Examining Influences of Parenting Styles and Practices on Physical Activity and Sedentary Behaviors in Latino Children in the United States: Integrative Review

Investigating Facilitators and Barriers for Active Breaks among Secondary School Students: Formative Evaluation of Teachers and Students

Physical activity in the form of "active breaks" can be combined with academic instruction in primary school. However, few studies have examined the feasibility of conducting active breaks in secondary school. To address this gap, we conducted focus groups (FGs) regarding the implementation of an active breaks (ABs) protocol with 20 teachers and 10 secondary school students. Barriers/facilitators toward the implementation of ABs were classified using grounded theory inductive methods framed by the socio-ecological model. Individual-level factors were instrumental for both teachers and students. Teachers highlighted personal fears and concerns regarding using ABs, while students reported fears related to peer behaviour during the activity. Both teachers and students agreed that ABs can improve cognitive skills and time-on-task behaviour. Teachers articulated concerns related to student behaviour during ABs including possible social exclusion and injury. Students felt that ABs might affect classroom management and interfere with maintaining students' academic focus. Teachers underscored that ABs required social support from the administration and colleagues. Students felt that ABs could support teachers' instructional focus and provide them with an energy respite. Collectively, the FGs suggested that environmental limitations could hinder the implementation of ABs. Involving teacher and student feedback during the codesign phase can rationally inform the design of school-based ABs.

Influence of parental involvement and parenting styles in children's active lifestyle: a systematic review

Background

Parents influence their children's lifestyles through modeling and support, which modifies how children approach physical activity. As such, this systematic review aims to know the influence of parental involvement in children's active lifestyles and the influence of parenting styles on children's practice and motivation towards physical activity.

Methodology

PubMed, Google Scholar, Scopus, ResearchGate, and Web of Science databases were searched from 15 July 2022 to 30 August 2022. The publication date of the included manuscripts was between November 2012 and January 2021. The methodological quality of the studies was analyzed using the Scale for Evaluating Scientific Articles in Social and Human Science. Furthermore, it was utilized the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses 2020.

Results

The sample of the 10 included studies (in which different self-report measures were administered) was 1,957 children and their parents. In one study, parental involvement across limits decreased sedentary behaviours. In another, parent-child co-participation in physical activity improved participation in it. In one study, democratic parents predicted moderate-vigorous physical activity. In another, authoritarian styles were associated with sports practice. In another, permissive styles were associated with the worst physical activity practice. In one study, permissive parents were not significantly related to physical activity. In another, negligent parents were negatively associated with sports practice. In two studies, parenting styles were not associated with physical activity. In a study, the autonomy support of permissive parents and the structure of democratic parents is related to autonomous motivations. The coercive control of authoritarian parents and the lack of structure of negligent parents are related to non-self-determined motivations or amotivation.

Conclusions

Parental involvement contributes to children's participation in physical activity. There is no unanimity in the results obtained in parenting styles and the practice of physical activity. Democratic and permissive styles are associated with self-determined motivations, as opposed to negligent and authoritarian ones. The results obtained have been extracted from studies where different self-report measures are administered, so it would be advisable to continue researching this subject.

Cultural and neighborhood characteristics associated with activity-specific parenting practices in Hispanic/Latino youth: a secondary analysis of the Hispanic Community Children's health study/study of Latino youth

Hispanic/Latino youth are less physically active than non-Hispanic/Latino youth. We assessed whether activity-specific parenting practices relate to moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) and sedentary behavior among Hispanic/Latino youth, and whether cultural (acculturation) and neighborhood characteristics (perceived barriers to activity) relate to the use of parenting practice patterns. Using the Hispanic Community Children's Health Study/Study of Latino Youth (SOL Youth, n = 976 8-16-year-olds), we modeled linear regression associations between parenting practices and mean daily MVPA and sedentary behavior. Parenting practice patterns were then developed using k-means cluster analysis, and regressed on parental acculturation and neighborhood characteristics. Discipline predicted higher MVPA in females (β 1.89 [95% CI 0.11-3.67]), while Monitoring/Reinforcement predicted higher MVPA in males (β 4.71 [95% CI 0.68-8.74]). Three patterns were then identified: Negative Reinforcement (high Limit Setting and Discipline use), Positive Reinforcement (high Limit Setting and Monitoring/Reinforcement use), and Permissive Parenting (low parenting practice use). Higher acculturation predicted use of Positive Reinforcement. Activity-specific parenting practices are associated with activity in sex-specific ways among Hispanic/Latino youth, and cultural factors predict the use of parenting practices.

