Revisiting the generation gap: exploring the relationships of parent/adult-child dyads

Aging Parents and the Ties That Bind: Intergenerational Relationship Quality Among Culturally Diverse Canadian Families

Drawing from a life course perspective, this paper examines mid/later-life parent-child relationship quality among ethnically diverse families. Focus is on the role of culture, child, and parental characteristics. Data are drawn from a study of 588 parents aged 50+ of a least one child aged 19-35 who reside in Metro Vancouver, B.C. from four Canadian cultural groups: British, Chinese, Persian/Iranian, and South Asian. Using OLS regression methods, we use two dependent variable scales: positive and negative support/interaction appraisals of the relationship. The positive relationship quality scale is associated with South Asian versus British-Canadian parents, mothers, those with greater income satisfaction, and daughters. The negative scale is inversely associated among South Asian versus British-Canadian parents, income satisfaction, parental health, and being unpartnered (vs. partnered). Interaction effects are found between gender and ethnicity. Implications for theorizing and applied recommendations for those who work with culturally diverse aging families are discussed.

Functional limitation and happiness among older adults: the multiple mediating role of intergenerational support and intergenerational relationship

Objectives

This study aimed to investigate the relationship between the functional limitation and happiness among Chinese older people and examined the multiple mediating effects of intergenerational support (instrumental support and financial support) and intergenerational relationship.

Method

Data was drawn from the Chinese Family Panel Survey (CFPS) 2018 and 2020. Structural equation modeling was adopted to analyze the association among functional limitations, intergenerational support, intergenerational relationship, and the older adults happiness.

Results

There was a significant association between the functional limitations and the lower happiness levels among the older adults. The instrumental support from adult children positively mediated the relationship between the functional limitation and the happiness. However, intergenerational relationships were reduced due to the dysfunction of the older adults, and played a negatively mediated role between the functional limitation and the happiness. In addition, instrumental and financial support play chain-mediating roles between functional limitation and happiness in older adults through intergenerational relationships.

Conclusion

Intergenerational relationships and instrumental support enhance the happiness of older adults with functional impairments, but their role is limited by the changing structure of modern families. Long-term care programs combined with the intergenerational support from families for people with functional impairments in old age would be more effective to reduce the burden on adult children and maintain the quality of life of the older adults.

Parental Interference in Offspring's Mate Choice: Sets of Actions and Counteractions Based on Both Perspectives

Mate choice in humans is specific by the involvement of kin both in partner choice and in the functioning of the relationship. The influence of relatives ranges from providing advice all the way to arranged marriages. Existing research so far tended to map neither the actual parental interventions and further reactions (counteractions) nor the independently pursued behavior (actions) by which the offspring or their partners assert their interests. This study identified such sets of behaviors through semi-structured individual interviews with members of 20 dyads of adult offspring and their biological parents (five son-mother, five son-father, five daughter-mother, and five daughter-father dyads). Thematic analysis revealed sets of parental actions aimed at the offspring, their partners, and the couple as a whole, as well as further counteractions (reactions to parental interference) and independently pursued behavior (actions) of the offspring and their partners aimed at the parents in the context of the offspring's previous or current relationship. Our findings showed that parental interference differed depending on the recipient: toward the couple were applied mainly indirect and supportive parental actions, whereas when facing their offspring or offspring's partner, parents' actions were more direct and disruptive. Our results thus indicate the importance of reporting about actual interactions which differ from the hypothetical settings used in prior studies by lower intensity. Moreover, by interviewing both members of dyads, we expanded the sets of actions and counteractions identified by prior studies and managed to limit self-reporting bias.

