cortisol concentrations significantly (p < 0.0001 for both) correlated with maximal oxygen consumption. In T1, testosterone concentration was also significantly correlated with running speed test (p < 0.001). In conclusion, training induces endocrine changes in order to maintain body homeostasis in women referees. It is important that coaches and sports scientists regularly observe changes in endocrine function induced by training and matches in female referees, because they can help maximize referees' performance and limit cases of overtraining.

Prevalence and burden of health problems in top-level football referees

BACKGROUND

Top-level football referees take decisions during strenuous physical activity, and often under great mental pressure. Despite their central role in a football match, little is known about referees' health problems, particularly in female referees.

AIM

To investigate the prevalence and burden of health problems in female and male top-level referees.

STUDY DESIGN

Prospective cohort study.

METHOD

Fifty-five Norwegian male and female top-level referees reported health problems (injuries and illnesses) in pre-season and during the 2020 competitive season, using the Oslo Sports Trauma Research Center Questionnaire on Health Problems (OSTRC-H2).

RESULTS

We recorded data for 49 weeks with a compliance of 98%. On average, 34% (95% CI 31-36%) of referees reported at least one health problem each week, and 20% (95% CI 19-22%) reported substantial health problems. Female referees reported more health problems than male referees, and on-field referees reported more health problems than assistant referees. Gradual-onset injuries were most prevalent and caused the greatest absence from training and matches, whereas illnesses represented only a small portion to the overall burden of health problems. The injury incidence was three injuries per athlete-year (95% CI 2.5-3.5) and 11 injuries per 1000 match hours (95% CI 7-18). The illness incidence was 1.4 illnesses per athlete-year (95% CI 1.1-1.8). Injuries to the lower legs and feet represented the highest burden of health problems.

CONCLUSION

Top-level referees, especially females, reported a high prevalence of health problems. Gradual-onset injuries to the lower leg and foot represented the highest injury burden.

Physical demands on professional Spanish football referees during matches

BACKGROUND

Refereeing is a demanding and intermittent activity that combines high-speed and low-intensity action.

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study is to analyse the external and internal load of professional Spanish football referees during matches, and to compare the physical demands between halves and between referees in different categories.

METHODS

The physical demands on 40 professional football referees from the first and second divisions were recorded using global positioning system (GPS) technology and heart rate bands. External load (distance covered, speed, acceleration and deceleration) and internal load (perceived exertion [RPE] and heart rate [HR]) were analysed.

RESULTS

The referees in the first division reported lower mean HR and RPE results than those in the second division (p < 0.05). The total distance covered was similar between the categories (p > 0.05), but the distance covered at different speed ranges was different (p < 0.05). Finally, greater reductions in performance between the first and the second halves were found in the second division referees (p < 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

The results of this study show differences according to the category of referee. This emphasises the need for specific training for professional referees according to their level to ensure optimal performance during matches.

Mental Health Symptoms of Amateur Association Football Referees: A Cross-Sectional Study

Although referees who officiate in the amateur football leagues are exposed to various stressors that can negatively affect their mental health (MH), little is known about their MH symptoms. The purpose of the study was to evaluate MH symptoms of referees who officiate in the Turkish amateur football leagues. An online survey was sent to all referees in the Turkish amateur football leagues (n = 4,900) incorporating standardized scales assessing depression, anxiety, and stress. A total of 1,279 referees participated in the study. Female referees reported higher depression (p < .01) and anxiety (p = .02) scores than males. Younger referees (23–27 years) reported higher depression (p = .01) and anxiety (p < .01) scores than older (>38 years) referees. Results showed that symptoms of depression, anxiety, and stress scores were associated with marital status (being single), lower incomes, severe sports injury history, and inadequate social support. In light of these results, MH assessments should be undertaken to detect which referees are at greater risk of MH problems and facilitate appropriate and timely MH interventions. Further study is needed to inform MH risk reduction strategies and/or programming.