The associations between social support change and physical activity trajectory from late adolescence to young adulthood

BACKGROUND

Previous research examined the associations between social support and physical activity. However, little is known about the associations between social support change and trajectories of physical activity during the transition from late adolescence to young adulthood.

METHODS

The current study sought to examine these issues among 434 Chinese college students (Mage = 19.15, SDage = 0.61; 46.1% male), who completed questionnaires regarding demographics, physical activity, family support change, and peer support change across three waves (the data from one of the waves was retrospective).

RESULTS

After controlling for covariates, the findings revealed that: (a) there was an increase in overall physical activity and duration, but a decrease in frequency during the transition from late adolescence (the second year of high school) to young adulthood (the third year of college); (b) family support change did not contribute to trajectories of physical activity, while peer support change significantly predicted the trajectory of overall physical activity, duration, and frequency.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings extend the literature on physical activity from a developmental perspective by revealing different trends among physical activity duration and frequency, and unpacking different effects of family and peer support change on trajectories of physical activity.

Significant others and students' leisure-time physical activity intention: A prospective test of the social influence in sport model

This two-wave prospective study applied the Social Influence in Sport Model to investigate whether the social influences of parents, physical education (PE) teachers, and peers were predictive of students' intention to engage in leisure-time physical activity (PA). Participants were 2,484 secondary school students (11-18 years old) who completed a questionnaire assessing positive influence, punishment, and dysfunction from the three social agents (parents, PE teachers, and peers) at baseline, and PA intention at a 1-month follow-up. Structural equation modelling (SEM) yielded excellent goodness-of-fit and consistent pathways between the three social agents. Students' leisure-time PA intention (R² = .103 to 0.112) was positively associated with positive influence (β = .223 to 0.236, p < .001) and punishment (β = .214 to 0.256, p < .01), and negatively associated with dysfunction (β = - 0.281 to -.335, p < .001). Multi-group SEM showed that the predictions were invariant between parents, PE teachers, and peers. Furthermore, no significant differences in students' gender were found between perceived social influence and PA intention. The findings supported the application of the Social Influence in Sport Model in explaining the role of significant others on students' intention to take part in leisure-time PA.

Parental Influence on Child and Adolescent Physical Activity Level: A Meta-Analysis

Parents are often regarded as one of the significant social agents who are important to the participation of physical activity (PA) among children and adolescents. However, within the literature, the relationships between parental influences and child and adolescent PA have been inconclusive and discordant. The purpose of this meta-analysis was to quantify and synthesize the associations between parental social influences (positive parental influence, punishment, and discouragement) and the PA level of children and adolescents. Through a systematic literature search using PsycINFO, Web of Science, PubMed, ProQuest, and SPORTDiscus databases, we identified 112 eligible studies and subsequently extracted 741 effect sizes for our analysis. Multilevel meta-analysis showed that the corrected zero-order correlation of positive parental influence was positive and statistically significant, r = 0.202, SE = 0.014, t = 14.975, p < 0.001, 95% confidence interval (CI) = [0.176, 0.228]. Further moderation analysis also found that this was significantly moderated by parental gender (maternal vs. paternal), respondent of influence measure (parent-reported vs. child-reported), and type of PA measure (subjective vs. objective). The corrected zero-order correlations of negative parental influences (i.e., punishment and discouragement) were not statistically significant, and no significant moderation effects were observed. The findings of our meta-analysis showed that children and adolescents had higher PA levels when their parents supported PA participation by exerting positive social influence. Punishment and discouragement against PA by parents did not appear to be significantly associated with the PA level of children and adolescents. The findings of negative parental social influence were mixed and required further investigations.

