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Cao Q, Liu D, Chen Z, Wang M, Wu M, Zeng G. Upregulated X-C motif chemokine ligand 2 (XCL2) is associated with poor prognosis and increased immune infiltration in clear cell renal cell carcinoma. Cell Signal 2023; 102:110556. [PMID: 36503163 DOI: 10.1016/j.cellsig.2022.110556] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2022] [Revised: 11/17/2022] [Accepted: 12/05/2022] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Clear cell renal cell carcinoma (ccRCC) is one of the most popular malignant carcinomas in the genitourinary system. As a novel tumor-related gene, X-C Motif Chemokine Ligand 2 (XCL2) was up-regulated in ccRCC. The current study aims to reveal the functional activity of XCL2 in ccRCC. METHODS The transcriptome profiling, clinical parameters, and simple nucleotide variation profiles of ccRCC samples were obtained from the Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) database. The survival analysis, multivariate/univariate Cox analysis, correlation analysis, gene set enrichment analysis (GSEA), and tumor mutation burden (TMB) analysis were performed. Next, immune cell infiltration and immune functions were analyzed. Finally, the functions of XCL2 were investigated in Caki-1 and 786-O cells. RESULTS Upregulated XCL2 was associated with worse overall survival of ccRCC and correlated to age, grade, stage, and T stage. Age, grade, and XCL2 were independent prognostic factors. Significant enrichment in apoptosis, DNA replication, and immune response was demonstrated by GSEA. XCL2 was not only tightly associated with immune cell infiltration, but also significantly linked with several immune functions. Moreover, patients, who had higher XCL2 expression, owned higher levels of TMB. Interestingly, XCL2 was positively correlated with common immune checkpoints. In vitro, XCL2 could inhibit apoptosis, and promote proliferation, migration, invasion, and epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) of Caki-1 and 786-O cells. CONCLUSIONS In general, the current study suggested that XCL2 may participate in the progression of ccRCC. Importantly, XCL2 may be a potential new target of immunotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qingqiong Cao
- Department of Ultrasound, Zhongnan Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan, China
| | - Daoquan Liu
- Department of Urology, Zhongnan Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan, China
| | - Zhao Chen
- Department of Cardiovascular Surgery, Zhongnan Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan, China
| | - Min Wang
- Department of Plastic Surgery, Zhongnan Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan, China.
| | - Meng Wu
- Department of Ultrasound, Zhongnan Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan, China.
| | - Guang Zeng
- Department of Urology, Zhongnan Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan, China.
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2
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Tennis MA, Smith AJ, Dwyer-Nield LD, Keith RL. Intranasal iloprost prevents tumors in a murine lung carcinogenesis model. Cancer Prev Res (Phila) 2021; 15:11-16. [PMID: 34556494 DOI: 10.1158/1940-6207.capr-21-0086] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2021] [Revised: 04/12/2021] [Accepted: 09/09/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Lung cancer chemoprevention with the prostacyclin analogue iloprost is the most promising approach to date for intercepting progression of premalignant lung lesions in former smokers. Previous pre-clinical studies of iloprost used oral delivery, but a study modeling delivery directly to the target organ was needed. In vivo and in vitro studies have identified gene expression changes following iloprost treatment, including increased E-cadherin and PPAR𝛄 and decreased COX2 and Vimentin. We used tumor counts and gene expression to demonstrate the effectiveness of intranasal delivery of iloprost in a murine model of premalignant adenomas. Intranasal delivery of iloprost reduced adenoma multiplicity14 weeks after urethane exposure in FVB mice compared to untreated urethane controls. Intranasal iloprost reversed urethane-induced gene expression changes in tumors and whole lung. These results correspond to previous studies of oral iloprost and in vitro treatment of human bronchial epithelial cells. This study demonstrates that intranasal delivery of iloprost in a mouse model of lung premalignant lesions is effective chemoprevention. This will be an essential tool for exploring mechanisms and outcomes of iloprost chemoprevention, along with supporting ongoing clinical trials of inhaled iloprost chemoprevention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meredith A Tennis
- Division of Pulmonary Sciences and Critical Care Medicine, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus
| | - Alex J Smith
- Division of Pulmonary Sciences and Critical Care Medicine, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus
| | | | - Robert L Keith
- Medicine/Division of Pulmonary Sciences, Eastern Colorado Veterans Affairs Medical Center
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3
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Eftimie R, Barelle C. Mathematical investigation of innate immune responses to lung cancer: The role of macrophages with mixed phenotypes. J Theor Biol 2021; 524:110739. [PMID: 33930438 DOI: 10.1016/j.jtbi.2021.110739] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2020] [Revised: 04/21/2021] [Accepted: 04/23/2021] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Macrophages' role in the evolution of solid tumours is a well accepted fact, with the M1-like macrophages having an anti-tumour role and the M2-like macrophages having a pro-tumour role. Despite the fact that some clinical studies on lung tumours have emphasised also the presence of macrophages with mixed M1 and M2 phenotypes in addition to macrophages with distinct phenotypes, the majority of studies still use the distinct M1-M2 classification to predict the evolution of tumours and patient survival. In this theoretical study we use a mathematical modelling and computational approach to investigate the role of macrophages with mixed phenotype on growth/control/elimination of lung tumours. We show that tumour control in the presence of M2→M1 re-polarising treatments is mainly the result of macrophages with mixed phenotypes (due to the assumption of short half-life of M1-like macrophages). We also show that the half-life of various macrophage phenotypes (distinct M1 or mixed M1/M2 phenotypes) impacts the outcome of various therapeutic strategies targeting tumour-associated macrophages. All these results suggest the need for a better experimental understanding of the kinetics of macrophages inside solid tumours.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raluca Eftimie
- Division of Mathematics, University of Dundee, Dundee DD1 4HN, United Kingdom; Laboratoire Mathématiques de Besançon, UMR - CNRS 6623, Université de Bourgogne Franche-Comté, 25000 Besançon, France.