The Effects of Match Congestion on Physical Performance in Football Referees

We examined the changes in performance during congested (two matches within a 7-day interval) and non-congested (one match within≥7-day interval) fixtures in 17 elite football (soccer) referees during 181 official matches. External demands comprised 20 GPS-based metrics. Internal load was assessed by heart rate and rating of perceived exertion. Compared to non-congested fixtures, referees decreased their running distance at 21-24 km·h^-1 (p=0.027, effect size [ES]=0.41) and > 24 km·h^-1 (p=0.037, ES=0.28), the number of sprints (p=0.012, ES=0.29), and distance sprinting (p=0.022, ES=0.29) in congested matches. Most play metrics were lower in congested versus non-congested fixtures with low-to-moderate ES. During the 2nd half of non-congested fixtures, referees covered larger distances at low-speed running (p=0.025, ES=0.47). Match congestion due to officiating two matches less than a week apart caused a notable decrease in match running activity in professional football referees, especially at above 21 km·h^-1. These data reiterate the need for specific conditioning and post-match recovery strategies in high-level referees to ensure optimal judgment performance favouring the quality of the competition. Governing bodies should take these outcomes into account when designating referees for a match.

Influence of Football Match-Play on Isometric Knee Flexion Strength and Passive Hip Flexion Range of Motion in Football Referees and Assistant Referees

The aim of this study was to examine the acute effect of officiating a football (soccer) match on isometric knee flexion strength and passive hip flexion range-of-motion (ROM) in referees and assistant football referees. Twelve referees (25.3 ± 3.3 years) and twenty-three assistant referees (25.1 ± 4.8 years) underwent measurements on isometric knee flexion strength and passive hip flexion ROM before and after officiating an official football match. Referees’ and assistant referees’ running patterns were monitored during the match using GPS technology. In comparison to pre-match values, referees reduced their isometric knee flexion strength (−12.36%, p = 0.046, Effect size [ES] = −0.36) in the non-dominant limb, while no significant differences were reported in the dominant limb (−0.75%, p = 0.833, ES = −0.02). No effect of the match was found in hip flexion ROM values in dominant (−4.78%, p = 0.102, ES = −0.15) and non-dominant limb (5.54%, p = 0.544, ES = 0.19). In assistant referees, the pre-to-post-match changes in isometric knee flexion strength (dominant limb −3.10%, p = 0.323, ES = −0.13; non-dominant limb −2.18%, p = 0.980, ES= 0.00) and hip flexion ROM (dominant limb 1.90% p = −0.816, ES = 0.13; non-dominant limb 3.22% p = 0.051, ES = 0.23) did not reach statistical significance. Officiating a match provoked a reduction in isometric knee flexion strength in the non-dominant limb of football referees, while no differences were reported in assistant referees.

High injury rates and weak injury prevention strategies in football referees at all levels of play

Football referees need other physiological requirements on field than football players and are affected by different types of injury. The absence of referees may result in canceled matches, so special focus should be placed on injury prevention through specific training programs for referees. This study retrospectively analyzed injury occurrence and prevention strategies for German football referees at the different levels of play over one season. Data were collected by means of seasonal injury reports based on the consensus statement of injury definition and data collection. Of the 923 participating referees, 91 (9.9%) played at the professional level, 151 (16.3%) at the semi-professional, and 681 (73.8%) at the amateur level. 86.2% (n = 796) were men and 13.8% (n = 127) women. Referees at the amateur level showed the highest injury incidence (3.14/1000 h football) compared to referees at the semi-professional (1.92/1000 h; p < 0.001) and professional level (1.01/1000 h; p < 0.001). Most referees at the amateur (n = 372; 56.4%) and semi-professional level (n = 46; 31.3%) conducted warm-up programs of <10 min, whereas the mean warm-up duration of professional referees was >11 min (n = 75; 82.4%). Although running and stretching exercises were common among referees during warm-up, preventive exercises focusing on coordination and trunk muscles were less frequent, especially among amateur referees (jumping: 15.9%; strengthening: 9.7%; balance exercises: 7.9%). Injury incidence was highest at lower amateur levels, which thus has specific need for injury prevention. Appropriate training exercises to prevent injuries of referees were weak at all levels of play, especially the lack of strength, plyometric, and balance exercises in training and warm-up programs.

