Nanoparticle systems for cancer vaccine

Immunocyte membrane-derived biomimetic nano-drug delivery system: a pioneering platform for tumour immunotherapy

Tumor immunotherapy characterized by its high specificity and minimal side effects has achieved revolutionary progress in the field of cancer treatment. However, the complex mechanisms of tumor immune microenvironment (TIME) and the individual variability of patients' immune system still present significant challenges to its clinical application. Immunocyte membrane-coated nanocarrier systems, as an innovative biomimetic drug delivery platform, exhibit remarkable advantages in tumor immunotherapy due to their high targeting capability, good biocompatibility and low immunogenicity. In this review we summarize the latest research advances in biomimetic delivery systems based on immune cells for tumor immunotherapy. We outline the existing methods of tumor immunotherapy including immune checkpoint therapy, adoptive cell transfer therapy and cancer vaccines etc. with a focus on the application of various immunocyte membranes in tumor immunotherapy and their prospects and challenges in drug delivery and immune modulation. We look forward to further exploring the application of biomimetic delivery systems based on immunocyte membrane-coated nanoparticles, aiming to provide a new framework for the clinical treatment of tumor immunity.

Lipid-coated gold nanorods for photoimmunotherapy of primary breast cancer and the prevention of metastasis

Nanomedicines hold promise for the treatment of various diseases. However, treating cancer metastasis remains highly challenging. In this study, we synthesized gold nanorods (AuNRs) containing (α-GC), an immune stimulator, for the treatment of primary cancer, metastasis, and recurrence of the cancer. Therefore, the AuNR were coated with lipid bilayers loaded with α-GC (α-LA). Upon irradiation with 808 nm light, α-LA showed a temperature increase. Intra-tumoral injection of α-LA in mice and local irradiation of the 4T1 breast cancer tumor effectively eliminated tumor growth. We found that the presence of α-GC in α-LA activated dendritic cells and T cells in the spleen, which completely blocked the development of lung metastasis. In mice injected with α-LA for primary breast cancer treatment, we observed antigen-specific T cell responses and increased cytotoxicity against 4T1 cells. We conclude that α-LA is promising for the treatment of both primary breast cancer and its metastasis.

Advances in bacteria-based drug delivery systems for anti-tumor therapy

In recent years, bacteria have gained considerable attention as a promising drug carrier that is critical in improving the effectiveness and reducing the side effects of anti-tumor drugs. Drug carriers can be utilised in various forms, including magnetotactic bacteria, bacterial biohybrids, minicells, bacterial ghosts and bacterial spores. Additionally, functionalised and engineered bacteria obtained through gene engineering and surface modification could provide enhanced capabilities for drug delivery. This review summarises the current studies on bacteria-based drug delivery systems for anti-tumor therapy and discusses the prospects and challenges of bacteria as drug carriers. Furthermore, our findings aim to provide new directions and guidance for the research on bacteria-based drug systems.

Bioinformatic analysis and experimental validation of six cuproptosis-associated genes as a prognostic signature of breast cancer

Background

Breast carcinoma (BRCA) is a life-threatening malignancy in women and shows a poor prognosis. Cuproptosis is a novel mode of cell death but its relationship with BRCA is unclear. This study attempted to develop a cuproptosis-relevant prognostic gene signature for BRCA.

Methods

Cuproptosis-relevant subtypes of BRCA were obtained by consensus clustering. Differential expression analysis was implemented using the 'limma' package. Univariate Cox and multivariate Cox analyses were performed to determine a cuproptosis-relevant prognostic gene signature. The signature was constructed and validated in distinct datasets. Gene set variation analysis (GSVA) and gene set enrichment analysis (GSEA) were also conducted using the prognostic signature to uncover the underlying molecular mechanisms. ESTIMATE and CIBERSORT algorithms were applied to probe the linkage between the gene signature and tumor microenvironment (TME). Immunotherapy responsiveness was assessed using the Tumor Immune Dysfunction and Exclusion (TIDE) web tool. Real-time quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR) was performed to detect the expressions of cuproptosis-relevant prognostic genes in breast cancer cell lines.

Results

Thirty-eight cuproptosis-associated differentially expressed genes (DEGs) in BRCA were mined by consensus clustering and differential expression analysis. Based on univariate Cox and multivariate Cox analyses, six cuproptosis-relevant prognostic genes, namely SAA1, KRT17, VAV3, IGHG1, TFF1, and CLEC3A, were mined to establish a corresponding signature. The signature was validated using external validation sets. GSVA and GSEA showed that multiple cell cycle-linked and immune-related pathways along with biological processes were associated with the signature. The results ESTIMATE and CIBERSORT analyses revealed significantly different TMEs between the two Cusig score subgroups. Finally, RT-qPCR analysis of cell lines further confirmed the expressional trends of SAA1, KRT17, IGHG1, and CLEC3A.

Conclusion

Taken together, we constructed a signature for projecting the overall survival of BRCA patients and our findings authenticated the cuproptosis-relevant prognostic genes, which are expected to provide a basis for developing prognostic molecular biomarkers and an in-depth understanding of the relationship between cuproptosis and BRCA.

Induction of antigen-specific immunity by mesoporous silica nanoparticles incorporating antigen peptides

Mesoporous silica nanoparticles (MSNs) are physically and chemically stable inorganic nanomaterials that have been attracting much attention as carriers for drug delivery systems in the field of nanomedicine. In the present study, we investigated the potential of MSN vaccines that incorporate antigen peptides for use in cancer immunotherapy. In vitro experiments demonstrated that fluorescently labeled MSNs accumulated in a line of mouse dendritic cells (DC2.4 cells), where the particles localized to the cytosol. These observations could suggest that MSNs have potential for use in delivering the loaded molecules into antigen-presenting cells, thereby stimulating the host acquired immune system. In vivo experiments demonstrated prolonged survival in mice implanted with ovalbumin (OVA)-expressing lymphoma cells (E.G7-OVA cells) following subcutaneous inoculation with MSNs incorporating OVA antigen peptides. Furthermore, OVA-specific immunoglobulin G antibodies and cytotoxic T lymphocytes were detected in the serum and the spleen cells, respectively, of mice inoculated with an MSN-OVA vaccine, indicating the induction of antigen-specific responses in both the humoral and cellular immune systems. These results suggested that the MSN therapies incorporating antigen peptides may serve as novel vaccines for cancer immunotherapy.

Ferritin Nanoparticle Delivery of the E2 Protein of Classical Swine Fever Virus Completely Protects Pigs from Lethal Challenge

Classical swine fever (CSF), caused by the classical swine fever virus (CSFV), results in significant economic losses to the swine industry in many countries. Vaccination represents the primary strategy to control CSF and the CSFV E2 protein is known as the major protective antigen. However, the E2 protein expressed or presented by different systems elicits distinct immune responses. In this study, we established a stable CHO cell line to express the E2 protein and delivered it using self-assembled ferritin nanoparticles (NPs). Subsequently, we compared the adaptive immune responses induced by the E2-ferritin NPs and the monomeric E2 protein produced by the CHO cells or a baculovirus expression system. The results revealed that the NP-delivered E2 protein elicited higher titers of neutralizing antibodies than did the monomeric E2 protein in pigs. Importantly, only the NP-delivered E2 protein significantly induced CSFV-specific IFN-γ-secreting cells. Furthermore, all the pigs inoculated with the E2-ferritin NPs were completely protected from a lethal CSFV challenge infection. These findings demonstrate the ability of the E2-ferritin NPs to protect pigs against the lethal CSFV challenge by eliciting robust humoral and cellular immune responses.