| | - Charlotte Barelle
- Division of Mathematics, University of Dundee, Dundee DD1 4HN, United Kingdom
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4
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Directionality of Macrophages Movement in Tumour Invasion: A Multiscale Moving-Boundary Approach. Bull Math Biol 2020; 82:148. [PMID: 33211193 PMCID: PMC7677171 DOI: 10.1007/s11538-020-00819-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2020] [Accepted: 10/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Invasion of the surrounding tissue is one of the recognised hallmarks of cancer (Hanahan and Weinberg in Cell 100: 57–70, 2000. 10.1016/S0092-8674(00)81683-9), which is accomplished through a complex heterotypic multiscale dynamics involving tissue-scale random and directed movement of the population of both cancer cells and other accompanying cells (including here, the family of tumour-associated macrophages) as well as the emerging cell-scale activity of both the matrix-degrading enzymes and the rearrangement of the cell-scale constituents of the extracellular matrix (ECM) fibres. The involved processes include not only the presence of cell proliferation and cell adhesion (to other cells and to the extracellular matrix), but also the secretion of matrix-degrading enzymes. This is as a result of cancer cells as well as macrophages, which are one of the most abundant types of immune cells in the tumour micro-environment. In large tumours, these tumour-associated macrophages (TAMs) have a tumour-promoting phenotype, contributing to tumour proliferation and spread. In this paper, we extend a previous multiscale moving-boundary mathematical model for cancer invasion, by considering also the multiscale effects of TAMs, with special focus on the influence that their directional movement exerts on the overall tumour progression. Numerical investigation of this new model shows the importance of the interactions between pro-tumour TAMs and the fibrous ECM, highlighting the impact of the fibres on the spatial structure of solid tumour.
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5
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Dwyer-Nield LD, McArthur DG, Tennis MA, Merrick DT, Keith RL. An Improved Murine Premalignant Squamous Cell Model: Tobacco Smoke Exposure Augments NTCU-Induced Murine Airway Dysplasia. Cancer Prev Res (Phila) 2020; 14:307-312. [PMID: 33115782 DOI: 10.1158/1940-6207.capr-20-0332] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2020] [Revised: 09/25/2020] [Accepted: 10/22/2020] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Tobacco smoke-induced squamous cell lung cancer (SCC) develops from endobronchial dysplastic lesions that progress to invasive disease. A reproducible murine model recapitulating histologic progression observed in current and former smokers will advance testing of new preventive and therapeutic strategies. Previous studies show that prolonged topical application of N-nitroso-tris-chloroethylurea (NTCU) generates a range of airway lesions in sensitive mice similar to those induced by chronic tobacco smoke exposure in humans. To improve the current NTCU model and better align it with human disease, NTCU was applied to mice twice weekly for 4-5 weeks followed by a recovery period before cigarette smoke (CS) or ambient air (control) exposure for an additional 3-6 weeks. Despite the short time course, the addition of CS led to significantly more premalignant lesions (PML; 2.6 vs. 0.5; P < 0.02) and resulted in fewer alveolar macrophages (52,000 macrophages/mL BALF vs. 68,000; P < 0.05) compared with control mice. This improved NTCU + CS model is the first murine SCC model to incorporate tobacco smoke and is more amenable to preclinical studies because of the increased number of PML, decreased number of mice required, and reduced time needed for PML development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lori D Dwyer-Nield
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Center, Aurora, Colorado
| | - Debbie G McArthur
- Research Division, Rocky Mountain Regional Veterans Administration Medical Center, Aurora, Colorado
| | - Meredith A Tennis
- Division of Pulmonary Sciences and Critical Care Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Center, Aurora, Colorado
| | - Daniel T Merrick
- Division of Pathology, School of Medicine, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Center, Aurora, Colorado
| | - Robert L Keith
- Research Division, Rocky Mountain Regional Veterans Administration Medical Center, Aurora, Colorado. .,Division of Pulmonary Sciences and Critical Care Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Center, Aurora, Colorado
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6
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Two-stage 3-methylcholanthrene and butylated hydroxytoluene-induced lung carcinogenesis in mice. Methods Cell Biol 2020; 163:153-173. [PMID: 33785163 DOI: 10.1016/bs.mcb.2020.07.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Lung cancer is one of the deadliest types of cancer and as such requires disease models that are useful for identification of novel pathways for biomarkers as well as to test therapeutic agents. Adenocarcinoma (ADC), the most prevalent type of lung cancer, is a subtype of non-small cell lung carcinoma (NSCLC) and a disease driven mainly by smoking. However, it is also the most common subtype of lung cancer found in non-smokers with environmental exposures. Chemically driven models of lung cancer, also called primary models of lung cancer, are important because they do not overexpress or delete oncogenes or tumor suppressor genes, respectively, to increase oncogenesis. Instead these models test tumor development without forcing a specific pathway (i.e., Kras). The primary focus of this chapter is to discuss a well-established 2-stage mouse model of lung adenocarcinomas. The initiator (3-methylcholanthrene, MCA) does not elicit many, if any, tumors if not followed by exposure to the tumor promoter (butylated hydroxytoluene, BHT). In sensitive strains, such as A/J, FVB, and BALB, significantly greater numbers of tumors develop following the MCA/BHT protocol compared to MCA alone. BHT does not elicit tumors on its own; it is a non-genotoxic carcinogen and promoter. In these sensitive strains, promotion is also associated with inflammation characterized by infiltrating macrophages, lymphocytes, and neutrophils, and other inflammatory cell types in addition to increases in total protein content reflective of lung hyperpermeability. This 2-stage model is a useful tool to identify unique promotion specific events to then test in future intervention studies.