Eccentric Hamstring Muscle Strength during Home Confinement Due to the COVID-19 Pandemic, and Football Competition Resumption in Professional Football Referees: A Prospective Observational Study

The COVID-19 pandemic has produced a major disruption for professional football leagues that has affected the physical preparation of both football players and referees. In Spain, health authorities decreed home confinement for eight weeks, supressing the normal training routines of professional referees. After home confinement, referees had four weeks to retrain as the national football league was set to resume matches to complete the 11 games remaining. The aim of the present investigation was to assess changes in eccentric hamstring muscle strength during football competition suspension/resumption due to the COVID-19 pandemic in 21 professional football referees (mean ± SD, age: 33.4 ± 5.1 years; height: 182.4 ± 5.0 cm; body mass: 75.1 ± 4.4 kg). Eccentric hamstring muscle strength was measured with the Nordic hamstring exercise at four time points. During home confinement, referees presented the lowest value of bilateral eccentric muscle strength (300 ± 14 N). Eccentric muscle strength increased by 13.2 ± 3.7% one week after the end of home confinement (339 ± 16 N; p = 0.001, effect size (ES) = 2.8) and remained stable before the first match (343 ± 17 N; p = 0.001, ES = 3.1) and after the end of the national league (328 ± 13 N; p = 0.001, ES = 2.0). In summary, home confinement produced detraining effects in professional football referees associated with hamstring muscle weakness. In this regard, strength-based activities with body loads may be insufficient to avoid muscle weakness and other means (e.g., weights) may be necessary to maintain muscle strength. However, the 4-weeks retraining period was sufficient to resolve hamstring muscle weakness induced by the restrictions of home confinement. This information may be helpful in the case of future sport competition suspension or home quarantine due to new waves of COVID-19 pandemic.

Fitness assessment in talented football referees: an academy based longitudinal field-study

BACKGROUND

This study aim was to profile physical fitness in talented football referees (FR) with performance relevant field-tests across time.

METHODS

Thirty-eight male FR (age 28±1.5 years, height 178±5.1 cm, body mass 69.0±7.34 kg, body fat 17.2±2.87%) were observed for 15 months. Endurance was assessed with the Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery Test level 1 (YYIR1) and repeated sprint ability (RSA) with 5x30m line-sprints with 30s recovery (5x30m). Long sprint endurance (LSA) and change of direction ability (COD) evaluated with novel field-tests. FR was tested six times (every three months) during the study.

RESULTS

YYIR1 performance showed large increments across testing occasions. Sprint time in the COD largely and significantly decreased across the testing occasions. Very large associations were reported between 5x30m and LSA tests grand mean (r=0.89, 0.78-0.94, P<0.0001). A nearly perfect (r=0.97, 0.94-0.99, P<0.0001) association was observed between 5x30m best sprint and 5x30m grand means.

CONCLUSIONS

The results of this study revealed ability-related variations in performance across time. The effect of training and competitions on the determinism of physical fitness in refereeing seem plausible. Interestingly, sprint endurance tests shared a very large variance proposing tests interchangeability and mutual physiological demands. This study information provides useful information for the development of sound field-tests batteries in talented FR.