The dawn of a new Era: mRNA vaccines in colorectal cancer immunotherapy

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is a typical cancer that accounts for 10% of all new cancer cases annually and nearly 10% of all cancer deaths. Despite significant progress in current classical interventions for CRC, these traditional strategies could be invasive and with numerous adverse effects. The poor prognosis of CRC patients highlights the evident and pressing need for more efficient and targeted treatment. Novel strategies regarding mRNA vaccines for anti-tumor therapy have also been well-developed since the successful application for the prevention of COVID-19. mRNA vaccine technology won the 2023 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, signaling a new direction in human anti-cancer treatment: mRNA medicine. As a promising new immunotherapy in CRC and other multiple cancer treatments, the mRNA vaccine has higher specificity, better efficacy, and fewer side effects than traditional strategies. The present review outlines the basics of mRNA vaccines and their advantages over other vaccines and informs an available strategy for developing efficient mRNA vaccines for CRC precise treatment. In the future, more exploration of mRNA vaccines for CRC shall be attached, fostering innovation to address existing limitations.

Regulatory insights into nanomedicine and gene vaccine innovation: Safety assessment, challenges, and regulatory perspectives

This analysis explores the principal regulatory concerns linked to nanomedicines and gene vaccines, including the complexities involved and the perspectives on how to navigate them. In the realm of nanomedicines, ensuring the safety of nanomaterials is paramount due to their unique characteristics and potential interactions with biological systems. Regulatory bodies are actively formulating guidelines and standards to assess the safety and risks associated with nanomedicine products, emphasizing the need for standardized characterization techniques to accurately gauge their safety and effectiveness. Regarding gene vaccines, regulatory frameworks must be tailored to address the distinct challenges posed by genetic interventions, necessitating special considerations in safety and efficacy evaluations, particularly concerning vector design, target specificity, and long-term patient monitoring. Ethical concerns such as patient autonomy, informed consent, and privacy also demand careful attention, alongside the intricate matter of intellectual property rights, which must be balanced against the imperative of ensuring widespread access to these life-saving treatments. Collaborative efforts among regulatory bodies, researchers, patent offices, and the private sector are essential to tackle these challenges effectively, with international cooperation being especially crucial given the global scope of nanomedicine and genetic vaccine development. Striking the right balance between safeguarding intellectual properties and promoting public health is vital for fostering innovation and ensuring equitable access to these ground-breaking technologies, underscoring the significance of addressing these regulatory hurdles to fully harness the potential benefits of nanomedicine and gene vaccines for enhancing healthcare outcomes on a global scale. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: Several biomaterials are being proposed for the development of nanovaccines, from polymeric micelles, PLGA-/PEI-/PLL-nanoparticles, solid lipid nananoparticles, cationic lipoplexes, liposomes, hybrid materials, dendrimers, carbon nanotubes, hydrogels, to quantum dots. Lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) have gained tremendous attention since the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approval of Pfizer and Moderna's COVID-19 vaccines, raising public awareness to the regulatory challenges associated with nanomedicines and genetic vaccines. This review provides insights into the current perspectives and potential strategies for addressing these issues, including clinical trials. By navigating these regulatory landscapes effectively, we can unlock the full potential of nanomedicine and genetic vaccines using a range of promising biomaterials towards improving healthcare outcomes worldwide.

Nanodrug Delivery Systems in Antitumor Immunotherapy

Cancer has become one of the most important factors threatening human health, and the global cancer burden has been increasing rapidly. Immunotherapy has become another clinical research hotspot after surgery, chemotherapy, and radiotherapy because of its high efficiency and tumor metastasis prevention. However, problems such as lower immune response rate and immune-related adverse reaction in the clinical application of immunotherapy need to be urgently solved. With the development of nanodrug delivery systems, various nanocarrier materials have been used in the research of antitumor immunotherapy with encouraging therapeutic results. In this review, we mainly summarized the combination of nanodrug delivery systems and immunotherapy from the following 4 aspects: (a) nanodrug delivery systems combined with cytokine therapy to improve cytokines delivery in vivo; (b) nanodrug delivery systems provided a suitable platform for the combination of immune checkpoint blockade therapy with other tumor treatments; (c) nanodrug delivery systems helped deliver antigens and adjuvants for tumor vaccines to enhance immune effects; and (d) nanodrug delivery systems improved tumor treatment efficiency and reduced toxicity for adoptive cell therapy. Nanomaterials chosen by researchers to construct nanodrug delivery systems and their function were also introduced in detail. Finally, we discussed the current challenges and future prospects in combining nanodrug delivery systems with immunotherapy.

Mammalian Cell Membrane Hybrid Polymersomes for mRNA Delivery

Cell membranes are structures essential to the cell function and adaptation. Recent studies have targeted cell membranes to identify their protective and interactive properties. Leveraging these attributes of cellular membranes and their application to vaccine delivery is gaining increasing prominence. This study aimed to fuse synthetic polymeric nanoparticles with cell membranes to develop cell membrane hybrid polymersomes (HyPSomes) for enhanced vaccine delivery. We designed a platform to hybridize cell membranes with methoxy-poly(ethylene glycol)-block-polylactic acid nanoparticles by using the properties of both components. The formed HyPSomes were optimized by using dynamic light scattering, transmission electron microscopy, and Förster resonance energy transfer, and their stability was confirmed. The synthesized HyPSomes replicated the antigenic surface of the source cells and possessed the stability and efficacy of synthetic nanoparticles. These HyPSomes demonstrated enhanced cellular uptake and translation efficiency and facilitated endosome escape. HyPSomes showed outstanding capabilities for the delivery of foreign mRNAs to antigen-presenting cells. HyPSomes may serve as vaccine delivery systems by bridging the gap between synthetic and natural systems. These systems could be used in other contexts, e.g., diagnostics and drug delivery.

Self-adjuvant Astragalus polysaccharide-based nanovaccines for enhanced tumor immunotherapy: a novel delivery system candidate for tumor vaccines

The study of tumor nanovaccines (NVs) has gained interest because they specifically recognize and eliminate tumor cells. However, the poor recognition and internalization by dendritic cells (DCs) and insufficient immunogenicity restricted the vaccine efficacy. Herein, we extracted two molecular-weight Astragalus polysaccharides (APS, 12.19 kD; APSHMw, 135.67 kD) from Radix Astragali and made them self-assemble with OVA257-264 directly forming OVA/APS integrated nanocomplexes through the microfluidic method. The nanocomplexes were wrapped with a sheddable calcium phosphate layer to improve stability. APS in the formed nanocomplexes served as drug carriers and immune adjuvants for potent tumor immunotherapy. The optimal APS-NVs were approximately 160 nm with uniform size distribution and could remain stable in physiological saline solution. The FITC-OVA in APS-NVs could be effectively taken up by DCs, and APS-NVs could stimulate the maturation of DCs, improving the antigen cross-presentation efficiency in vitro. The possible mechanism was that APS can induce DC activation via multiple receptors such as dectin-1 and Toll-like receptors 2 and 4. Enhanced accumulation of APS-NVs both in draining and distal lymph nodes were observed following s.c. injection. Smaller APS-NVs could easily access the lymph nodes. Furthermore, APS-NVs could markedly promote antigen delivery efficiency to DCs and activate cytotoxic T cells. In addition, APS-NVs achieve a better antitumor effect in established B16-OVA melanoma tumors compared with the OVA+Alum treatment group. The antitumor mechanism correlated with the increase in cytotoxic T cells in the tumor region. Subsequently, the poor tumor inhibitory effect of APS-NVs on the nude mouse model of melanoma also confirmed the participation of antitumor adaptive immune response induced by NVs. Therefore, this study developed a promising APS-based tumor NV that is an efficient tumor immunotherapy without systemic side effects.