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7
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Novitskiy SV, Zaynagetdinov R, Vasiukov G, Gutor S, Han W, Serezani A, Matafonov A, Gleaves LA, Sherrill TP, Polosukhin VV, Blackwell TS. Gas6/MerTK signaling is negatively regulated by NF-κB and supports lung carcinogenesis. Oncotarget 2019; 10:7031-7042. [PMID: 31903163 PMCID: PMC6925028 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.27345] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2019] [Accepted: 11/07/2019] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Growth arrest-specific 6 (Gas6) has been implicated in carcinogenesis through activation of its receptors, particularly MerTK. To investigate whether Gas6 plays a role in resistance to NF-κB inhibitors, which have not proven to be effective agents for lung cancer therapy, we studied lung cancer models induced by urethane injection or expression of mutant Kras (KrasG12D). We found that Gas6 is primarily produced by macrophages during tumorigenesis and that Gas6 is negatively regulated by NF-κB. Since Gas6 is a vitamin K dependent protein, we used low-dose warfarin to block Gas6 production and showed that this treatment inhibited tumorigenesis in both the urethane and KrasG12D models, most prominently in mice with targeted deletion of IKKβ in myeloid cells (IKKβΔMye mice). In addition, MerTK deficient mice had reduced urethane-induced tumorigenesis. Inhibition of the Gas6-MerTK pathway in all these models reduced macrophages and neutrophils in the lungs of tumor-bearing mice. Analysis of mouse lung tumors revealed MerTK staining on tumor cells and in vitro studies showed that Gas6 increased proliferation of human lung cancer cell lines. To assess the therapeutic potential for combination treatment targeting NF-κB and Gas6-MerTK, we injected Lewis Lung Carcinoma cells subcutaneously and treated mice with Bay 11-70852 (NF-κB inhibitor) and/or Foretinib (MerTK inhibitor). While individual treatments were ineffective, combination therapy markedly reduced tumor growth, blocked tumor cell proliferation, reduced tumor-associated macrophages, and increased CD4+ T cells. Together, our studies unmask a role for Gas6-MerTK signaling in lung carcinogenesis and indicate that up-regulation of Gas6 production in macrophages could be a major mechanism of resistance to NF-κB inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sergey V Novitskiy
- Division of Allergy, Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Medicine, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37212, USA
| | - Rinat Zaynagetdinov
- Division of Allergy, Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Medicine, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37212, USA
| | - Georgii Vasiukov
- Division of Allergy, Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Medicine, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37212, USA
| | - Sergey Gutor
- Division of Allergy, Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Medicine, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37212, USA
| | - Wei Han
- Division of Allergy, Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Medicine, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37212, USA
| | - Ana Serezani
- Division of Allergy, Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Medicine, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37212, USA
| | - Anton Matafonov
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology, and Immunology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37212, USA
| | - Linda A Gleaves
- Division of Allergy, Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Medicine, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37212, USA
| | - Taylor P Sherrill
- Division of Allergy, Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Medicine, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37212, USA
| | - Vasiliy V Polosukhin
- Division of Allergy, Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Medicine, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37212, USA
| | - Timothy S Blackwell
- Division of Allergy, Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Medicine, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37212, USA.,Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN 37212, USA.,Department of Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Nashville, TN 37212, USA
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8
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Wang J, Meng F, Kim BK, Ke X, Yeo Y. In-vitro and in-vivo difference in gene delivery by lithocholic acid-polyethyleneimine conjugate. Biomaterials 2019; 217:119296. [PMID: 31254934 PMCID: PMC6670295 DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2019.119296] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2019] [Revised: 06/04/2019] [Accepted: 06/20/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Polyethyleneimine (PEI) is widely used for the delivery of nucleic acids, but its clinical application is limited due to high cytotoxicity and instability in biological fluids. To overcome these challenges, linear PEI (2.5 kDa) was modified with lithocholic acid (LCA) to produce a LCA-PEI conjugate (lp), and its complex with plasmid DNA (pDNA) was covered with hyaluronic acid (HA). Ternary complexes of pDNA, lp, and HA ("DlpH") were prepared in different ratios and tested in cells and tumor-bearing mice for gene transfection efficiency. DlpH with a relatively high lp/pDNA ratio (Hi-DlpH) was more resistant to DNase and heparin treatment and showed more efficient gene transfection than DlpH with a lower lp/pDNA ratio (Lo-DlpH) in vitro. In contrast, Hi- and Lo-DlpH showed distinct transfection efficiency in vivo in a tumor-size dependent manner, where Hi-DlpH showed relatively high gene transfection in tumors of <300 mm3 but performed poorly in tumors of >500 mm3 and Lo-DlpH did the opposite. Tumor-associated macrophages, which increase with tumor growth and preferentially intercept Hi-DlpH, may account for the poor performance of Hi-DlpH in relatively large tumors. Accordingly, suggestions are made for future in vitro screening of new gene formulations to better predict their in vivo performances.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jianping Wang
- Department of Industrial and Physical Pharmacy, Purdue University, 575 Stadium Mall Drive, West Lafayette, IN, 47907, USA; Department of Pharmaceutics, State Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines, China Pharmaceutical University, 24 Tong Jia Xiang, Nanjing, 210009, China
| | - Fanfei Meng
- Department of Industrial and Physical Pharmacy, Purdue University, 575 Stadium Mall Drive, West Lafayette, IN, 47907, USA; Department of Pharmaceutics, State Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines, China Pharmaceutical University, 24 Tong Jia Xiang, Nanjing, 210009, China
| | - Bieong-Kil Kim
- Department of Industrial and Physical Pharmacy, Purdue University, 575 Stadium Mall Drive, West Lafayette, IN, 47907, USA
| | - Xue Ke
- Department of Pharmaceutics, State Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines, China Pharmaceutical University, 24 Tong Jia Xiang, Nanjing, 210009, China
| | - Yoon Yeo
- Department of Industrial and Physical Pharmacy, Purdue University, 575 Stadium Mall Drive, West Lafayette, IN, 47907, USA; Weldon School of Biomedical Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, 47907, USA.