Gender and family structures affecting intergenerational support from adult children to older parents: A cross-national study in a developing country

In Latin America, informal support from adult children to their older parents ("upward support") is crucial with an aging population and insufficient coverage of social protection systems. This article examines variables associated with upward support, distinguishing by gender of parents and their children. The research design is quantitative, correlational, and cross-sectional. It is based on primary survey data collected by the authors for the study. The authors hypothesized that upward support depends on children's opportunities to provide support and on the needs of parents. The results show that upward support depends more on children's opportunities than on parents' needs, although upward support is higher for parents with poorer health. Daughters are more supportive than sons, but sibling characteristics do not moderate associations between children's gender and receipt of support. Cohabiting with the parent, receiving support from the parent, and having a good relationship were also associated with greater upward support. Therefore, policies should consider the gender of adult children when allocating resources to older people.

Perceptions of Closeness in Adult Parent-Child Dyads: Asymmetry in the Context of Family Complexity

OBJECTIVES

Multi-actor data show that parents' and adult children's evaluations of their relation do not necessarily match. We studied disagreement in parent- and child-reported closeness, comparing parent-child dyads involving separated parents, non-separated parents, and stepparents to shed new light on today's diverse landscape of adult parent-child relations.

METHOD

Using data from the Parents and Children in the Netherlands (OKiN) survey, we analyzed closeness in parent-child dyads (N = 4,602) comparing (step)parents' and their adult children's (aged 25-45) reports. To distinguish directional disagreement (i.e., differences in child- and parent-reported means) from nondirectional disagreement (i.e., the association between child- and parent-reported measures), while accounting for absolute levels of closeness, we estimated log-linear models.

RESULTS

All types of parents tend to report higher levels of closeness than their children. Whereas parental overreport is more prevalent among biological father-child dyads than among biological mother-child dyads, we found no differences between biological dyads and stepdyads. The association between children's and parents' reports is higher among dyads involving stepmothers or married mothers than among those involving separated mothers and (step)fathers.

DISCUSSION

The intergenerational stake (i.e., parental overreport) is not unique to biological parent-child relations. Instead, patterns of disagreement seem most strongly stratified by gender.

Accuracy of Adult Children's Perceptions of Mothers' Caregiver Preferences

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

Most older mothers have strong preferences regarding which offspring will serve as their future caregivers, and violation of these preferences has been found to have consequences for mothers' psychological well-being. However, no study has examined the accuracy of adult children's perceptions of their mothers' caregiver preferences. In this article, we compare mothers' stated preferences for particular caregivers with their adult children's perceptions of their mothers' preferences.

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS

Data were collected from 675 adult children and their mothers nested within 285 families as part of the Within-Family Differences Study.

RESULTS

Only 44.6% of adult children accurately reported their mothers' preferences for particular offspring as caregivers. Consistent with our hypotheses, accuracy was higher when mothers and children shared values regarding filial piety, and lower when children were parents, had poor health, and lived further away. Surprisingly, primary caregivers were substantially less likely to accurately report mothers' caregiver preferences than were noncaregivers. This counterintuitive pattern can be explained by the finding that most mothers were cared for by children whom they did not prefer and may have therefore been reluctant to share their preferences with those caregivers.

DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS

Given the negative psychological consequences for mothers whose caregiver preferences are violated, the high level of inaccuracy found among adult children has important implications when mothers face serious health events. These findings underscore the need for intervention efforts to encourage practitioners and clinicians to collect information directly from mothers regarding preferences for particular offspring as caregivers.

Conflict Strategies in the Parent-Adult Child Tie: Generation Differences and Implications for Well-Being

Objectives

Irritations often arise in intergenerational ties. Middle-aged individuals report that their relationships with adult children are more important and more negative than ties with aging parents. However, it is unclear whether midlife individuals use different interpersonal conflict strategies with adult children compared to aging parents, and whether the strategies used have implications for psychological well-being.

Method

This study examined middle-aged individuals' reports of conflict strategies with their adult children and their aging parents and their own depressive symptoms. Participants were from the Family Exchanges Study; middle-aged adults (N = 365, ages 45 to 66 years) reported on the conflict strategies used with each of their adult children and their aging parents.