The quest for nanoparticle-powered vaccines in cancer immunotherapy

Despite recent advancements in cancer treatment, this disease still poses a serious threat to public health. Vaccines play an important role in preventing illness by preparing the body's adaptive and innate immune responses to combat diseases. As our understanding of malignancies and their connection to the immune system improves, there has been a growing interest in priming the immune system to fight malignancies more effectively and comprehensively. One promising approach involves utilizing nanoparticle systems for antigen delivery, which has been shown to potentiate immune responses as vaccines and/or adjuvants. In this review, we comprehensively summarized the immunological mechanisms of cancer vaccines while focusing specifically on the recent applications of various types of nanoparticles in the field of cancer immunotherapy. By exploring these recent breakthroughs, we hope to identify significant challenges and obstacles in making nanoparticle-based vaccines and adjuvants feasible for clinical application. This review serves to assess recent breakthroughs in nanoparticle-based cancer vaccinations and shed light on their prospects and potential barriers. By doing so, we aim to inspire future immunotherapies for cancer that harness the potential of nanotechnology to deliver more effective and targeted treatments.

Research progress in nano-drug delivery systems based on the characteristics of the liver cancer microenvironment

The liver cancer has microenvironmental features such as low pH, M2 tumor-associated macrophage enrichment, low oxygen, rich blood supply and susceptibility to hematotropic metastasis, high chemokine expression, enzyme overexpression, high redox level, and strong immunosuppression, which not only promotes the progression of the disease, but also seriously affects the clinical effectiveness of traditional therapeutic approaches. However, nanotechnology, due to its unique advantages of size effect and functionalized modifiability, can be utilized to develop various responsive nano-drug delivery system (NDDS) by using these characteristic signals of the liver cancer microenvironment as a source of stimulation, which in turn can realize the intelligent release of the drug under the specific microenvironment, and significantly increase the concentration of the drug at the target site. Therefore, researchers have designed a series of stimuli-responsive NDDS based on the characteristics of the liver cancer microenvironment, such as hypoxia, weak acidity, and abnormal expression of proteases, and they have been widely investigated for improving anti-tumor therapeutic efficacy and reducing the related side effects. This paper provides a review of the current application and progress of NDDS developed based on the response and regulation of the microenvironment in the treatment of liver cancer, compares the effects of the microenvironment and the NDDS, and provides a reference for building more advanced NDDS.

Advances in Cancer Vaccine Research

The use of cancer vaccines is considered a promising therapeutic strategy in clinical oncology, which is achieved by stimulating antitumor immunity with tumor antigens delivered in the form of cells, peptides, viruses, and nucleic acids. The ideal cancer vaccine has many advantages, including low toxicity, specificity, and induction of persistent immune memory to overcome tumor heterogeneity and reverse the immunosuppressive microenvironment. Many therapeutic vaccines have entered clinical trials for a variety of cancers, including melanoma, breast cancer, lung cancer, and others. However, many challenges, including single antigen targeting, weak immunogenicity, off-target effects, and impaired immune response, have hindered their broad clinical translation. In this review, we introduce the principle of action, components (including antigens and adjuvants), and classification (according to applicable objects and preparation methods) of cancer vaccines, summarize the delivery methods of cancer vaccines, and review the clinical and theoretical research progress of cancer vaccines. We also present new insights into cancer vaccine technologies, platforms, and applications as well as an understanding of potential next-generation preventive and therapeutic vaccine technologies, providing a broader perspective for future vaccine design.

Cancer chemotherapy resistance: Mechanisms and recent breakthrough in targeted drug delivery

Conventional chemotherapy, one of the most widely used cancer treatment methods, has serious side effects, and usually results in cancer treatment failure. Drug resistance is one of the primary reasons for this failure. The most significant drawbacks of systemic chemotherapy are rapid clearance from the circulation, the drug's low concentration in the tumor site, and considerable adverse effects outside the tumor. Several ways have been developed to boost neoplasm treatment efficacy and overcome medication resistance. In recent years, targeted drug delivery has become an essential therapeutic application. As more mechanisms of tumor treatment resistance are discovered, nanoparticles (NPs) are designed to target these pathways. Therefore, understanding the limitations and challenges of this technology is critical for nanocarrier evaluation. Nano-drugs have been increasingly employed in medicine, incorporating therapeutic applications for more precise and effective tumor diagnosis, therapy, and targeting. Many benefits of NP-based drug delivery systems in cancer treatment have been proven, including good pharmacokinetics, tumor cell-specific targeting, decreased side effects, and lessened drug resistance. As more mechanisms of tumor treatment resistance are discovered, NPs are designed to target these pathways. At the moment, this innovative technology has the potential to bring fresh insights into cancer therapy. Therefore, understanding the limitations and challenges of this technology is critical for nanocarrier evaluation.

Poly-γ-glutamic acid nanoparticles as adjuvant and antigen carrier system for cancer vaccination

Vaccination is an innovative strategy for cancer treatment by leveraging various components of the patients' immunity to boost an anti-tumor immune response. Rationally designed nanoparticles are well suited to maximize cancer vaccination by the inclusion of immune stimulatory adjuvants. Also, nanoparticles might control the pharmacokinetics and destination of the immune potentiating compounds. Poly-γ-glutamic acid (γ-PGA) based nanoparticles (NPs), which have a natural origin, can be easily taken up by dendritic cells (DCs), which leads to the secretion of cytokines which ameliorates the stimulation capacity of T cells. The intrinsic adjuvant properties and antigen carrier properties of γ-PGA NPs have been the focus of recent investigations as they can modulate the tumor microenvironment, can contribute to systemic anti-tumor immunity and subsequently inhibit tumor growth. This review provides a comprehensive overview on the potential of γ-PGA NPs as antigen carriers and/or adjuvants for anti-cancer vaccination.

Polymeric nanoparticles for DNA vaccine-based cancer immunotherapy: a review

Cancer is one of the leading causes of death and mortality in the world. There is an essential need to develop new drugs or therapeutic approaches to manage treatment-resistant cancers. Cancer immunotherapy is a type of cancer treatment that uses the power of the body's immune system to prevent, control, and eliminate cancer. One of the materials used as a vaccine in immunotherapy is DNA. The application of polymeric nanoparticles as carriers for DNA vaccines could be an effective therapeutic approach to activate immune responses and increase antigen presentation efficiency. Various materials have been used as polymeric nanoparticles, including: chitosan, poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid), Polyethylenimine, dendrimers, polypeptides, and polyesters. Application of these polymer nanoparticles has several advantages, including increased vaccine delivery, enhanced antigen presentation, adjuvant effects, and more sustainable induction of the immune system. Besides many clinical trials and commercial products that were developed based on polymer nanoparticles, there is still a need for more comprehensive studies to increase the DNA vaccine efficiency in cancer immunotherapy using this type of carrier.