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9
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Atif SM, Gibbings SL, Redente EF, Camp FA, Torres RM, Kedl RM, Henson PM, Jakubzick CV. Immune Surveillance by Natural IgM Is Required for Early Neoantigen Recognition and Initiation of Adaptive Immunity. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 2019; 59:580-591. [PMID: 29953261 DOI: 10.1165/rcmb.2018-0159oc] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Early recognition of neoantigen-expressing cells is complex, involving multiple immune cell types. In this study, in vivo, we examined how antigen-presenting cell subtypes coordinate and induce an immunological response against neoantigen-expressing cells, particularly in the absence of a pathogen-associated molecular pattern, which is normally required to license antigen-presenting cells to present foreign or self-antigens as immunogens. Using two reductionist models of neoantigen-expressing cells and two cancer models, we demonstrated that natural IgM is essential for the recognition and initiation of adaptive immunity against neoantigen-expressing cells. Natural IgM antibodies form a cellular immune complex with the neoantigen-expressing cells. This immune complex licenses surveying monocytes to present neoantigens as immunogens to CD4+ T cells. CD4+ T helper cells, in turn, use CD40L to license cross-presenting CD40+ Batf3+ dendritic cells to elicit a cytotoxic T cell response against neoantigen-expressing cells. Any break along this immunological chain reaction results in the escape of neoantigen-expressing cells. This study demonstrates the surprising, essential role of natural IgM as the initiator of a sequential signaling cascade involving multiple immune cell subtypes. This sequence is required to coordinate an adaptive immune response against neoantigen-expressing cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shaikh M Atif
- 1 Department of Pediatrics, National Jewish Health, Denver, Colorado; and
| | - Sophie L Gibbings
- 1 Department of Pediatrics, National Jewish Health, Denver, Colorado; and
| | | | - Faye A Camp
- 2 Department of Immunology and Microbiology, University of Colorado, Aurora, Colorado
| | - Raul M Torres
- 2 Department of Immunology and Microbiology, University of Colorado, Aurora, Colorado
| | - Ross M Kedl
- 2 Department of Immunology and Microbiology, University of Colorado, Aurora, Colorado
| | - Peter M Henson
- 1 Department of Pediatrics, National Jewish Health, Denver, Colorado; and.,2 Department of Immunology and Microbiology, University of Colorado, Aurora, Colorado
| | - Claudia V Jakubzick
- 1 Department of Pediatrics, National Jewish Health, Denver, Colorado; and.,2 Department of Immunology and Microbiology, University of Colorado, Aurora, Colorado
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10
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Kameyama N, Chubachi S, Hegab AE, Yasuda H, Kagawa S, Tsutsumi A, Fukunaga K, Shimoda M, Kanai Y, Soejima K, Betsuyaku T. Intermittent Exposure to Cigarette Smoke Increases Lung Tumors and the Severity of Emphysema More than Continuous Exposure. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 2019; 59:179-188. [PMID: 29443539 DOI: 10.1165/rcmb.2017-0375oc] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Lung cancer and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease are leading causes of morbidity and mortality worldwide, and cigarette smoking is a main risk factor for both. The presence of emphysema, an irreversible lung disease, further raises the risk of lung cancer in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. The mechanisms involved in smoke-induced tumorigenesis and emphysema are not fully understood, attributable to a lack of appropriate animal models. Here, we optimized a model of cigarette smoke (CS)-induced lung cancer and emphysema in A/J mice treated with 4-(methylnitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanone, a potent carcinogen. We investigated whether variations in CS exposure patterns with the same total amount and duration of exposure affect tumorigenesis and/or development of emphysema. Continuous CS exposure for 3 months significantly suppressed 4-(methylnitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanone-induced development of adenomas and adenocarcinomas; however, emphysema independently developed during this period. Surprisingly, intermittent CS exposure increased the severity of emphysema and resulted in a higher incidence of adenocarcinomas. Furthermore, intermittent CS exposure elicited a marked increase in M2-polarized macrophages within and near the developed tumors. By employing a CS exposure protocol with repeated cycles of cessation and relapse, we provide evidence that intermittent CS exposure enhances tumorigenesis and emphysema progression more than that of continuous CS exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Ahmed E Hegab
- 1 Division of Pulmonary Medicine, Department of Medicine, and
| | - Hiroyuki Yasuda
- 1 Division of Pulmonary Medicine, Department of Medicine, and
| | - Shizuko Kagawa
- 1 Division of Pulmonary Medicine, Department of Medicine, and
| | | | - Koichi Fukunaga
- 1 Division of Pulmonary Medicine, Department of Medicine, and
| | - Masayuki Shimoda
- 2 Department of Pathology, Keio University, School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Yae Kanai
- 2 Department of Pathology, Keio University, School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Kenzo Soejima
- 1 Division of Pulmonary Medicine, Department of Medicine, and
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11
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Lilis I, Ntaliarda G, Papaleonidopoulos V, Giotopoulou GA, Oplopoiou M, Marazioti A, Spella M, Marwitz S, Goldmann T, Bravou V, Giopanou I, Stathopoulos GT. Interleukin-1β provided by KIT-competent mast cells is required for KRAS-mutant lung adenocarcinoma. Oncoimmunology 2019; 8:1593802. [PMID: 31143511 PMCID: PMC6527299 DOI: 10.1080/2162402x.2019.1593802] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2018] [Revised: 02/23/2019] [Accepted: 02/28/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Mast cells (MC) have been identified in human lung adenocarcinoma (LADC) tissues, but their functional role has not been investigated in vivo. For this, we applied three mouse models of KRAS-mutant LADC to two different MC-deficient mouse strains (cKitWsh and Cpa3.Cre). Moreover, we derived MC gene signatures from murine bone marrow-derived MC and used them to interrogate five human cohorts of LADC patients. Tumor-free cKitWsh and Cpa3.Cre mice were deficient in alveolar and skin KIT-dependent (KIT+) MC, but cKitWsh mice retained normal KIT-independent (KIT-) MC in the airways. Both KIT+ and KIT- MC infiltrated murine LADC to varying degrees, but KIT+ MC were more abundant and promoted LADC initiation and progression through interleukin-1β secretion. KIT+ MC and their transcriptional signature were significantly enriched in human LADC compared to adjacent normal tissue, especially in the subset of patients with KRAS mutations. Importantly, MC density increased with tumor stage and high overall expression of the KIT+ MC signature portended poor survival. Collectively, our results indicate that KIT+ MC foster LADC development and represent marked therapeutic targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ioannis Lilis
- Laboratory for Molecular Respiratory Carcinogenesis, Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Patras, Rio, Achaia, Greece
| | - Giannoula Ntaliarda
- Laboratory for Molecular Respiratory Carcinogenesis, Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Patras, Rio, Achaia, Greece
| | - Vassilios Papaleonidopoulos
- Laboratory for Molecular Respiratory Carcinogenesis, Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Patras, Rio, Achaia, Greece
| | - Georgia A Giotopoulou
- Laboratory for Molecular Respiratory Carcinogenesis, Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Patras, Rio, Achaia, Greece
| | - Maria Oplopoiou
- Laboratory for Molecular Respiratory Carcinogenesis, Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Patras, Rio, Achaia, Greece
| | - Antonia Marazioti
- Laboratory for Molecular Respiratory Carcinogenesis, Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Patras, Rio, Achaia, Greece