Results

Models revealed that middle-aged individuals use more active strategies (e.g., discussing problems) with their adult children than their aging parents. In contrast, individuals used more passive strategies (e.g., avoidance) with aging parents than adult children. Further, passive strategies used with adult children are associated with greater depressive symptoms.

Discussion

Findings are consistent with the intraindividual stake hypothesis and imply that conflict strategies used with adult children may be more consequential for psychological well-being than those used with aging parents.

Intergenerational Transfer and Reporting Bias: An Application of the MIMIC Model

Objectives

Parents' and adult children's reports of transfer do not always agree, because each has respective bias. This study demonstrates a method to separate reporting bias from transfer and identify their respective correlates.

Method

The analysis was based on 4,947 parent-child dyads from the Family Roster and Transfer Module added to the 2013 wave of the Panel Study of Income Dynamics. Drawing on classical test theory, a multiple-indicators-and-multiple-causes (MIMIC) model was used to decompose parents' and adult children's reports of time and money transfers into a latent factor (true transfer) and unique factors (bias). This model further identified respective covariates associated with true transfer and bias.

Results

A substantial amount of bias existed in parents' and adult children's reports. The self-enhancement hypothesis did not fully explain how resources to help and need for support relate to the direction of reporting bias. Some correlates of transfer identified in prior studies were associated with transfer only, some with bias only, and others with both transfer and bias.

Discussion

Bias is common in both parents' and adult children's reports of transfer. Separating bias from transfer and identifying their respective correlates makes it possible to explain why intergenerational transfer and reporting bias occur.

Extending the Intergenerational Stake Hypothesis: Evidence of an Intraindividual Stake and Implications for Well-Being

The intergenerational stake hypothesis suggests that parents are more invested in their children and experience better quality parent-child ties than do their children. In this study the authors examined variation in reports of relationship quality regarding parents and children intraindividually (do people report better quality ties with their children than with their parents?) and whether within-person variations have implications for well-being. Participants age 40-60 (N = 633) reported on their relationship quality (importance, positive and negative quality) with their parents and adult children. Individuals reported their relationships with children were more important and more negative than relationships with parents. Individuals with feelings that were in the opposite direction of the intergenerational stake hypothesis (i.e., greater investment in parents than children) reported poorer well-being. The findings provide support for the intergenerational stake hypothesis with regard to within-person variations in investment and show that negative relationship quality may coincide with greater feelings of investment.

Parent–child relationships among older Chinese immigrants: the influence of co-residence, frequent contact, intergenerational support and sense of children's deference

Immigration disrupts the bonding process in families. Maintaining close relationships with adult children can be an important protective factor for older immigrants' health and wellbeing. Quantitative research explaining such close relationships is rare. This study examined factors associated with close parent–child relationships in a purposive sample of 236 older Chinese immigrants in Los Angeles who provided information regarding 365 children. Two-level regression models were estimated to investigate factors contributing to cohesive parent–child relationships among these older adults. The findings showed that co-residence, a characteristic that distinguishes immigrant families from most non-immigrant families, was associated with lower parent–child relationship quality. Frequent contact was associated with closer relationships. While receiving instrumental and monetary support from children was associated with favourable ratings of relationships with children, providing such support to children was not related to parents' assessment of relationship quality. Parental perceptions of children being respectful was also associated with better relationship quality ratings. Overall, the findings demonstrate how family-related changes in the immigration context shape parent–child relationships in later life. Implications for future research and practice are provided.

Do Positive Feelings Hurt? Disaggregating Positive and Negative Components of Intergenerational Ambivalence

Ambivalence has become an important conceptual development in the study of parent-adult child relations, with evidence highlighting that intergenerational relationships are characterized by a mix of positive and negative components. Recent studies have shown that ambivalence has detrimental consequences for both parents' and adult children's psychological well-being. The underlying assumption of this line of research is that psychological distress results from holding simultaneous positive and negative feelings toward a parent or child. The authors question this assumption and explore alternative interpretations by disaggregating the positive and negative dimensions commonly used to create indirect measures of intergenerational ambivalence. Data for the analyses were collected from 254 older mothers and a randomly selected adult child from each of the families. The findings suggest that the negative component is primarily responsible for the association between indirect measures of ambivalence and psychological well-being. Implications of these findings for the study of intergenerational ambivalence are discussed.