Production of a promising modular proteinaceous self-assembled delivery system for vaccination

Recently, there have been enormous advances in nano-delivery materials, especially safer and more biocompatible protein-based nanoparticles. Generally, proteinaceous nanoparticles (such as ferritin and virus-like particles) are self-assembled from some natural protein monomers. However, to ensure their capability of assembly, it is difficult to upgrade the protein structure through major modifications. Here, we have developed an efficient orthogonal modular proteinaceous self-assembly delivery system that could load antigens with an attractive coupling strategy. In brief, we constructed a nanocarrier by fusing two orthogonal domains-a pentameric cholera toxin B subunit and a trimer forming peptide-and an engineered streptavidin monomer for binding biotinylated antigens. After successfully preparing the nanoparticles, the receptor-binding domain of SARS-CoV-2 spike protein and influenza virus haemagglutination antigen are used as model antigens for further evaluation. We found that the biotinylated antigen is able to bind to the nanoparticles with high affinity and achieve efficient lymph node drainage when loaded on the nanoparticles. Then, T cells are greatly activated and the formation of germinal centers is observed. Experiments of two mouse models demonstrate the strong antibody responses and prophylactic effects of these nanovaccines. Thus, we establish a proof-of-concept for the delivery system with the potential to load diverse antigen cargos to generate high-performance nanovaccines, thereby offering an attractive platform technology for nanovaccine preparation.

Instigation of the epoch of nanovaccines in cancer immunotherapy

Cancer is an unprecedented proliferation of cells leading to abnormalities in differentiation and maturation. Treatment of primary and metastatic cancer is challenging. In addition to surgery, chemotherapy and radiation therapies have been conventionally used; however, they suffer from severe toxicity and non-specificity. Immunotherapy, the science of programming the body's own defense system against cancer has gained tremendous attention in the last few decades. However, partial immunogenic stimulation, premature degradation and inability to activate dendritic and helper T cells has resulted in limited clinical success. The era of nanomedicine has brought about several breakthroughs in various pharmaceutical and biomedical fields. Hereby, we review and discuss the interplay of tumor microenvironment (TME) and the immunological cascade and how they can be employed to develop nanoparticle-based cancer vaccines and immunotherapies. Nanoparticles composed of lipids, polymers and inorganic materials contain useful properties suitable for vaccine development. Proteinaceous vaccines derived from mammalian viruses, bacteriophages and plant viruses also have unique advantages due to their immunomodulation capabilities. This review accounts for all such considerations. Additionally, we explore how attributes of nanotechnology can be utilized to develop successful nanomedicine-based vaccines for cancer therapy. This article is categorized under: Nanotechnology Approaches to Biology > Nanoscale Systems in Biology Therapeutic Approaches and Drug Discovery > Nanomedicine for Oncologic Disease.

Application prospect of circular RNA-based neoantigen vaccine in tumor immunotherapy

Neoantigen is a protein produced by mutant gene, which is only expressed in tumor cells. It is an ideal target for therapeutic tumor vaccines. Although synthetic long peptide (SLP)-based neoantigen vaccine, DNA-based neoantigen vaccine, and mRNA-based neoantigen vaccine are all in the development stage, they have some inherent shortcomings. Therefore, researchers turned their attention to a new type of "non-coding RNA (ncRNA)", circular RNA (circRNA), for potential better choice. Because of its unique high stability and protein-coding capacity, circRNA is a promising target in the field of neoantigen vaccine. In this paper, we reviewed the feasibility of circRNA encoding neoantigens, summarized the construction process, explained the mechanism of circRNA vaccine in vitro, and discussed the advantages and disadvantages of circRNA vaccine and possible combination with other immunotherapies.

Protein-based Nanoparticle Vaccine Approaches Against Infectious Diseases

The field of vaccine development has seen an increase in the number of rationally designed technologies that increase effectiveness against vaccine-resistant pathogens, while not compromising safety. Yet, there is still an urgent need to expand and further understand these platforms against complex pathogens that often evade protective responses. Nanoscale platforms have been at the center of new studies, especially in the wake of the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), with the aim of deploying safe and effective vaccines in a short time period. The intrinsic properties of protein-based nanoparticles, such as biocompatibility, flexible physicochemical characteristics, and variety have made them an attractive platform against different infectious disease agents. In the past decade, several studies have tested both lumazine synthase-, ferritin-, and albumin-based nanoplatforms against a wide range of complex pathogens in pre-clinical studies. Owed to their success in pre-clinical studies, several studies are undergoing human clinical trials or are near an initial phase. In this review we highlight the different protein-based platforms, mechanisms of synthesis, and effectiveness of these over the past decade. In addition, some challenges, and future directions to increase their effectiveness are also highlighted. Taken together, protein-based nanoscaffolds have proven to be an effective means to design rationally designed vaccines, especially against complex pathogens and emerging infectious diseases.

Vaccine-like nanomedicine for cancer immunotherapy

The successful clinical application of immune checkpoint blockade (ICB) and chimeric antigen receptor T cells (CAR-T) therapeutics has attracted extensive attention to immunotherapy, however, their drawbacks such as limited specificity, persistence and toxicity haven't met the high expectations on efficient cancer treatments. Therapeutic cancer vaccines which instruct the immune system to capture tumor specific antigens, generate long-term immune memory and specifically eliminate cancer cells gradually become the most promising strategies to eradicate tumor. However, the disadvantages of some existing vaccines such as weak immunogenicity and in vivo instability have restricted their development. Nanotechnology has been recently incorporated into vaccine fabrication and exhibited promising results for cancer immunotherapy. Nanoparticles promote the stability of vaccines, as well as enhance antigen recognition and presentation owing to their nanometer size which promotes internalization of antigens by phagocytic cells. The surface modification with targeting units further permits the delivery of vaccines to specific cells. Meanwhile, nanocarriers with adjuvant effect can improve the efficacy of vaccines. In addition to classic vaccines composed of antigens and adjuvants, the nanoparticle-mediated chemotherapy, radiotherapy and certain other therapeutics could induce the release of tumor antigens in situ, which therefore effectively simulate antitumor immune responses. Such vaccine-like nanomedicine not only kills primary tumors, but also prevents tumor recurrence and helps eliminate metastatic tumors. Herein, we introduce recent developments in nanoparticle-based delivery systems for antigen delivery and in situ antitumor vaccination. We will also discuss the remaining opportunities and challenges of nanovaccine in clinical translation towards cancer treatment.

Emerging peptide-based nanovaccines: From design synthesis to defense against cancer and infection

Peptide-based vaccines, which form one of the most potent vaccine platforms, offer exclusive advantages over classical vaccines that use whole organisms or proteins. However, peptides alone are still poor stability and weak immunogenicity, thus need a delivery system that can overcome these shortcomings. Currently, nanotechnology has been extensively utilized to address this issue. Nanovaccines, as new formulations of vaccines using nanoparticles (NPs) as carriers or adjuvants, are undergoing development instead of conventional vaccines. Indeed, peptide-based nanovaccine is a rapidly developing field of research that is emerging out of the confluence of antigenic peptides with the nano-delivery system. In this review, we shed light on the rational design and preparation strategies based on various nanomaterials of peptide-based nanovaccines, and we spotlight progress in the development of peptide-based nanovaccines against cancer and infectious diseases. Finally, the future prospects for development of peptide-based nanovaccines are presented.