HEALTH PROBLEMS OF BASKETBALL REFEREES:A PROSPECTIVE STUDY

ABSTRACT Introduction: Basketball referees are the authorities responsible for ensuring that rules and regulations are followed and for making decisions. The ability of referees to respond to the physical and physiological demands imposed during the game is essential for good performance on the court. Objective: To understand the context in which health problems faced by basketball referees occur and to outline the epidemiological profile of musculoskeletal injuries. Methods: A prospective cohort study was conducted in which basketball referees were evaluated using a standardized form. The participants were monitored online weekly for 12 weeks using the Oslo Sports Trauma Research Center questionnaire to assess health problems, such as diseases (affecting the respiratory, cardiovascular, digestive or neurological systems) or musculoskeletal injuries (acute or from overuse). Results: The study sample consisted of 78 referees with a mean age of 36.5 (±9.8) years. Most referees (97.4%) found it important to implement a preventive program. In relation to the health problems reported during follow-up, there was an incidence rate of 23.7 injuries per 1000 hours of play (95% CI 19.5 - 27.9) and the mean weekly prevalence of diseases was 3.2 (95% CI 0.4 – 6.0) and of injuries was 17.4 (95% CI 16.5 – 18.3). Conclusion: Through this study, it was possible to conclude that there was an incidence rate of 23.7 injuries per 1000 hours of play (95% CI 19.5 - 27.9) and a mean prevalence of diseases of 3.2 (95% CI 0.4 - 6.0) and musculoskeletal injuries of 17.4 (95% CI 16.5 - 18.3). The most common health problems that affected basketball referees were musculoskeletal overuse injuries of the lower limbs. Level of evidence I; Prospective cohort study .

Effectiveness of the FIFA 11+ Referees Injury Prevention Program in reducing injury rates in male amateur soccer referees

OBJECTIVE

The Fédération International de Football Association (FIFA) 11+ Referees Injury Prevention Program (FIFA 11+ Referees Program) is a structured warm-up program specially designed to prevent injuries in soccer referees. However, its effectiveness has yet to be fully documented in the literature. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to investigate the effectiveness of the FIFA 11+ Referees Program in reducing injury rates among soccer referees.

METHODS

A randomized controlled trial was conducted. Two hundred male amateur soccer referees (mean ± SD age, 31.6 ± 4.1 years) participated in this study. Participants were randomly allocated to the experimental and control groups. The experimental group performed the FIFA 11+ Referees Program as a warm-up during training sessions at least twice a week, and the control group performed their usual warm-ups. The participants were followed up for one season. The outcome measures were the incidence of overall injury, initial injury, recurrent injury, injury mechanism, and injury severity (primary), and the rate of adherence to the intervention program (secondary).

RESULTS

A total of 24 injuries were reported among 100 referees in the control group in 16 606 h of exposure (1.45 injuries/1000 exposure h), and a total of nine injuries were reported across 100 referees within the experimental group in 17 834 exposure h (0.50 injuries/1000 exposure h). The Injury Risk Ratio (IRR) was 0.35 (95% CI 0.26-0.45).

CONCLUSION

The results indicated that the FIFA 11+ Referees Program effectively reduced injuries in the experimental group by 65% compared to the control group.

The effects of training on hormonal concentrations and physical performance of football referees

As no study has explored the impact of physical stress on hypothalamic‐pituitary‐gonadal axis hormones over a long period, the purpose of this study was to determine the effects of the football season period on plasma cortisol and testosterone concentrations and referee's physical performances. Physical tests and plasma cortisol and testosterone concentrations were assayed before the beginning of the training period, just after the training period, at the middle of the season, and at the end of the season, in 29 male football referees and 30 healthy control subjects. Results showed significant differences in hormone concentrations at the four‐time points evaluated. Plasma cortisol increased during the first training period from 15.8 ± 3.8 to 21.7 ± 5.1 µg/dl (p < 0.001), then decreased during the season and at the end of it was 18.7 ± 2.4 µg/dl. Before the beginning of the training period, plasma testosterone concentration was 386.1 ± 58.8 ng/dl; after the training period, it increased to 572.2 ± 88.1 ng/dl (p < 0.001) and then returned to baseline levels at the end of the season. Between the start of the training period and the end of the season, significant differences were observed in physical performances of referees. Plasma cortisol and testosterone levels significantly (p < 0.0001 for both) correlated with Yo‐Yo intermittent recovery test level 1 (YYIRT1) and maximal oxygen consumption (VO_2max) at the end of the training period. In the middle season, plasma testosterone concentration only significantly (p < 0.0001) correlated with YYIRT1 and VO_2max. These data underline the importance of set up training protocols that present the prospective to favor positive physiological adaptations.