Interparental Violence: Similarities and Discrepancies Between Narratives of Mothers and Their Children

Previous studies and intervention programs on interparental violence have relied largely on reports either solely from parents or solely from children. Nevertheless, the literature and the theoretical background provide indications of the existence of discrepancies between the narratives of parents and those of children. This study therefore focuses on similarities and differences between the narratives of mothers and those of their children with regard to the children's exposure to interparental violence and its impact on child and parental functioning. In depth open interviews were conducted to assess the narratives of 36 mothers (27-59 years of age) and 43 of their children (17 boys and 26 girls; 9-25 years of age) who had experienced interparental violence in their past. A hierarchical coding system was used to code the interviews. Thereafter, the differences between mother and child narratives were analyzed based on the coded fragments. Few differences were found between the narratives with regard to parental functioning. We did find discrepancies, however, with regard to the children's exposure to interparental violence and its impact on child functioning. Exploratory analyses showed relationships between the discrepancies and the severity of the violence and age of the children. More attention to these differences is essential in order to enhance our knowledge concerning the complex impact of violence on family members and to improve support geared to their specific needs.

Perceptions of Equity, Balance of Support Exchange, and Mother-Adult Child Relations

Equity theory suggests that relationships are more harmonious when both members of a dyad believe that their exchanges are fair. However, the level and frequency of exchange, rather than perceptions of equity, have been the focus of most research on support and the quality of intergenerational relations. Using data from 1,426 mother-child dyads nested within 413 families collected as part of the Within-Family Differences Study, the authors explored whether mothers' perceptions of equity are better predictors of closeness and tension than are mothers' reports of balanced exchanges of support. Mixed-model analyses revealed that mothers' perceptions of equity were more consistent predictors of relationship quality than were the balanced exchanges of support, though the results varied somewhat by gender of adult child. These findings contribute to a growing body of research demonstrating that the psychological processes that shape intergenerational relationships mirror those of other ties.

Feeling lonely versus being alone: loneliness and social support among recently bereaved persons

OBJECTIVES

Despite increases in social support following widowhood, loneliness is among the most frequently reported challenges of bereavement. This analysis explores the dynamic relationship between social support and loneliness among recently bereaved older adults.

METHODS

Using longitudinal data from "Living After Loss" (n = 328), latent growth curve modeling was used to estimate changes in loneliness and social support during the first year and a half of bereavement among older adults aged 50+.

RESULTS

Both loneliness and social support declined over the first year and a half of bereavement. Greater social support was associated with lower levels of loneliness overall, but the receipt of social support did not modify one's expression of loneliness over time. Loneliness was more highly correlated with support from friends than family. Together, social support from both friends and family accounted for 36% of the total variance in loneliness.

DISCUSSION

There is conceptual and empirical overlap between the concepts of loneliness and social support, but results suggest that loneliness following widowhood cannot be remedied by interventions aimed only at increasing social support. Social support, especially that from friends, appears to be most effective if it is readily accessible and allows the newly bereaved an opportunity to express him/herself.

Conflict engagement and conflict disengagement during interactions between adults and their parents

OBJECTIVES

This study examined generational, ethnic, and gender differences in conflict behaviors during interactions between adults and their parents. We considered associations between observed conflict engagement and conflict disengagement behaviors and participant-rated relationship quality.

METHOD

Participants included 155 African American and European American women and men (aged 22-49 years), their mothers and their fathers (N = 465). Adult children were videotaped separately with their mother and their father discussing relationship problems. Independent raters coded the conversations for conflict engagement (e.g., pressuring for change) and disengagement (e.g., withdrawing) behaviors.