Poria cocos polysaccharide-functionalized graphene oxide nanosheet induces efficient cancer immunotherapy in mice

Introduction: Tumor vaccines that induce robust humoral and cellular immune responses have attracted tremendous interest for cancer immunotherapy. Despite the tremendous potential of tumor vaccines as an effective approach for cancer treatment and prevention, a major challenge in achieving sustained antitumor immunity is inefficient antigen delivery to secondary lymphoid organs, even with adjuvant aid. Methods: Herein, we present antigen/adjuvant integrated nanocomplexes termed nsGO/PCP/OVA by employing graphene oxide nanosheet (nsGO) as antigen nanocarriers loaded with model antigen ovalbumin (OVA) and adjuvant, Poria cocos polysaccharides (PCP). We evaluated the efficacy of nsGO/PCP/OVA in activating antigen-specific humoral as well as cellular immune responses and consequent tumor prevention and rejection in vivo. Results: The optimally formed nsGO/PCP/OVA was approximately 120-150 nm in diameter with a uniform size distribution. Nanoparticles can be effectively engulfed by dendritic cells (DCs) through receptor-mediated endocytosis, induced the maturation of DCs and improved the delivery efficiency both in vitro and in vivo. The nsGO/PCP/OVA nanoparticles also induced a significant enhancement of OVA antigen-specific Th1 and Th2 immune responses in vivo. In addition, vaccination with nsGO/PCP/OVA not only significantly suppressed tumor growth in prophylactic treatments, but also achieved a therapeutic effect in inhibiting the growth of already-established tumors. Conclusion: Therefore, this potent nanovaccine platform with nanocarrier nsGO and PCP as adjuvants provides a promising strategy for boosting anti-tumor immunity for cancer immunotherapy.

Next-Generation Vaccines: Nanovaccines in the Fight against SARS-CoV-2 Virus and beyond SARS-CoV-2

The virus responsible for the coronavirus viral pandemic is the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). Emerging SARS-CoV-2 variants caused by distinctive mutations within the viral spike glycoprotein of SARS-CoV-2 are considered the cause for the rapid spread of the disease and make it challenging to treat SARS-CoV-2. The manufacturing of appropriate efficient vaccines and therapeutics is the only option to combat this pandemic. Nanomedicine has enabled the delivery of nucleic acids and protein-based vaccines to antigen-presenting cells to produce protective immunity against the coronavirus. Nucleic acid-based vaccines, particularly mRNA nanotechnology vaccines, are the best prevention option against the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic worldwide, and they are effective against the novel coronavirus and its multiple variants. This review will report on progress made thus far with SARS-CoV-2 vaccines and beyond employing nanotechnology-based nucleic acid vaccine approaches.

Nanovaccines: Merits, and diverse roles in boosting antitumor immune responses

An attractive type of cancer immunotherapy is cancer therapeutic vaccines that induce antitumor immunity effectively. Although supportive results in the recent vaccine studies, there are still numerous drawbacks, such as poor stability, weak immunogenicity and strong toxicity, to be tackled for promoting the potency and durability of antitumor efficacy. NPs (Nanoparticles)-based vaccines offer unique opportunities to breakthrough the current bottleneck. As a rule, nanovaccines are new the generations of vaccines that use NPs as carriers and/or adjuvants. Several advantages of nanovaccines are constantly explored, including optimal nanometer size, high stability, plenty of antigen loading, enhanced immunogenicity, tunable antigen presentation, more retention in lymph nodes and promote patient compliance by a lower frequency of dosing. Here, we summarized the merits and highlight the diverse role nanovaccines play in improving antitumor responses.

Cancer-associated inflammation: pathophysiology and clinical significance

Purpose

Cancer cells, despite stemming from the own cells of their host, usually elicit an immune response. This response usually enables elimination of cancer at its earliest stages. However, some tumors develop mechanisms of escaping immune destruction and even profiting from tumor-derived inflammation.

Methods

We summarized the roles of different immune cell populations in various processes associated with cancer progression and possible methods of reshaping tumor-associated inflammation to increase the efficacy of cancer therapy.

Results

Changes in various signaling pathways result in attraction of immunosuppressive, pro-tumorigenic cells, such as myeloid-derived suppressor cells, tumor-associated macrophages, and neutrophils, while at the same time suppressing the activity of lymphocytes, which have the potential of destroying cancer cells. These changes promote tumor progression by increasing angiogenesis and growth, accelerating metastasis, and impairing drug delivery to the tumor site.

Conclusion

Due to its multi-faceted role in cancer, tumor-associated inflammation can serve as a valuable therapy target. By increasing it, whether through decreasing overall immunosuppression with immune checkpoint inhibitor therapy or through more specific methods, such as cancer vaccines, oncolytic viruses, or chimeric antigen receptor T cells, cancer-derived immunosuppression can be overcome, resulting in immune system destroying cancer cells. Even changes occurring in the microbiota can influence the shape of antitumor response, which could provide new attractive diagnostic or therapeutic methods. Interestingly, also decreasing the distorted tumor-associated inflammation with non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs can lead to positive outcomes.

Immune enhancement of N-2-Hydroxypropyl trimethyl ammonium chloride chitosan/carboxymethyl chitosan nanoparticles vaccine

The immunogenicity and toxicity of N-2-Hydroxypropyl trimethyl ammonium chloride chitosan/N, O-carboxymethyl chitosan nanoparticles (N-2-HACC/CMCS NPs) as a universal vaccine adjuvant/delivery system remains unclear. The present study indicated that the positively charged N-2-HACC/CMCS NPs showed a regular spherical morphology, with a particle size of 219 ± 13.72 nm, zeta potential of 37.28 ± 4.58 mV, had hemocompatibility and biodegradation. Acute toxicity, repeated dose toxicity, abnormal toxicity, muscle stimulation, whole body allergic reaction evaluation in vitro, and cytotoxicity in vivo confirmed N-2-HACC/CMCS NPs is safe and non-toxic. N-2-HACC/OVA/CMCS NPs were prepared to evaluate the immunogenicity, which showed a particle size of 248.1 ± 15.53 nm, zeta potential of 17.24 ± 1.28 mV, encapsulation efficiency of 92.43 ± 0.96 %, and loading capacity of 42.97 ± 0.07 %. Oral or intramuscular route with the N-2-HACC/OVA/CMCS NPs in mice not only induced higher IgG, IgG1, IgG2a, and sIgA antibody titers, but also significantly produced higher levels of IL-6, IL-4, IFN-γ, and TNF-α, demonstrating that the N-2-HACC/OVA/CMCS NPs enhance humoral, cellular, and mucosal immune responses. Our results not only support the N-2-HACC/CMCS NPs to be a safe and potential universal nano adjuvant/delivery system in vaccine development, especially mucosal vaccines, but also rich the database knowledge of adjuvant/delivery systems, and provide new direction to introduce more licensed adjuvants.