Field-based tests for assessing fitness in referees: A systematic review

This systematic review was aimed at identifying the psychometric properties of field-based tests for assessing physical fitness in soccer referees. Electronic databases were searched up to May 2020 for studies that informed about the reliability and/or validity of at least one field-based physical fitness test for soccer referees. A total of 13 studies analysed the psychometric properties of the field-based physical fitness tests proposed by the Fédération Internationale de Football Association (FIFA) (aerobic endurance, n = 8; anaerobic endurance, n = 3; and speed, n = 8), while seven investigations focused on field-based physical fitness tests specifically designed for assessing aerobic endurance (n = 1) or change of direction (COD) (n = 6). According to the observed reliability and validity values, the Assistant Referee Intermittent Endurance test (ARIET), the 50-m sprint test and the Modified Agility test (MAT) seem, respectively, the best available options for assessing aerobic endurance, speed, and COD in soccer referees. Future investigations should consider the lack of research focusing on assistant and female referees. Further studies on the psychometric properties of anaerobic endurance and short distance speed tests are also needed.

Development and validation of the Referee Training Activity Questionnaire (RTAQ): Towards a better understanding of the training practices of soccer officials

To develop and assess the validity of the Referee Training Activity Questionnaire (RTAQ), a systematic process was employed: 1) item generation; 2) assessments of content and face validity; and 3) assessments of criterion validity. In stage 1, items were generated following semi-structured interviews with an expert panel (n = 8). Following content analyses, the RTAQ was developed and comprised 3 primary sections (12 sub-sections) assessing: 1) attributes perceived to underpin soccer officiating performance; 2) general training information; and 3) specific training practices. In stage 2, the preliminary RTAQ was assessed for content and face validity by a sample of experts (n = 6). Based upon the content validity index (CVI), content validity was confirmed for 8 sub-sections (CVI ≥ 0.78) with 5 sub-sections being deemed invalid (CVI < 0.78). Various amendments were carried out in accordance with participant feedback. In stage 3, the RTAQ was completed by a cohort of officials (n = 25) who subsequently recorded a detailed training diary. Negligible mean biases, wide 95% LOA, and significant Pearson correlations were observed between the RTAQ and training diaries for most training activities, suggesting the RTAQ holds promise as a useful and effective alternative of acquiring insight into the training practices of soccer officials.

UEFA expert group statement on nutrition in elite football. Current evidence to inform practical recommendations and guide future research

Football is a global game which is constantly evolving, showing substantial increases in physical and technical demands. Nutrition plays a valuable integrated role in optimising performance of elite players during training and match-play, and maintaining their overall health throughout the season. An evidence-based approach to nutrition emphasising, a 'food first' philosophy (ie, food over supplements), is fundamental to ensure effective player support. This requires relevant scientific evidence to be applied according to the constraints of what is practical and feasible in the football setting. The science underpinning sports nutrition is evolving fast, and practitioners must be alert to new developments. In response to these developments, the Union of European Football Associations (UEFA) has gathered experts in applied sports nutrition research as well as practitioners working with elite football clubs and national associations/federations to issue an expert statement on a range of topics relevant to elite football nutrition: (1) match day nutrition, (2) training day nutrition, (3) body composition, (4) stressful environments and travel, (5) cultural diversity and dietary considerations, (6) dietary supplements, (7) rehabilitation, (8) referees and (9) junior high-level players. The expert group provide a narrative synthesis of the scientific background relating to these topics based on their knowledge and experience of the scientific research literature, as well as practical experience of applying knowledge within an elite sports setting. Our intention is to provide readers with content to help drive their own practical recommendations. In addition, to provide guidance to applied researchers where to focus future efforts.

The Effect of a Competitive Futsal Match on Psychomotor Vigilance in Referees

CONTEXT

Referees' physical and cognitive performance are important for successful officiating in team sports. There is a lack of research on cognitive performance of referees in general, and none in futsal.

PURPOSE

To assess referees' performance on the psychomotor vigilance task (PVT) before and after competitive futsal matches during the Football Association (FA) National Futsal League 2015/16.