RESULTS

In African American families, parents displayed more conflict engagement and adult children displayed more conflict disengagement, whereas European American parents and adult children did not differ in their conflict behaviors. Mothers, fathers, and adult children reported poorer relationship quality when they engaged in more conflict engagement behaviors. Adult children also reported poorer quality relationships when their mothers displayed more conflict engagement behaviors. Mothers reported poorer quality relationships when their adult children engaged in more conflict disengagement.

DISCUSSION

Findings suggest that even as adults, parents and children in poorer quality relationships may engage in potentially ineffective behaviors to resolve conflicts.

Intergenerational relationship quality across three generations

OBJECTIVES

Studies of intergenerational relationship quality often include one or two generations. This study examined within-family differences and similarities or transmission of positive and negative relationship quality across three generations.

METHOD

Participants included 633 middle-aged individuals (G2; 52% women, ages 40-60 years), 592 of their offspring (G3; 53% daughters; ages 18-41 years), and 337 of their parents (i.e., grandparents; G1; 69% women; ages 59-96 years).

RESULTS

Multilevel models revealed differences and similarities in relationship quality across generations. The oldest generation (G1) reported greater positive and less negative quality relationships than the middle (G2) and the younger (G3) generations. There was limited evidence of transmission. Middle-aged respondents who reported more positive and less negative ties with their parents (G1) reported more positive and less negative ties with their own children (G3). Grandmother (G1) reports of more positive relationship quality were associated with G3 reports of more positive relationship quality with G2.

DISCUSSION

Findings are consistent with the intergenerational stake hypothesis and only partially consistent with the theory of intergenerational transmission. Overall, this study suggests that there is greater within-family variability than similarities in how family members feel about one another.

Conceptualizing and measuring intergenerational ambivalence in later life

OBJECTIVES

In this paper, we explored the association between direct and indirect measures of intergenerational ambivalence, making comparisons by generational position and child's gender; furthermore, we examined whether these measures were similarly strong predictors of depressive symptoms and positive affect.

METHODS

Data for the analysis were collected from 254 mothers aged 72-82 years and a randomly selected adult child as part of a larger study of within-family differences in parent-adult child relations.

RESULTS

The findings provided evidence that direct and indirect measures were strongly associated among mothers but only weakly associated among adult children, particularly sons. The two measures were similarly strong predictors of mothers', but not children's, depressive symptoms and positive affect. The most pronounced differences in congruence between direct and indirect measures were found when comparing mothers and sons.

DISCUSSION

The analyses presented here suggest that direct and indirect measures of intergenerational ambivalence may not be tapping the same underlying construct, particularly in the case of adult children and especially sons. Furthermore, direct measures may have an advantage over indirect measures when including sons in the study design. We conclude that direct and indirect measures cannot be used interchangeably across the combination of generation and gender.

Stability and change in the intergenerational family: a convoy approach

There have been fundamental changes in the intergenerational family, and yet families continue to be an important part of people's lives. We use the convoy model to describe the factors that influence supportive relations within intergenerational families, beginning with a description of the changing structure of the intergenerational family. We next outline support exchanges, detailing how personal characteristics, especially gender, race, age and socio-economic status, and situational characteristics, in particular family structure and intergenerational context, influence support exchanges. Instrumental and emotional family exchanges are described, with special attention to the unique circumstances of care-giving in intergenerational families. We also examine the importance of recognising differences in the quality of intergenerational relations, again noting the influence of personal and situational characteristics. Variations in support quality, e.g. positive, negative and ambivalent, and its influence on wellbeing are discussed. As families and individuals change, differences emerge at the individual, family and societal levels. We consider the implications of changes and stability in intergenerational relations and make recommendations about how best to envisage and plan future intergenerational family support. Societies with fewer resources as well as individuals and families with diverse individual histories must be innovative and creative in meeting the needs of older people as well as those of all family members.