Lipid A analog CRX-527 conjugated to synthetic peptides enhances vaccination efficacy and tumor control

Adjuvants play a determinant role in cancer vaccination by optimally activating APCs and shaping the T cell response. Bacterial-derived lipid A is one of the most potent immune-stimulators known, and is recognized via Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4). In this study, we explore the use of the synthetic, non-toxic, lipid A analog CRX-527 as an adjuvant for peptide cancer vaccines. This well-defined adjuvant was covalently conjugated to antigenic peptides as a strategy to improve vaccine efficacy. We show that coupling of this TLR4 agonist to peptide antigens improves vaccine uptake by dendritic cells (DCs), maturation of DCs and T cell activation in vitro, and stimulates DC migration and functional T cell priming in vivo. This translates into enhanced tumor protection upon prophylactic and therapeutic vaccination via intradermal injection against B16-OVA melanoma and HPV-related TC1 tumors. These results highlight the potential of CRX-527 as an adjuvant for molecularly defined cancer vaccines, and support the design of adjuvant-peptide conjugates as a strategy to optimize vaccine formulation.

The progress of peptide vaccine clinical trials in gynecologic oncology

Peptide vaccine are a type of immunotherapy that are synthesized according to the amino acid sequence of known or predicted tumor antigen epitopes. They are safe and well tolerated and have shown exciting results in gynecologic oncology. However, no peptide vaccine has yet been licensed in this field. This review examines peptide vaccine clinical trials in gynecology registered on ClinicalTrials.gov through January 1, 2022, analyzes the global progress and current achievements of peptide vaccines in gynecology, and explores the efforts focused on devising new methods to boost immunotherapeutic outcomes, including the use of adjuvants, multi-epitope vaccines, combinations of helper T cell epitopes, personalized peptide vaccines, synthetic long peptides, new peptide delivery, and combination therapy.

Exploring chitosan-shelled nanobubbles to improve HER2 + immunotherapy via dendritic cell targeting

Immunotherapy is a valuable approach to cancer treatment as it is able to activate the immune system. However, the curative methods currently in clinical practice, including immune checkpoint inhibitors, present some limitations. Dendritic cell vaccination has been investigated as an immunotherapeutic strategy, and nanotechnology-based delivery systems have emerged as powerful tools for improving immunotherapy and vaccine development. A number of nanodelivery systems have therefore been proposed to promote cancer immunotherapy. This work aims to design a novel immunotherapy nanoplatform for the treatment of HER2 + breast cancer, and specially tailored chitosan-shelled nanobubbles (NBs) have been developed for the delivery of a DNA vaccine. The NBs have been functionalized with anti-CD1a antibodies to target dendritic cells (DCs). The NB formulations possess dimensions of approximately 300 nm and positive surface charge, and also show good physical stability up to 6 months under storage at 4 °C. In vitro characterization has confirmed that these NBs are capable of loading DNA with good encapsulation efficiency (82%). The antiCD1a-functionalized NBs are designed to target DCs, and demonstrated the ability to induce DC activation in both human and mouse cell models, and also elicited a specific immune response that was capable of slowing tumor growth in mice in vivo. These findings are the proof of concept that loading a tumor vaccine into DC-targeted chitosan nanobubbles may become an attractive nanotechnology approach for the future immunotherapeutic treatment of cancer.

A Minimalist Binary Vaccine Carrier for Personalized Postoperative Cancer Vaccine Therapy

In recent years, significant evolutions have been made in applying nanotechnologies for prophylactic and therapeutic cancer vaccine design. However, the clinical translation of nanovaccines is still limited owing to their complicated compositions and difficulties in the spatiotemporal coordination of antigen-presenting cell activation and antigen cross-presentation. Herein, a minimalist binary nanovaccine (BiVax) is designed that integrates innate stimulating activity into the carrier to elicit robust antitumor immunity. The authors started by making a series of azole molecules end-capped polyethylenimine (PEI-M), and were surprised to find that over 60% of the PEI-M polymers have innate stimulating activity via activation of the stimulator of interferon genes pathway. PEI-4BImi, a PEI-M obtained from a series of polymers, elicits robust antitumor immune responses when used as a subcutaneously injected nanovaccine by simply mixing with ovalbumin antigens, and this BiVax system performs much better than the traditional ternary vaccine system, as well as, commercialized aluminum-containing adjuvants. This system also enables the fast preparation of personalized BiVax by compositing PEI-4BImi with autologous tumor cell membrane protein antigens, and a 60% postoperative cure rate is observed when combined with immune checkpoint inhibitors.

Recent Developments in Metallic Nanomaterials for Cancer Therapy, Diagnosing and Imaging Applications

Cancer continues to represent a global health concern, imposing an ongoing need to research for better treatment alternatives. In this context, nanomedicine seems to be the solution to existing problems, bringing unprecedented results in various biomedical applications, including cancer therapy, diagnosing, and imaging. As numerous studies have uncovered the advantageous properties of various nanoscale metals, this review aims to present metal-based nanoparticles that are most frequently employed for cancer applications. This paper follows the description of relevant nanoparticles made of metals, metal derivatives, hybrids, and alloys, further discussing in more detail their potential applications in cancer management, ranging from the delivery of chemotherapeutics, vaccines, and genes to ablative hyperthermia therapies and theranostic platforms.

Recent Development in Metallic Nanoparticles for Breast Cancer Therapy and Diagnosis

Metal-based nanoparticles are very promising for their applications in cancer diagnosis, drug delivery and therapy. Breast cancer is the major reason of death in woman especially in developed countries including EU and USA. Due to the heterogeneity of cancer cells, nanoparticles are effective as therapeutics and diagnostics. Anti-cancer therapy of breast tumors is challenging because of highly metastatic progression of the disease to brain, bone, lung, and liver. Magnetic nanoparticles are crucial for metastatic breast cancer detection and protection. This review comprehensively discusses the application of nanomaterials as breast cancer therapy, therapeutics, and diagnostics.

Review on Nanoparticles and Nanostructured Materials: Bioimaging, Biosensing, Drug Delivery, Tissue Engineering, Antimicrobial, and Agro-Food Applications

In the last few decades, the vast potential of nanomaterials for biomedical and healthcare applications has been extensively investigated. Several case studies demonstrated that nanomaterials can offer solutions to the current challenges of raw materials in the biomedical and healthcare fields. This review describes the different nanoparticles and nanostructured material synthesis approaches and presents some emerging biomedical, healthcare, and agro-food applications. This review focuses on various nanomaterial types (e.g., spherical, nanorods, nanotubes, nanosheets, nanofibers, core-shell, and mesoporous) that can be synthesized from different raw materials and their emerging applications in bioimaging, biosensing, drug delivery, tissue engineering, antimicrobial, and agro-foods. Depending on their morphology (e.g., size, aspect ratio, geometry, porosity), nanomaterials can be used as formulation modifiers, moisturizers, nanofillers, additives, membranes, and films. As toxicological assessment depends on sizes and morphologies, stringent regulation is needed from the testing of efficient nanomaterials dosages. The challenges and perspectives for an industrial breakthrough of nanomaterials are related to the optimization of production and processing conditions.

The quest for a better fight: How can nanomaterials address the current therapeutic and diagnostic obstacles in the fight against COVID-19?