| | - Magda Spella
- Laboratory for Molecular Respiratory Carcinogenesis, Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Patras, Rio, Achaia, Greece
| | - Sebastian Marwitz
- Clinical and Experimental Pathology, Research Center Borstel, Airway Research Center North (ARCN), Member of the German Center for Lung Research (DZL), Borstel, Germany
| | - Torsten Goldmann
- Clinical and Experimental Pathology, Research Center Borstel, Airway Research Center North (ARCN), Member of the German Center for Lung Research (DZL), Borstel, Germany
| | - Vasiliki Bravou
- Department of Anatomy-Histology-Embryology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Patras, Rio, Achaia, Greece
| | - Ioanna Giopanou
- Laboratory for Molecular Respiratory Carcinogenesis, Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Patras, Rio, Achaia, Greece
| | - Georgios T Stathopoulos
- Laboratory for Molecular Respiratory Carcinogenesis, Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Patras, Rio, Achaia, Greece.,Comprehensive Pneumology Center (CPC) and Institute for Lung Biology and Disease (iLBD), University Hospital, Ludwig-Maximilians University and Helmholtz Zentrum München, Member of the German Center for Lung Research (DZL), Munich, Bavaria, Germany
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12
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Kossenkov AV, Qureshi R, Dawany NB, Wickramasinghe J, Liu Q, Majumdar RS, Chang C, Widura S, Kumar T, Horng WH, Konnisto E, Criner G, Tsay JCJ, Pass H, Yendamuri S, Vachani A, Bauer T, Nam B, Rom WN, Showe MK, Showe LC. A Gene Expression Classifier from Whole Blood Distinguishes Benign from Malignant Lung Nodules Detected by Low-Dose CT. Cancer Res 2019; 79:263-273. [PMID: 30487137 PMCID: PMC6317999 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-18-2032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2018] [Revised: 08/20/2018] [Accepted: 10/31/2018] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Low-dose CT (LDCT) is widely accepted as the preferred method for detecting pulmonary nodules. However, the determination of whether a nodule is benign or malignant involves either repeated scans or invasive procedures that sample the lung tissue. Noninvasive methods to assess these nodules are needed to reduce unnecessary invasive tests. In this study, we have developed a pulmonary nodule classifier (PNC) using RNA from whole blood collected in RNA-stabilizing PAXgene tubes that addresses this need. Samples were prospectively collected from high-risk and incidental subjects with a positive lung CT scan. A total of 821 samples from 5 clinical sites were analyzed. Malignant samples were predominantly stage 1 by pathologic diagnosis and 97% of the benign samples were confirmed by 4 years of follow-up. A panel of diagnostic biomarkers was selected from a subset of the samples assayed on Illumina microarrays that achieved a ROC-AUC of 0.847 on independent validation. The microarray data were then used to design a biomarker panel of 559 gene probes to be validated on the clinically tested NanoString nCounter platform. RNA from 583 patients was used to assess and refine the NanoString PNC (nPNC), which was then validated on 158 independent samples (ROC-AUC = 0.825). The nPNC outperformed three clinical algorithms in discriminating malignant from benign pulmonary nodules ranging from 6-20 mm using just 41 diagnostic biomarkers. Overall, this platform provides an accurate, noninvasive method for the diagnosis of pulmonary nodules in patients with non-small cell lung cancer. SIGNIFICANCE: These findings describe a minimally invasive and clinically practical pulmonary nodule classifier that has good diagnostic ability at distinguishing benign from malignant pulmonary nodules.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Qin Liu
- The Wistar Institute, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | | | - Celia Chang
- The Wistar Institute, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | - Sandy Widura
- The Wistar Institute, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | - Trisha Kumar
- The Wistar Institute, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | | | - Eric Konnisto
- Roswell Park Comprehensive Cancer Center Buffalo, New York
| | | | | | - Harvey Pass
- NYU Langone Medical Center, New York, New York
| | - Sai Yendamuri
- Roswell Park Comprehensive Cancer Center Buffalo, New York
| | - Anil Vachani
- Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | | | - Brian Nam
- Helen F. Graham Cancer Center, Newark, Delaware
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13
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Shanmugam MK, Shen H, Tang FR, Arfuso F, Rajesh M, Wang L, Kumar AP, Bian J, Goh BC, Bishayee A, Sethi G. Potential role of genipin in cancer therapy. Pharmacol Res 2018; 133:195-200. [PMID: 29758279 DOI: 10.1016/j.phrs.2018.05.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2017] [Revised: 05/08/2018] [Accepted: 05/09/2018] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Genipin, an aglycone derived from the iridoid glycoside, geniposide, is isolated and characterized from the extract of Gardenia jasminoides Ellis fruit (family Rubiaceae). It has long been used in traditional oriental medicine for the prevention and treatment of several inflammation driven diseases, including cancer. Genipin has been shown to have hepatoprotective activity acting as a potent antioxidant and inhibitor of mitochondrial uncoupling protein 2 (UCP2), and also reported to exert significant anticancer effects. It is an excellent crosslinking agent that helps to make novel sustained or delayed release nanoparticle formulations. In this review, we present the latest developments of genipin as an anticancer agent and briefly describe its diverse mechanism(s) of action. Several lines of evidence suggest that genipin is a potent inhibitor of UCP2, which functions as a tumor promoter in a variety of cancers, attenuates generation of reactive oxygen species and the expression of matrix metalloproteinase 2, as well as induces caspase-dependent apoptosis in vitro and in in vivo models. These finding suggests that genipin can serve as both a prominent anticancer agent as well as a potent crosslinking drug that may find useful application in several novel pharmaceutical formulations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muthu K Shanmugam
- Department of Pharmacology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, 117600, Singapore
| | - Hongyuan Shen
- Singapore Nuclear Research and Safety Initiative, National University of Singapore, Singapore, 138602, Singapore
| | - Feng Ru Tang
- Singapore Nuclear Research and Safety Initiative, National University of Singapore, Singapore, 138602, Singapore
| | - Frank Arfuso
- Stem Cell and Cancer Biology Laboratory, School of Biomedical Sciences, Curtin Health Innovation Research Institute, Curtin University, Perth, 6102, WA, Australia
| | - Mohanraj Rajesh
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, UAE University, Al Ain, 17666, United Arab Emirates
| | - Lingzhi Wang
- Department of Pharmacology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, 117600, Singapore; Cancer Science Institute of Singapore, National University of Singapore, Centre for Translational Medicine, Singapore, 117599, Singapore
| | - Alan Prem Kumar
- Department of Pharmacology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, 117600, Singapore; Cancer Science Institute of Singapore, National University of Singapore, Centre for Translational Medicine, Singapore, 117599, Singapore
| | - Jinsong Bian
- Department of Pharmacology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, 117600, Singapore
| | - Boon Cher Goh
- Department of Pharmacology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, 117600, Singapore; Stem Cell and Cancer Biology Laboratory, School of Biomedical Sciences, Curtin Health Innovation Research Institute, Curtin University, Perth, 6102, WA, Australia; Department of Haematology-Oncology, National University Health System, Singapore, 119228, Singapore
| | - Anupam Bishayee
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Larkin University, 18301 N. Miami Avenue, Miami, FL, 33169, United States of America
| | - Gautam Sethi
- Department of Pharmacology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, 117600, Singapore.