Only as happy as the least happy child: multiple grown children's problems and successes and middle-aged parents' well-being

OBJECTIVES

Middle-aged parents' well-being may be tied to successes and failures of grown children. Moreover, most parents have more than one child, but studies have not considered how different children's successes and failures may be associated with parental well-being.

METHODS

Middle-aged adults (aged 40-60; N = 633) reported on each of their grown children (n = 1,384) and rated their own well-being. Participants indicated problems each child had experienced in the past two years, rated their children's successes, as well as positive and negative relationship qualities.

RESULTS

Analyses compared an exposure model (i.e., having one grown child with a problem or deemed successful) and a cumulative model (i.e., total problems or successes in the family). Consistent with the exposure and cumulative models, having one child with problems predicted poorer parental well-being and the more problems in the family, the worse parental well-being. Having one successful child did not predict well-being, but multiple grown children with higher total success in the family predicted enhanced parental well-being. Relationship qualities partially explained associations between children's successes and parental well-being.

DISCUSSION

Discussion focuses on benefits and detriments parents derive from how grown progeny turn out and particularly the implications of grown children's problems.

Caring for grandchildren and intergenerational support in rural China: a gendered extended family perspective

This investigation examines how support from adult children is affected by their parents' involvement in grandchild care. Instead of focusing on dyadic interactions, we adopt a gendered extended family perspective to examine how financial and emotional support from children was influenced when their siblings received help with child care from their elder parents. The data were from a two-wave (2001, 2003) longitudinal study of 4,791 parent–child dyads with 1,162 parents, aged 60 and older, living in rural areas of Anhui Province, China. Random effects regression showed that emotional support from both sons and daughters was strengthened when parents provided more child care for their other adult children; in addition, daughters were more emotionally responsive than sons under this situation. Concerning dyadic parent–child relationships, daughter and sons increased their financial support, and sons increased their emotional support when they themselves received help with child care from parents. We suggest taking a gendered extended family perspective when studying intergenerational relationships in rural China.

Discrepancies in reports of support exchanges between aging parents and their middle-aged children

OBJECTIVES

This study investigated predictors of discrepancies in reports of 5 types of support that aging parents and their middle-aged children exchanged with one another. Predictors included structural factors, including needs and resources and dyadic characteristics, and psychological factors, including family obligation and investment in the relationship.

METHODS

Participants included 337 dyads of parents (aged 59-96 years) and their children (aged 40-60 years). Multilevel models assessed the level of discrepancies between dyadic members and examined predictors accounting for the discrepancies. We considered downward (from parent to child) and upward (from child to parent) directions in support exchanges.

RESULTS

For upward support from adult children to their parents, children reported that they gave more than their aging parents reported receiving. For downward support from parents to children, the results differed depending on the type of support. Discrepancies between parents' and children's reports were associated with parents' feelings of obligation toward children and children's ratings of the importance of parent-child relationship.

DISCUSSION

These results suggest the importance of considering multiple perspectives and the direction of exchanges between generations. Discrepancies in reports of support reflect both self-enhancement and family context and may be an important source of misunderstanding and conflict between generations.

Support to aging parents and grown children in Black and White families

PURPOSE

Black and White middle-aged adults typically are in a pivot position of providing support to generations above and below. Racial differences in support to each generation in the family remain unclear, however. Different factors may account for racial differences in support of grown children versus aging parents.

DESIGN AND METHODS

Middle-aged adults (aged 40-60 years; 35%, n = 216 Black and 65%, n = 397 White) rated social support they provided each aging parent and grown child. Participants reported background characteristics representing their resources and measures of needs for each family member. Interviews also assessed beliefs about obligation to support parents and grown children and rewards from helping.

RESULTS

Multilevel models revealed White middle-aged adults provided more support to grown children than Black middle-aged adults. Demands from offspring, beliefs about support, and rewards from helping explained these racial differences. Black middle-aged adults provided more support to parents than White middle-aged adults. Beliefs about support and feelings of personal reward from providing support explained this difference but resources and demands did not.