The inexorable coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic with around 226 million people diagnosed and approximately 4.6 million deaths, is still moving toward more frightening statistics, calling for the urgent need to explore solutions for the current challenges in therapeutic and diagnostic approaches. The challenges associated with existing therapeutics in COVID-19 include lack of in vivo stability, efficacy, and safety. Nanoparticles (NPs) can offer a handful of tools to tackle these problems by enabling efficacious and safe delivery of both virus- and host-directed therapeutics. Furthermore, they can enable maximized clinical outcome while eliminating the chance of resistance to therapy by tissue-targeting and concomitant delivery of multiple therapeutics. The promising application of NPs as vaccine platforms is reflected by the major advances in developing novel COVID-19 vaccines. Two of the most critical COVID-19 vaccines are mRNA-based vaccines delivered via NPs, making them the first FDA-approved mRNA vaccines. Besides, NPs have been deployed as simple, rapid, and precise tools for point of care disease diagnosis. Not enough said NPs can also be exploited in novel ways to expedite the drug discovery process. In light of the above, this review discusses how NPs can overcome the hurdles associated with therapeutic and diagnostic approaches against COVID-19.

Metabolic syndrome related gene signature predicts the prognosis of patients with pancreatic ductal carcinoma. A novel link between metabolic dysregulation and pancreatic ductal carcinoma

Background

Pancreatic cancer is one of the most common malignancies worldwide. In recent years, specific metabolic activities, which involves the development of tumor, caused wide public concern. In this study, we wish to explore the correlation between metabolism and progression of tumor.

Methods

A retrospective analysis including 95 patients with pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) and PDAC patients from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA), the International Cancer Genome Consortium (ICGC), and The Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) database were involved in our study. Multivariate Cox regression analysis was used to construct the prognosis model. The potential connection between metabolism and immunity of PDAC was investigated through a weighted gene co-expression network analysis (WGCNA). 22 types of Tumor-infiltrating immune cells (TIICs) between high-risk and low-risk groups were estimated through CIBERSORT. Moreover, the potential immune-related signaling pathways between high-risk and low-risk groups were explored through the gene set enrichment analysis (GSEA). The role of key gene GMPS in developing pancreatic tumor was further investigated through CCK-8, colony-information, and Transwell.

Results

The prognostic value of the MetS factors was analyzed using the Cox regression model, and a clinical MetS-based nomogram was established. Then, we established a metabolism-related signature to predict the prognosis of PDAC patients based on the TCGA databases and was validated in the ICGC database and the GEO database to find the distinct molecular mechanism of MetS genes in PDAC. The result of WGCNA showed that the blue module was associated with risk score, and genes in the blue module were found to be enriched in the immune-related signaling pathway. Furthermore, the result of CIBERSORT demonstrated that proportions of T cells CD8, T cells Regulatory, Tregs NK cells Activated, Dendritic cells Activated, and Mast cells Resting were different between high-risk and low-risk groups. These differences are potential causes of different prognoses of PDAC patients. GSEA and the protein–protein interaction network (PPI) further revealed that our metabolism-related signature was significantly enriched in immune‐related biological processes. Moreover, knockdown of GMPS in PDAC cells suppressed proliferation, migration, and invasion of tumor cells, whereas overexpression of GMPS performed oppositely.

Conclusion

The results shine light on fundamental mechanisms of metabolic genes on PDAC and establish a reliable and referable signature to evaluate the prognosis of PDAC. GMPS was identified as a potential candidate oncogene with in PDAC, which can be a novel biomarker and therapeutic target for PDAC treatment.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12935-021-02378-w.

Polymer-Based Nanosystems-A Versatile Delivery Approach

Polymer-based nanoparticles of tailored size, morphology, and surface properties have attracted increasing attention as carriers for drugs, biomolecules, and genes. By protecting the payload from degradation and maintaining sustained and controlled release of the drug, polymeric nanoparticles can reduce drug clearance, increase their cargo's stability and solubility, prolong its half-life, and ensure optimal concentration at the target site. The inherent immunomodulatory properties of specific polymer nanoparticles, coupled with their drug encapsulation ability, have raised particular interest in vaccine delivery. This paper aims to review current and emerging drug delivery applications of both branched and linear, natural, and synthetic polymer nanostructures, focusing on their role in vaccine development.

Outer membrane vesicles (OMVs) enabled bio-applications: A critical review

Outer membrane vesicles (OMVs) are nanoscale spherical vesicles released from Gram-negative bacteria. The lipid bilayer membrane structure of OMVs consists of similar components as bacterial membrane and thus has attracted more and more attention in exploiting OMVs' bio-applications. Although the endotoxic lipopolysaccharide on natural OMVs may impose potential limits on their clinical applications, genetic modification can reduce their endotoxicity and decorate OMVs with multiple functional proteins. These genetically engineered OMVs have been employed in various fields including vaccination, drug delivery, cancer therapy, bioimaging, biosensing, and enzyme carrier. This review will first briefly introduce the background of OMVs followed by recent advances in functionalization and various applications of engineered OMVs with an emphasis on the working principles and their performance, and then discuss about the future trends of OMVs in biomedical applications.

Exosomal lncRNA LINC01711 facilitates metastasis of esophageal squamous cell carcinoma via the miR-326/FSCN1 axis

Esophageal cancer is a malignant tumor with a five-year survival rate of less than 20%. Early diagnosis and exploration of esophageal cancer pathogenesis are of great significance for the treatment and prognosis of esophageal cancer. Long non-coding RNA (lncRNA) plays a vital role in the occurrence and development of different types of tumors. However, the role of exosome LncRNA in esophageal squamous cell carcinoma (ESCC) is rarely reported. In this study, we detected high expression of lncRNA LINC01711 in ESCC tissues and was associated with poor prognosis. Silencing LINC01711 can inhibit the proliferation, migration, invasion, and growth of ESCC cell lines, and induce apoptosis. Linc01711 was identified as a competitive endogenous RNA that suppressed miR-326, and up-regulated the expression of fascin actin-bundling protein 1 (FSCN1). Besides, in vivo experiments showed that the administration of exosome-derived LINC01711 (LINC01711-Exo) promoted the growth of tumors in nude mice. In general, exosomal LINC01711 promoted the proliferation, migration, and invasion of esophageal cancer cells by up-regulating FSCN1 and down-regulating miR-326, thus improved the occurrence and development of ESCC.

Bio-Nanocarriers for Lung Cancer Management: Befriending the Barriers

Lung cancer is a complex thoracic malignancy developing consequential to aberrations in a myriad of molecular and biomolecular signaling pathways. It is one of the most lethal forms of cancers accounting to almost 1.8 million new annual incidences, bearing overall mortality to incidence ratio of 0.87. The dismal prognostic scenario at advanced stages of the disease and metastatic/resistant tumor cell populations stresses the requisite of advanced translational interdisciplinary interventions such as bionanotechnology. This review article deliberates insights and apprehensions on the recent prologue of nanobioengineering and bionanotechnology as an approach for the clinical management of lung cancer. The role of nanobioengineered (bio-nano) tools like bio-nanocarriers and nanobiodevices in secondary prophylaxis, diagnosis, therapeutics, and theranostics for lung cancer management has been discussed. Bioengineered, bioinspired, and biomimetic bio-nanotools of considerate translational value have been reviewed. Perspectives on existent oncostrategies, their critical comparison with bio-nanocarriers, and issues hampering their clinical bench side to bed transformation have also been summarized.