METHODS

Fourteen futsal referees (mean [SD] age 34.3 [10.0] y) from the FA National Futsal group were included. The referees were required to undertake a 10-min PVT 60 min before the match kickoff time (pretest) and immediately after matches (posttest). They also completed the Brunel Mood Scale (BRUMS) questionnaire before the prematch PVT and after the postmatch PVT.

RESULT

Data were analyzed by paired t tests comparing prematch and postmatch results. There was a significant difference in BRUMS parameters vigor (9.5 [2.5] prematch vs 6.3 [2.4] postmatch, P = .001) and fatigue (1.4 [1.3] prematch vs 5.6 [3.1] postmatch, P < .001). However, PVT performance was significantly improved (mean reaction time 248.3 [26.2] ms prematch vs 239.7 [22.4] ms postmatch, P = .023).

CONCLUSIONS

The present results show, contrary to the authors' initial hypothesis, that psychomotor performance is improved as opposed to decreased after a single match. The postmatch improvement suggests that exercise can acutely enhance cognitive performance, which could be used to inform warm-up practices (eg, optimal duration and intensity) geared toward optimizing referees' cognitive performance during matches.

Body Fat Assessment in International Elite Soccer Referees

Soccer referees are a specific group in the sports population that are receiving increasing attention from sports scientists. A lower fat mass percentage (FM%) is a useful parameter to monitor fitness status and aerobic performance, while being able to evaluate it with a simple and quick field-based method can allow a regular assessment. The aim of this study was to provide a specific profile for referees based on morphological and body composition features while comparing the accuracy of different skinfold-based equations in estimating FM% in a cohort of soccer referees. Forty-three elite international soccer referees (age 38.8 ± 3.6 years), who participated in the 2018 Russian World Cup, underwent body composition assessments with skinfold thickness and dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA). Six equations used to derive FM% from skinfold thickness were compared with DXA measurements. The percentage of body fat estimated using DXA was 18.2 ± 4.1%, whereas skinfold-based FM% assessed from the six formulas ranged between 11.0% ± 1.7% to 15.6% ± 2.4%. Among the six equations considered, the Faulkner's formula showed the highest correlation with FM% estimated by DXA (r = 0.77; R² = 0.59 p < 0.001). Additionally, a new skinfold-based equation was developed: FM% = 8.386 + (0.478 × iliac crest skinfold) + (0.395 × abdominal skinfold, r = 0.78; R² = 0.61; standard error of the estimate (SEE) = 2.62 %; p < 0.001). Due to these findings, national and international federations will now be able to perform regular body composition assessments using skinfold measurements.

Individualized Breakfast Programs or Glycogen Super-Compensation: Which Is the Better Performing Strategy? Insights from an Italian Soccer Referees Cohort

The role of soccer referees has grown in importance in the last decades, as has attention to their performance, which may be influenced and improved with specific and evolved training programs. Today, multiple specialists are working as a team in order to develop effective training programs. Moreover, for athletes, it is becoming more and more important to be attentive to nutrition. By considering such items, in this study, we aimed to investigate the nutritional habits of a group of referees belonging to the Italian Soccer Referees' Association (on behalf of AIA-FIGC). Our main aim was to spread a "culture of nutrition" in refereeing, starting with a survey on referees' breakfast attitudes and in order to disseminate such a "culture", we chose top-level elite referees who were younger subjects (despite the average 4 years' experience). Therefore, we enrolled 31 subjects (aged 22.74 ± 1.79, BMI 22.30 ± 1.53) and asked them about their breakfast habits. Then, for measuring their performance, we used the conventional fitness test named Yo-Yo (YYiR1), performed in three different sessions (test 1, test 2, test 3). Test 1 was carried out without any nutritional indications, test 2 was given after individualized breakfast suggestions by a designed dietician, and test 3 after an individualized glycogen super-compensation strategy. The Wilcoxon statistical analysis indicates that following an individualized breakfast strategy may enhance referees' performance (p < 0.0001), whereas no significant effects were observed with the glycogen super-compensation option. However, further studies will be necessary to better address this topic and clarify whether high-carbohydrates (high-CHO) intake may be useful in other sports.