IMPLICATIONS

Racial differences varied by generation (parent or offspring). The prolonged transitions common for White young adults explained racial differences in support of offspring. Middle-aged adults may treat support of parents as more discretionary, with cultural ideas about obligation and personal rewards guiding behaviors.

THE ROLE OF PERCEIVED RELIGIOUS SIMILARITY IN THE QUALITY OF MOTHER-CHILD RELATIONS IN LATER-LIFE: DIFFERENCES WITHIN FAMILIES AND BETWEEN RACES

Despite evidence of the importance of value similarity in predicting parent-adult child relations, little attention has been given to the unique role of religious similarity. Using 1,407 dyads nested within 390 families, we examine whether religious similarity predicts the quality of mother-child relations in later life, and whether the strength of this association differs by race. Consistent with our hypotheses, religious similarity was found to be an important factor in predicting both closeness and conflict, particularly in Black families. These findings suggest that it may be important to give greater attention to religion when studying patterns of interaction and support in the later years, especially among Black families.

Intergenerational transmission of chronic illness self-care: results from the caring for hypertension in African American families study

PURPOSE OF THE STUDY

African Americans often experience early onset of hypertension that can result in generations of adults managing high blood pressure concurrently. Using a model based on the Theory of Interdependence, this study examined whether intergenerational transmission of hypertension knowledge and self-efficacy would affect hypertension self-care of older parents and their adult children.

DESIGN AND METHODS

We recruited 95 African American older parent-adult child dyads with hypertension. We constructed separate logistic regression models for older parents and adult children with medication adherence as the outcome. Each model included individual demographic and health characteristics, the partner's knowledge, and self-efficacy to manage hypertension and dyad-related characteristics.

RESULTS

Parents were more adherent with medication than adult children (67.4% vs. 49.5%, p < .012). There were no significant factors associated with parent medication adherence. In adjusted models for adult children, medication adherence was associated with child's gender (odds ratio [OR] = 3.29, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 1.26-8.59), parent beliefs that the child had better hypertension self-care (OR = 4.36, 95% CI = 1.34-14.17), and child reports that the dyad conversed about hypertension (OR = 3.48, 95% CI = 1.18-10.29). Parental knowledge of hypertension and parent's self-efficacy were weakly associated with adult children's medication adherence (OR = 1.35, 95% CI = 0.99-1.84 and OR = 2.59, 95% CI = 0.94-7.12, respectively).

IMPLICATIONS

Interventions should consider targeting African American older adults to increase self-care knowledge and empower them as a primary influencer of hypertension self-care within the family.

Who gets what and why? Help middle-aged adults provide to parents and grown children

OBJECTIVES

Middle-aged adults engage in support exchanges with generations above and below. This study investigated (a) how support to one generation is associated with support to the other and (b) factors accounting for whether parents or offspring receive more support in a family.

METHODS

Middle-aged adults aged 40-60 years (N = 633) completed telephone interviews regarding their relationships and support exchanges with each grown child and living parent.

RESULTS

Multilevel models revealed that most participants provided more support to the average grown child than to the average parent. Yet, a proportion of the sample reversed this pattern, providing more support to parents. Mediation models revealed that middle-aged adults provided greater support to offspring because they viewed offspring as more important than parents and offspring had greater everyday needs (e.g., being a student, not married). Parental disability accounted for greater support to parents.

DISCUSSION

Discussion integrates solidarity theory, developmental stake, and contingency theory. Most middle-aged adults provide more to grown offspring than to parents, consistent with their greater stake in their progeny. Middle-aged adults also respond to crises (i.e., parental disability) and everyday needs (i.e., offspring student status) in providing intergenerational support, in accordance with contingency theory.