Early effects of COVID-19 on physical activity and screen time use among elementary school students in Columbus, New Mexico

Adherence to national physical activity guidelines among youth ages 6-11 in the United States is low. The emergence of COVID-19 and the public health measures implemented in response may have decreased children's physical activity even further. We conducted an online survey among parents of students attending Columbus Elementary School in Columbus, New Mexico, a rural community on the US-Mexico border, to assess changes in children's physical activity and screen time use from summer 2019 to summer 2020. We also sought to identify important covariates. All parents (N = 55) and children (N = 87) identified as Hispanic; most parents were born in Mexico, while most children were born in the United States. Most parents (79.3%) reported a decrease in their children's physical activity from 2019 to 2020, and the vast majority of these parents reported that the changes were due to COVID-19 home confinement. The mean number of days children were physically active for >60 minutes significantly decreased, while daily screen time use increased. Having parents born in Mexico, infrequent family meals (<3/week), and not having community spaces for physical activity close by protected children from decreases in their level of physical activity from 2019 to 2020. Home-based exercise may serve as a suitable method of physical activity when public health responses to COVID-19 restrict community spaces. Future interventions should also be mindful of the role that parental nativity and related cultural factors may play in children's physical activity levels.

Parental Effects on Obesity, Smoking, and Drinking in Children and Adolescents: A Twin Study

PURPOSE

Parenting style has been associated with children's weight-related outcomes and health behaviors, but this relationship may be confounded by genetic influences. Using a twin design to better control for genetics and shared home environments, this study aimed to estimate the longitudinal parental effects on obesity, smoking, and drinking in children and adolescents.

METHODS

Data were retrieved from the first two waves of the German Twin Family Panel. A total of 631 pairs of same-sex monozygotic twins were analyzed, including three birth cohorts aged 5, 11, and 17 years. Self-reported parenting styles were measured in five dimensions: emotional warmth, psychological control, negative communication, monitoring, and inconsistent parenting. Outcome variables included children's body mass index z-score (BMIz) and smoking and alcohol drinking frequency. The differencing method was used to examine the relationship between within-monozygotic pair differences in parenting styles and health outcomes, controlling for differences at baseline, genetic influences, and other shared characteristics between twins.

RESULTS

Controlling for genetics, shared environmental effects, and body weight status at baseline, the twin who received harsher parenting in communication had lower BMI than their cotwin. Subgroup analyses found that negative communication had a stronger impact on the youngest cohort and female twins. Paternal parenting differentially relates to child weight compared to maternal parenting. No concurrent and long-lasting effects of paternal parenting on smoking and drinking were found.

DISCUSSION

The twin study design is a unique epidemiological tool to measure the contribution of genetics as opposed to the environment, to a given health trait. This study found that negative communication was associated with lower BMI in German twin families. However, it failed to identify strong evidence for the causal link between other parenting dimensions and child's weight status and alcohol and tobacco use. More twin studies with objective measurements are warranted to understand the critical role of parenting, especially family communication, in predicting children's BMIs and their health behaviors across cultures.

Generational Status, Language Use, Parental Limit Setting, and Screen Time in US Latinx Children

Latinx children engage in excessive screen time and are disproportionately affected by obesity. We examined the effect of generational status and language use on screen time in 6- to 11-year-old Latinx children and whether parental limit setting mediated that relationship. Participants included 3127 children (aged 9.2 ± 2.0 years; 54% male) from the 2011-2012 National Survey of Children's Health. Spanish language use was associated with 14.0 more minutes per day of screen time (P = .038); parental limit setting partially mediated this relationship (11.4%). Future research should explore the protective role of parental limit setting in reducing screen time in Latinx children.