Nanomaterials to Fight Cancer: An Overview on Their Multifunctional Exploitability

In recent years the worldwide research community has highlighted innumerable benefits of nanomaterials in cancer detection and therapy. Nevertheless, the development of cancer nanomedicines and other bionanotechnology requires a huge amount of considerations about the interactions of nanomaterials and biological systems, since long-term effects are not yet fully known. Open issues remain the determination of the nanoparticles distributions patterns and the internalization rate into the tumor while avoiding their accumulation in internal organs or other healthy tissues. The purpose of this work is to provide a standard overview of the most recent advances in nanomaterials to fight cancer and to collect trends and future directions to follow according to some critical aspects still present in this field. Complementary to the very recent review of Wolfram and Ferrari which discusses and classifies successful clinically-approved cancer nanodrugs as well as promising candidates in the pipeline, this work embraces part of their proposed classification system based on the exploitation of multifunctionality and extends the review to peer-reviewed journal articles published in the last 3 years identified through international databases.

PINK1/Parkin-mediated mitophagy inhibits warangalone-induced mitochondrial apoptosis in breast cancer cells

Breast cancer is the most common malignancy in women all around the world, especially in many countries in Asia. However, antitumor drugs with unique curative effects and low toxic side-effects have not been found yet. Warangalone is an isoflavone extracted from the Cudrania tricuspidata fruit, and is reported to possess anti-inflammatory and anti-cancer activity. The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of warangalone on breast cancer cells. In this study, we found that warangalone decreased the viability of breast cancer cells by increasing the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) resulting in mitochondrial damage and decreased mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP). Warangalone induced mitochondrial apoptosis by increasing the BAX/BCL-2 ratio. Warangalone activated mitophagy via upregulation of PINK1 and Parkin expression and co-localization. The combination of warangalone and autophagy inhibitors or PINK1 siRNA increased the degree of cell apoptosis compared to treatment with warangalone alone. Warangalone damages mitochondria via ROS, thereby triggering PINK1/Parkin-mediated mitophagy and inducing mitochondrial apoptosis. However, autophagy/mitophagy protects against warangalone-induced mitochondrial apoptosis. A combination of warangalone and autophagy/mitophagy inhibitors may be a potential treatment for breast cancer.

Encapsulation of Recombinant MOMP in Extended-Releasing PLGA 85:15 Nanoparticles Confer Protective Immunity Against a Chlamydia muridarum Genital Challenge and Re-Challenge

Recently we reported the immune-potentiating capacity of a Chlamydia nanovaccine (PLGA-rMOMP) comprising rMOMP (recombinant major outer membrane protein) encapsulated in extended-releasing PLGA [poly (D, L-lactide-co-glycolide) (85:15)] nanoparticles. Here we hypothesized that PLGA-rMOMP would bolster immune-effector mechanisms to confer protective efficacy in mice against a Chlamydia muridarum genital challenge and re-challenge. Female BALB/c mice received three immunizations, either subcutaneously (SC) or intranasally (IN), before receiving an intravaginal challenge with C. muridarum on day 49 and a re-challenge on day 170. Both the SC and IN immunization routes protected mice against genital challenge with enhanced protection after a re-challenge, especially in the SC mice. The nanovaccine induced robust antigen-specific Th1 (IFN-γ, IL-2) and IL-17 cytokines plus CD4+ proliferating T-cells and memory (CD44high CD62Lhigh) and effector (CD44high CD62Llow) phenotypes in immunized mice. Parallel induction of antigen-specific systemic and mucosal Th1 (IgG2a, IgG2b), Th2 (IgG1), and IgA antibodies were also noted. Importantly, immunized mice produced highly functional Th1 avidity and serum antibodies that neutralized C. muridarum infectivity of McCoy fibroblasts in-vitro that correlated with their respective protection levels. The SC, rather than the IN immunization route, triggered higher cellular and humoral immune effectors that improved mice protection against genital C. muridarum. We report for the first time that the extended-releasing PLGA 85:15 encapsulated rMOMP nanovaccine confers protective immunity in mice against genital Chlamydia and advances the potential towards acquiring a nano-based Chlamydia vaccine.

Nanocarrier-delivered small interfering RNA for chemoresistant ovarian cancer therapy

Ovarian cancer is the fifth leading cause of cancer-related death in women in the United States. Because success in early screening is limited, and most patients with advanced disease develop resistance to multiple treatment modalities, the overall prognosis of ovarian cancer is poor. Despite the revolutionary role of surgery and chemotherapy in curing ovarian cancer, recurrence remains a major challenge in treatment. Thus, improving our understanding of the pathogenesis of ovarian cancer is essential for developing more effective treatments. In this review, we analyze the underlying molecular mechanisms leading to chemotherapy resistance. We discuss the clinical benefits and potential challenges of using nanocarrier-delivered small interfering RNA to treat chemotherapy-resistant ovarian cancer. We aim to elicit collaborative studies on nanocarrier-delivered small interfering RNA to improve the long-term survival rate and quality of life of patients with ovarian cancer. This article is categorized under: RNA Methods > RNA Nanotechnology Regulatory RNAs/RNAi/Riboswitches > RNAi: Mechanisms of Action.

Development of a chitosan-modified PLGA nanoparticle vaccine for protection against Escherichia coli K1 caused meningitis in mice

Background

Escherichia coli K1 (E. coli K1) caused neonatal meningitis remains a problem, which rises the urgent need for an effective vaccine. Previously, we rationally designed and produced the recombinant protein OmpAVac (Vo), which elicited protective immunity against E. coli K1 infection. However, Vo has limited stability, which hinders its future industrial application.

Method

Chitosan-modified poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) nanoparticles were prepared and used as carried for the recombinant Vo. And the safety, stability and immunogenicity of Vo delivered by chitosan-modified PLGA nanoparticles were tested in vitro and in a mouse model of bacteremia.

Results

We successfully generated chitosan-modified PLGA nanoparticles for the delivery of recombinant Vo (VoNP). In addition, we found that a freeze-drying procedure increases the stability of the VoNPs without changing the shape, size distribution and encapsulation of the Vo protein. Unlike aluminum adjuvant, the nanoparticles that delivered Vo were immunoprotective in mice even after storage for as long as 180 days.

Conclusions

We identified an effective strategy to improve the stability of Vo to maintain its immunogenicity, which will contribute to the future development of vaccines against E. coli K1.

90K predicts the prognosis of glioma patients and enhances tumor lysate-pulsed DC vaccine for immunotherapy of GBM in vitro

OBJECTIVES

This study aimed to investigate the relationship between 90K expression with glioma malignancy and prognosis. Additionally, the enhancement effect of 90K in the Dendritic cell (DC) vaccine for Immunotherapy of glioblastoma (GBM) was evaluated in vitro.

METHODS

The expression of 90K protein in glioma tissues was detected by western blot. The relationship between the 90K expression and the tumor grade as well as the prognosis of patients was further analyzed by mining TCGA and CGGA database. The concentration of IL-12p70 and IL-10 was detected by ELISA. T lymphocyte proliferation and lethal effect of cytotoxic T cell (CTL) were detected by CCK-8.

RESULTS

The expression of 90K was significantly higher in glioma than normal tissue and increased with tumor grade (P< 0.05). Higher 90K expression was observed in IDH wildtype glioma than IDH mutant and predicted worse overall survival for glioma patients. The concentration of IL-12p70 and IFN-γ was the highest in the Apoptosis U251-90K-DC group, in which group the ability to kill U251 cells by CTL was also the strongest.

CONCLUSION

90K was a useful biomarker for glioma malignancy and patient prognosis. The appearance of 90K enhanced the effect of Apoptosis U251-DC vaccine for immunotherapy of GBM.