Giving to the Good and the Needy: Parental Support of Grown Children

Parents may provide many types of support to their grown children. Parents aged 40 to 60 (N = 633) reported the support they exchange with each child over age 18 (n = 1,384). Mothers and fathers differentiated among children within families, but provided emotional, financial, and practical help on average every few weeks to each child. Offspring received most assistance when they: (a) had greater needs (due to problems or younger age) or (b) were perceived as more successful. Parents received more from high achieving offspring. Findings support contingency theory; parents give more material and financial support to children in need. Motivation to enhance the self or to assure support later in life may explain support to high achieving offspring.

Tensions in the parent and adult child relationship: Links to solidarity and ambivalence

Tensions are normative in the parent and adult child relationship, but there is little research on the topics that cause the most tension or whether tensions are associated with overall relationship quality. In this study, adult sons and daughters, age 22 to 49, and their mothers and fathers (N = 158 families, 474 individuals) reported the intensity of different tension topics and relationship quality (solidarity and ambivalence) with one another. Tensions varied between and within families by generation, gender, and age of offspring. Compared to tensions regarding individual issues, tensions regarding the relationship were associated with lower affective solidarity and greater ambivalence. Findings are consistent with the developmental schism hypothesis, which indicates that parent-child tensions are common and are the result of discrepancies in developmental needs that vary by generation, gender, and age.

Ambivalent relationship qualities between adults and their parents: implications for the well-being of both parties

This study considered whether intergenerational ambivalence has implications for each party's psychological well-being and physical health. Participants included 158 families (N = 474) with a mother, a father, and a son or daughter aged 22 to 49 years. Actor-partner interaction models revealed that parents and offspring who self-reported greater ambivalence showed poorer psychological well-being. Partner reports of ambivalence were associated with poorer physical health. When fathers reported greater ambivalence, offspring reported poorer physical health. When grown children reported greater ambivalence, mothers reported poorer physical health. Fathers and offspring who scored lower in neuroticism showed stronger associations between ambivalence and well-being. Findings suggest that parents or offspring may experience greater ambivalence when the other party is in poorer health and that personality moderates associations between relationship qualities and well-being.

The Worries Adult Children and Their Parents Experience for One Another

This study examined the worries adults and their parents experience for one another. To date, relatively little research has considered the experience of worry in this relationship. A small number of studies, however, suggest worry is relatively common in this relationship (Boutain, 2001; Cicirelli, 1988; Parker, Call, Dunkle, & Vaitkus, 2002). Furthermore, worrying may be linked with mental and physical health (Beck et al., 2001; Hoyer, Becker, & Roth, 2001). A son or daughter (aged 22 to 49) and mother and father (aged 40 to 84) from 213 families participated. Adult children worried primarily about their parents' health. Interestingly, adult children with older parents were not more likely than adult children with younger parents to worry about their parents' health. In contrast, parents' worries were more diverse than those of adult children and included worries about their adult children's health, safety, relationships, and finances, among others. Furthermore, parents' worries were associated with their perceptions of relationship quality. Notably, parents who worried about their adult children's finances reported having poorer quality relationships with their adult children than parents who experienced other worries (e.g., about safety).

Ambivalent Reactions in the Parent and Offspring Relationship

Theory suggests that aging parents and their adult children experience ambivalence (conflicting emotions) as a result of unclear norms governing the tie between them. This study investigated personality differences and relationship context differences in ambivalence, as well as the reactions of parents and offspring to each other. As part of the Adult Family Study, 474 individuals from 158 family triads consisting of a mother, father, and son or daughter aged 22 to 49 years completed telephone interviews, in-person interviews, and questionnaires. Multilevel models revealed that poor parental health and neuroticism in parents and offspring were associated with greater ambivalence. Surprisingly, investment in competing roles was associated with less ambivalence. Parents also experienced greater ambivalence when offspring scored higher on neuroticism, rated the parent as less important, or were less invested in their own spousal role. Parents' characteristics were not associated with offspring's ambivalence. Parents appear to react to their children's personality and achievements even after children are grown.