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14
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Zhou J, Qu Z, Sun F, Han L, Li L, Yan S, Stabile LP, Chen LF, Siegfried JM, Xiao G. Myeloid STAT3 Promotes Lung Tumorigenesis by Transforming Tumor Immunosurveillance into Tumor-Promoting Inflammation. Cancer Immunol Res 2017; 5:257-268. [PMID: 28108629 DOI: 10.1158/2326-6066.cir-16-0073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2016] [Revised: 01/03/2017] [Accepted: 01/05/2017] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
One of the most fundamental and challenging questions in the cancer field is how immunity in patients with cancer is transformed from tumor immunosurveillance to tumor-promoting inflammation. Here, we identify the transcription factor STAT3 as the culprit responsible for this pathogenic event in lung cancer development. We found that antitumor type 1 CD4+ T-helper (Th1) cells and CD8+ T cells were directly counter balanced in lung cancer development with tumor-promoting myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) and suppressive macrophages, and that activation of STAT3 in MDSCs and macrophages promoted tumorigenesis through pulmonary recruitment and increased resistance of suppressive cells to CD8+ T cells, enhancement of cytotoxicity toward CD4+ and CD8+ T cells, induction of regulatory T cell (Treg), inhibition of dendritic cells (DC), and polarization of macrophages toward the M2 phenotype. The deletion of myeloid STAT3 boosted antitumor immunity and suppressed lung tumorigenesis. These findings increase our understanding of immune programming in lung tumorigenesis and provide a mechanistic basis for developing STAT3-based immunotherapy against this and other solid tumors. Cancer Immunol Res; 5(3); 257-68. ©2017 AACR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jingjiao Zhou
- University of Pittsburgh Cancer Institute, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.,Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Zhaoxia Qu
- University of Pittsburgh Cancer Institute, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. .,Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Fan Sun
- University of Pittsburgh Cancer Institute, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.,Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Lei Han
- University of Pittsburgh Cancer Institute, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.,Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Liwen Li
- University of Pittsburgh Cancer Institute, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.,Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Shapei Yan
- University of Pittsburgh Cancer Institute, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Laura P Stabile
- University of Pittsburgh Cancer Institute, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.,Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Lin-Feng Chen
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois
| | - Jill M Siegfried
- University of Pittsburgh Cancer Institute, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.,Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Gutian Xiao
- University of Pittsburgh Cancer Institute, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. .,Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
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15
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Beatty GL. Overcoming Therapeutic Resistance by Targeting Cancer Inflammation. Am Soc Clin Oncol Educ Book 2017; 35:e168-73. [PMID: 27249720 DOI: 10.1200/edbk_158948] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Tumor-infiltrating myeloid cells are a prominent feature of most solid malignancies. This inflammatory immune response, driven by tumor-intrinsic signaling pathways, is a major checkpoint to therapeutic efficacy achieved with immunotherapy and standard cytotoxic therapies. To overcome therapeutic resistance mediated by cancer inflammation, ongoing clinical trials are evaluating strategies that (1) deplete myeloid cells from tumors, (2) inhibit tumor-promoting properties of myeloid cells, and (3) redirect myeloid cells with tumor-inhibitory activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gregory L Beatty
- From the Abramson Cancer Center of the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA; Division of Hematology-Oncology, Department of Medicine, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA
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16
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Timosenko E, Hadjinicolaou AV, Cerundolo V. Modulation of cancer-specific immune responses by amino acid degrading enzymes. Immunotherapy 2017; 9:83-97. [PMID: 28000524 DOI: 10.2217/imt-2016-0118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
To evade immune destruction, tumors exploit a wide range of immune escape mechanisms, including the induction of an immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment. This is mediated, in part, by amino acid degrading enzymes indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase, tryptophan 2,3-dioxygenase, arginase 1 and arginase 2, which have emerged as key players in the regulation of tumor-induced immune tolerance. Here we describe how the expression of tryptophan- and arginine-degrading enzymes by tumor and tumor-infiltrating cells can hamper cancer-specific immune responses, and discuss how this knowledge is being exploited to develop new strategies for cancer immunotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elina Timosenko
- MRC Human Immunology Unit, Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Oxford, John Radcliffe Hospital, Oxford, OX3 9DS, UK
| | - Andreas V Hadjinicolaou
- MRC Human Immunology Unit, Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Oxford, John Radcliffe Hospital, Oxford, OX3 9DS, UK
| | - Vincenzo Cerundolo
- MRC Human Immunology Unit, Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Oxford, John Radcliffe Hospital, Oxford, OX3 9DS, UK
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17
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Xu C, Zhou L, Lu L, Chen T, Wei S, Lin X, Lian X. Inflammation has a role in urethane‑induced lung cancer in C57BL/6J mice. Mol Med Rep 2016; 14:3323-8. [PMID: 27572483 DOI: 10.3892/mmr.2016.5661] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2015] [Accepted: 08/01/2016] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Lung cancer is a common and highly frequent cause of cancer‑associated mortality worldwide. Several studies have indicated that chronic inflammation is associated with an increased risk of several types of human cancer. The lung is vulnerable to various chemical and biological insults, and persistent exposure to these factors may result in the release of several inflammatory cytokines from inflammatory cells, thus leading to chronic inflammation and a risk of lung cancer. Due to the extensive application of C57BL/6J mice in lipid metabolism‑related research, it appears important to establish a lung cancer model based on C57BL/6J mice. Therefore, the present study designed an experimental model, in which C57BL/6J mice received several injections of urethane. The study aimed to explore whether inflammation has a role in this model of lung cancer. The results demonstrated that 10 weekly intraperitoneal injections of urethane induced a 100% lung tumor incidence, and urethane‑treated mice possessed higher numbers of immune cells. In addition, the expression levels of cytokines and chemokines in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid were significantly different between the two groups. Activation of the transcription factor nuclear factor‑κB was increased in the lung tissues of urethane‑treated mice, and its expression was upregulated in a time‑dependent manner. These results suggested that the accumulation of lung inflammation may be associated with the occurrence of lung cancer in C57BL/6J mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cai Xu