Eating Habits and Body Composition of International Elite Soccer Referees

Soccer referees are a specific group of the athletes' population whose careers peak from 30 to 45 years old. An athlete's performance is not only determined by physical training but also by a lifestyle, e.g. eating habits. The purpose of this study was to verify current eating habits and resulting body composition of a group of elite international soccer referees. At an international FIFA seminar 60 elite international soccer referees (aged 39.2 ± 4.2 years) were enrolled. A body composition assessment was performed with skinfold thickness and bio impedance analysis, while eating habits were evaluated with a multi-pass 24-hour dietary recall. The body composition showed a normal weight condition with a fat content of 11.4 ± 2.5%. Macronutrients showed a low level of carbohydrates (43.6 ± 5.4%) and a high level of fat (40.0 ± 4.5%). Micronutrients showed a low level of calcium, potassium, zinc, magnesium, iodine, vitamin B12 and vitamin B9. Even though their body composition was within the normal range, the current eating habits of elite international soccer referees did not appear to follow the nutrition guidelines. Therefore, it would be advisable to provide knowledge on nutrition for this particular category of sports subjects, an individualized nutritional plan would be advisable, in order to achieve and maintain better performance and appropriate body composition for their role.

Comparing the Aerobic Fitness of Professional Male Soccer Players and Soccer Referees

We looked to compare the aerobic performance between professional soccer referees and players. Fifty male soccer referees and 61 male soccer players were tested on a treadmill. The referees and players possessed 15 ± 7 years and 7 ± 3 years of experience in soccer, respectively. Significant differences were observed between the referees and players with regards to: age (34.8 ± 4.6 years vs 20.8 ± 2.7 years; P < 0.001, maximum oxygen uptake (54.7 ± 5.4 mL·kg·min vs 58.8 ± 4.4 mL·kg·min; P < 0.001), and maximal heart rate in peak exercise (184 ± 11 bpm vs 192 ± 9 bpm, P < 0.001). Less significant differences also were observed and included; running speed at the maximum oxygen uptake (16.6 ± 1 km·h vs 16.4 ± 1.1 km·h), running speed at the ventilatory threshold (213.5 ± 1.1 km·h vs 13.2 ± 0.9 km·h), and percentage of maximal oxygen uptake at the ventilatory threshold (285.1% ± 3.2% vs 84.1% ± 6.2%). The effect size of most comparative variables between the two groups was small (<0.6). Older elite-level soccer referees are able to reach and maintain aerobic physical fitness levels similar to professional soccer players. Aerobic physical fitness may be a measurable factor for maintaining elite-level soccer licensure rather than age alone.

Activity Profiles of Top-Class Players and Referees and Accuracy in Foul Decision-Making During Korean National League Soccer Games

Joo, CH and Jee, H. Activity profiles of top-class players and referees and accuracy in foul decision-making during Korean national league soccer games. J Strength Cond Res 33(9): 2530-2540, 2019-The aims of this study were to compare the activity profiles between the top-class referees and players and elucidate the factors related to foul decision-making. Three hundred thirty-five elite-level players and referees were analyzed for distance covered during 20 matches of nationally held 2016 Korean league competitions. Distance covered by the players and referees was analyzed for the activity zones (slow walking, walking, jogging, running, high-intensity running, and sprinting) and 15-minute match periods. Mean distance between foul play and referee locations, foul plays, and 15-minute match periods were compared with the foul decision errors. Foul play and decision error rates (%) were also analyzed per segmented pitch zone. Although the total distance covered during a match and distances covered by jogging, running, and sprinting were significantly different between the players and referees, differences were within 1%. Significant differences in the distance covered before and after halftime were observed. The greatest distance between the foul play and referee locations, number of foul plays, and number of foul decision errors were observed at the 75-minute match period. Finally, the greater number of foul plays was observed in the neutral and attacking zones, and the foul decision errors were observed in the right defensive and left attacking zones 1. In conclusion, although the activity profiles may be different, referees should maintain certain level of physical fitness to match that of the players. To reduce the number of foul decision errors, factors such as match time, foul occurring location, and distance between foul play and referee locations should be considered.