Perceptions of Family-Level Social Factors That Influence Health Behaviors in Latinx Adolescents and Young Adults at High Risk for Type 2 Diabetes

Given that health behaviors occur within the context of familial social relationships, a deeper understanding of social factors that influence health behaviors in Latinx families is needed to develop more effective diabetes prevention programming. This qualitative study identified perceived family-level social factors that influence health behaviors in Latinx adolescents (12-16 years; N = 16) and young adults (18-24 years; N = 15) with obesity and explored differences in perceptions across sex and age. Participants completed an in-depth interview that was recorded, transcribed, and coded using thematic content analysis. Emergent themes central to health behaviors included: perceived parental roles and responsibilities, perceived family social support for health behaviors, and familial social relationships. Mom's role as primary caregiver and dad's role as a hard worker were seen as barriers to engaging in health behaviors among adolescent females and young adults, males and females. Adolescents perceived receiving more support compared to young adults and males perceived receiving more support compared to females. Health behaviors in both age groups were shaped through early familial social interactions around physical activity. These insights suggest that traditional gender roles, social support, and social interaction around health behaviors are critical components for family-based diabetes prevention programs in high-risk Latinx youth and young adults.

Parental control and support for physical activity predict adolescents' moderate to vigorous physical activity over five years

BACKGROUND

Social factors are important determinants of youth physical activity (PA), but the longitudinal association between parental behaviours and adolescent PA has not been clearly assessed. This prospective study examined average and lagged associations between perceived parental support and control with adolescents' moderate to vigorous PA (MVPA); and assessed the independent associations between specific parental support and control behaviours and adolescents' MVPA.

METHODS

Data from three cycles of the MATCH study, when 374 participants were 12, 16 and 17 years old, were included in this analysis. At each cycle, participants self-reported questionnaires on perceived tangible parental support, intangible support, and control behaviours as well as number of days per week attaining at least 60 min of MVPA. Mixed effect models were used to assess the longitudinal relationship between parental behaviours and MVPA. Cross-lagged panel design was used to assess the association of parental behaviours during early adolescence with MVPA during late adolescence.

RESULTS

Overall parental support (coef. = 0.46, P < 0.0001), tangible support (coef. = 0.37, P < 0.0001), encouragement (coef. = 0.12, P = 0.025) and transportation (coef. = 0.25, P < 0.0001) were positively associated with MVPA, whereas parental control was a negative predictor of MVPA (coef. = - 0.18, P = 0.003). Perceived parental behaviours appeared to have long term associations (5 y.) with MVPA as parent support (coef. = 0.40, P = 0.006) and co-participation (coef. = 0.33, P = 0.017) reported around age 12 were positively associated with MVPA measured 5 years later.

CONCLUSIONS

Parental support for PA, particularly in the form of tangible support, may be a key factor to include in interventions aiming to promote PA during adolescence. In contrast, parents should be encouraged to avoid control behaviours as these appear to lead to lower MVPA among adolescents.

The Association of the Parent-Child Language Acculturation Gap with Obesity and Cardiometabolic Risk in Hispanic/Latino Youth: Results from the Hispanic Community Children's Health Study/Study of Latino Youth (SOL Youth)

BACKGROUND

Hispanic/Latino youth are disproportionately burdened by obesity and have a high prevalence of prediabetes and dyslipidemia. Differences in parent and child acculturation related to language use and preference (i.e., language acculturation) are associated with adverse cardiometabolic health behaviors, but no study has examined associations with cardiometabolic markers.

PURPOSE

To determine whether discordance in parent-child language acculturation (parent-child acculturation gap) was associated with poor youth cardiometabolic health.