- School of Public Health and Management, Research Center for Medicine and Social Development, Innovation Center for Social Risk Governance in Health, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing 400016, P.R. China
| | - Lingyu Zhou
- School of Public Health and Management, Research Center for Medicine and Social Development, Innovation Center for Social Risk Governance in Health, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing 400016, P.R. China
| | - Lei Lu
- School of Public Health and Management, Research Center for Medicine and Social Development, Innovation Center for Social Risk Governance in Health, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing 400016, P.R. China
| | - Ting Chen
- Department of Prevention and Control of Chronic Diseases, Center for Disease Control and Prevention in Chongqing, Chongqing 400016, P.R. China
| | - Siyu Wei
- School of Public Health and Management, Research Center for Medicine and Social Development, Innovation Center for Social Risk Governance in Health, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing 400016, P.R. China
| | - Xiaojing Lin
- School of Public Health and Management, Research Center for Medicine and Social Development, Innovation Center for Social Risk Governance in Health, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing 400016, P.R. China
| | - Xuemei Lian
- School of Public Health and Management, Research Center for Medicine and Social Development, Innovation Center for Social Risk Governance in Health, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing 400016, P.R. China
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18
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Abstract
Background Chemokines are a family of small proteins secreted by cells with chemotactic activity, and they play important roles in cell adhesion. However, the expression of chemokine XCL2 and CX3CL1 in lung cancers in different pathological stages remains unclear. Material/Methods XCL2 and CX3CL1 expression in lung cancers and adjacent non-cancerous tissues was detected by quantitative PCR and ELISA. The relative expression of both chemokines in lung cancers in different pathological stages was compared by immunohistochemical assay. Results The relative expression level of XCL2 and CX3CL1 in lung cancer was significantly higher compared with adjacent normal tissues (P<0.001). The expression level of both chemokines was significantly increased with higher pathological stages, as indicated by immunohistochemical assay (P<0.05 or P <0.001). Their expression level in cancers with higher numbers of metastatic lymph nodes was also significantly increased compared with cancers with lower numbers of metastatic lymph nodes (P<0.05 or P<0.001). Conclusions The expression of XCL2 and CX3CL1 increases with increasing degree of malignancy, indicating that both chemokines might be important targets in gene therapy for lung cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bing Zhou
- Department of Cardiothoracic Surgery, Zhejiang Provincial People's Hospital, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China (mainland)
| | - Heyun Xu
- Department of Cardiothoracic Surgery, Zhejiang Provincial People's Hospital, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China (mainland)
| | - Kewei Ni
- Department of Cardiothoracic Surgery, Zhejiang Provincial People's Hospital, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China (mainland)
| | - Xuming Ni
- Department of Cardiothoracic Surgery, Zhejiang Provincial People's Hospital, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China (mainland)
| | - Jian Shen
- Department of Cardiothoracic Surgery, Zhejiang Provincial People's Hospital, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China (mainland)
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19
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Alexander CM, Xiong KN, Velmurugan K, Xiong J, Osgood RS, Bauer AK. Differential innate immune cell signatures and effects regulated by toll-like receptor 4 during murine lung tumor promotion. Exp Lung Res 2016; 42:154-73. [PMID: 27093379 PMCID: PMC5506691 DOI: 10.3109/01902148.2016.1164263] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
Tumor promotion is an early and critical stage during lung adenocarcinoma (ADC). We previously demonstrated that Tlr4 mutant mice were more susceptible to butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT)-induced pulmonary inflammation and tumor promotion in comparison to Tlr4-sufficient mice. Our study objective was to elucidate the underlying differences in Tlr4 mutant mice in innate immune cell populations, their functional responses, and the influence of these cellular differences on ADC progenitor (type II) cells following BHT-treatment. BALB (Tlr4-sufficient) and C.C3-Tlr4(Lps-d)/J (BALB(Lpsd); Tlr4 mutant) mice were treated with BHT (promoter) followed by bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) and flow cytometry processing on the lungs. ELISAs, Club cell enrichment, macrophage function, and RNA isolation were also performed. Bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMDM) co-cultured with a type II cell line were used for wound healing assays. Innate immune cells significantly increased in whole lung in BHT-treated BALB(Lpsd) mice compared to BALB mice. BHT-treated BALB(Lpsd) mice demonstrated enhanced macrophage functionality, increased epithelial wound closure via BMDMs, and increased Club cell number in BALB(Lpsd) mice, all compared to BALB BHT-treated mice. Cytokine/chemokine (Kc, Mcp1) and growth factor (Igf1) levels also significantly differed among the strains and within macrophages, gene expression, and cell surface markers collectively demonstrated a more plastic phenotype in BALB(Lpsd) mice. Therefore, these correlative studies suggest that distinct innate immune cell populations are associated with the differences observed in the Tlr4-mutant model. Future studies will investigate the macrophage origins and the utility of the pathways identified herein as indicators of immune system deficiencies and lung tumorigenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carla-Maria Alexander
- a Department of Environmental and Occupational Health , Colorado School of Public Health , University of Colorado at Denver-Anschutz Medical Campus , Aurora , Colorado , USA
| | - Ka-Na Xiong