METHODS

Hispanic/Latino 8-16-year-olds (n = 1,466) and parents from the Hispanic Community Children's Health Study/Study of Latino Youth (SOL Youth) were examined. Mean scores for the Brief ARSMA-II's Anglo (AOS) and Latino (LOS) Orientation Scales represented language acculturation. Cardiometabolic markers included youth body mass index (BMI) percentile, blood pressure percentiles, and dysglycemia and hyperlipidemia measures. Missing data were imputed. Survey-weighted multivariable linear regression examined the association of youth, parent, and youth × parent (the acculturation gap) AOS and LOS scores separately with each cardiometabolic marker.

RESULTS

Youth reported greater English and lower Spanish use than parents. Greater discordance in AOS scores was associated with elevated BMI percentile only (p-for-interaction < .01). The LOS acculturation gap was not associated with any outcome. Adjustment for acculturative stress, family functioning and closeness, parenting style, and youth's diet and physical activity did not alter findings. Removal of nonsignificant acculturation gaps did not indicate an association between individual youth or parent AOS or LOS scores and any cardiometabolic marker.

CONCLUSIONS

Discordance in Hispanic/Latino parent-child dyads' English use may relate to increased risk for childhood obesity. Future studies should identify mediators of this association.

Barriers and Facilitators to Leisure Physical Activity in Children: A Qualitative Approach Using the Socio-Ecological Model

Despite the benefits of engaging in physical activity during their leisure time, children do not meet the recommendations on physical activity. Following the socio-ecological model as a theoretical framework, the aim of this study was to determine the barriers and facilitators that influence physical activity participation in children's leisure time. Data collection was conducted through focus groups and individual drawings in a sample of 98 eight- to eleven-year-olds from six schools in Cuenca (Spain). Following the socio-ecological model, individual characteristics (age and sex), as well as the microsystem (parents and friends), mesosystem (timing and out-of-school schedule) and exosystem (safety and weather) influence physical activity participation. The relationships between these levels of the socio-ecological model reveal that opportunities for leisure physical activity are determined by children's schedules. This schedule is negotiated by the family and is influenced by parents' worries and necessities. This is the main barrier to physical activity participation due to the creation of more restrictive, sedentary schedules, especially for girls. Our results show the elements required to develop successful strategies to increase physical activity opportunities, namely, focusing on giving children the opportunity to choose activities, raising parents' awareness of the importance of physical activity and improving the perceived safety of parks, taking into consideration the gender perspective.

Parenting practices that may encourage and discourage physical activity in preschool-age children of Brazilian immigrant families: A qualitative study

Brazilians are a rapidly increasing Latino immigrant group in the United States (US), yet little research has examined factors influencing physical activity (PA) levels and behaviors of children growing up in Brazilian immigrant families. This information is needed to develop culturally sensitive interventions tailored to this population. Therefore, this qualitative study explored PA parenting practices used by Brazilian immigrant mothers living in the US. Thirty-seven Brazilian immigrant mothers with at least one child between the ages of 2 and 5 years participated in 1of 7 focus group discussions. Thematic analysis identified seven parenting practices that mothers employ that may encourage or facilitate physical activity their preschool-aged children's PA including: 1) modeling PA; 2) engaging and being physically active with child; 3) providing logistic support; 4) encouraging, praising, and offering motivational support; 5) watching, supervising, and teaching children how to engage in PA; 6) monitoring and setting limits to child's screen time; and 7) prompting child to be physically active. In addition, analysis identified four parenting practices that may discourage or inhibit children's PA including: 1) modeling of sedentary behaviors; 2) having rules and restrictions due to safety- and weather-related concerns; 3) limiting child's outdoor time due to parental time constraints; and 4) restricting child's outdoor and play time as punishment. Furthermore, analyses demonstrated that social contextual factors (e.g., income, housing, neighborhood safety, etc.) influence mothers' PA parenting practices and consequently, their children's PA. This is the first qualitative study, to our knowledge, to explore PA parenting practices of Brazilian-born immigrant mothers living in the US. Future research should further explore PA parenting practices of Brazilian immigrant parents including quantifying PA parenting practices that encourage and discourage PA, as well as examining the influence of fathers' PA parenting practices on young children's PA.