- a Department of Environmental and Occupational Health , Colorado School of Public Health , University of Colorado at Denver-Anschutz Medical Campus , Aurora , Colorado , USA
| | - Kalpana Velmurugan
- a Department of Environmental and Occupational Health , Colorado School of Public Health , University of Colorado at Denver-Anschutz Medical Campus , Aurora , Colorado , USA
| | - Julie Xiong
- a Department of Environmental and Occupational Health , Colorado School of Public Health , University of Colorado at Denver-Anschutz Medical Campus , Aurora , Colorado , USA
| | - Ross S Osgood
- b Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences , School of Pharmacy , University of Colorado Denver , Aurora , Colorado , USA
| | - Alison K Bauer
- a Department of Environmental and Occupational Health , Colorado School of Public Health , University of Colorado at Denver-Anschutz Medical Campus , Aurora , Colorado , USA
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20
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Bauer AK, Velmurugan K, Xiong KN, Alexander CM, Xiong J, Brooks R. Epiregulin is required for lung tumor promotion in a murine two-stage carcinogenesis model. Mol Carcinog 2016; 56:94-105. [PMID: 26894620 DOI: 10.1002/mc.22475] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2015] [Revised: 01/27/2016] [Accepted: 02/06/2016] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Adenocarcinoma accounts for ∼40% of lung cancer, equating to ∼88 500 new patients in 2015, most of who will succumb to this disease, thus, the public health burden is evident. Unfortunately, few early biomarkers as well as effective therapies exist, hence the need for novel targets in lung cancer treatment. We previously identified epiregulin (Ereg), an EGF-like ligand, as a biomarker in several mouse lung cancer models. In the present investigation we used a primary two-stage initiation/promotion model to test our hypothesis that Ereg deficiency would reduce lung tumor promotion in mice. We used 3-methylcholanthrene (initiator) or oil vehicle followed by multiple weekly exposures to butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT; promoter) in mice lacking Ereg (Ereg-/- ) and wildtype controls (BALB/ByJ; Ereg+/+ ) and examined multiple time points and endpoints (bronchoalveolar lavage analysis, tumor analysis, mRNA expression, ELISA, wound assay) during tumor promotion. At the early time points (4 and 12 wk), we observed significantly reduced amounts of inflammation (macrophages, PMNs) in the Ereg-/- mice compared to controls (Ereg+/+ ). At 20 wk, tumor multiplicity was also significantly decreased in the Ereg-/- mice versus controls (Ereg+/+ ). IL10 expression, an anti-inflammatory mediator, and downstream signaling events (Stat3) were significantly increased in the Ereg-/- mice in response to BHT, supporting both reduced inflammation and tumorigenesis. Lastly, wound healing was significantly increased with recombinant Ereg in both human and mouse lung epithelial cell lines. These results indicate that Ereg has proliferative potential and may be utilized as an early cancer biomarker as well as a novel potential therapeutic target. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alison K Bauer
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, Colorado School of Public Health, University of Colorado Denver, Aurora, Colorado
| | - Kalpana Velmurugan
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, Colorado School of Public Health, University of Colorado Denver, Aurora, Colorado
| | - Ka-Na Xiong
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, Colorado School of Public Health, University of Colorado Denver, Aurora, Colorado
| | - Carla-Maria Alexander
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, Colorado School of Public Health, University of Colorado Denver, Aurora, Colorado
| | - Julie Xiong
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, Colorado School of Public Health, University of Colorado Denver, Aurora, Colorado
| | - Rana Brooks
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, Colorado School of Public Health, University of Colorado Denver, Aurora, Colorado
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21
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Malanga D, Belmonte S, Colelli F, Scarfò M, De Marco C, Oliveira DM, Mirante T, Camastra C, Gagliardi M, Rizzuto A, Mignogna C, Paciello O, Papparella S, Fagman H, Viglietto G. AKT1E¹⁷K Is Oncogenic in Mouse Lung and Cooperates with Chemical Carcinogens in Inducing Lung Cancer. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0147334. [PMID: 26859676 PMCID: PMC4747507 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0147334] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2015] [Accepted: 01/01/2016] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The hotspot AKT1E17K mutation in the pleckstrin homology domain of AKT1 occurs in approximately 0.6-2% of human lung cancers. Recently, we have demonstrated that AKT1E17K transforms immortalized human bronchial cells. Here by use of a transgenic Cre-inducible murine strain in the wild type Rosa26 (R26) locus (R26-AKT1E17K mice) we demonstrate that AKT1E17K is a bona-fide oncogene and plays a role in the development of lung cancer in vivo. In fact, we report that mutant AKT1E17K induces bronchial and/or bronchiolar hyperplastic lesions in murine lung epithelium, which progress to frank carcinoma at very low frequency, and accelerates tumor formation induced by chemical carcinogens. In conclusion, AKT1E17K induces hyperplasia of mouse lung epithelium in vivo and cooperates with urethane to induce the fully malignant phenotype.
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Affiliation(s)
- Donatella Malanga
- Dipartimento di Medicina Sperimentale e Clinica, Università Magna Graecia, Catanzaro, Italy
- BIOGEM-Istituto di Ricerche Genetiche, Ariano Irpino (AV), Italy
- * E-mail: (GV); (DM)
| | | | - Fabiana Colelli
- BIOGEM-Istituto di Ricerche Genetiche, Ariano Irpino (AV), Italy
| | - Marzia Scarfò
- BIOGEM-Istituto di Ricerche Genetiche, Ariano Irpino (AV), Italy
| | - Carmela De Marco
- Dipartimento di Medicina Sperimentale e Clinica, Università Magna Graecia, Catanzaro, Italy
- BIOGEM-Istituto di Ricerche Genetiche, Ariano Irpino (AV), Italy
| | - Duarte Mendes Oliveira
- Dipartimento di Medicina Sperimentale e Clinica, Università Magna Graecia, Catanzaro, Italy
| | - Teresa Mirante
- Dipartimento di Medicina Sperimentale e Clinica, Università Magna Graecia, Catanzaro, Italy
| | - Caterina Camastra
- Dipartimento di Scienze della Salute, Unità di Anatomia Patologica, Università Magna Graecia, Catanzaro, Italy
| | | | - Antonia Rizzuto
- Dipartimento di Scienze Mediche e Chirurgiche, Università Magna Graecia, Catanzaro, Italy
| | - Chiara Mignogna
- Dipartimento di Scienze della Salute, Unità di Anatomia Patologica, Università Magna Graecia, Catanzaro, Italy
| | - Orlando Paciello
- Department of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Productions, Università Federico II, Napoli, Italy
| | - Serenella Papparella
- Department of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Productions, Università Federico II, Napoli, Italy
| | - Henrik Fagman
- Department of Clinical Pathology and Genetics, Sahlgrenska University Hospital, Göteborg, Sweden
| | - Giuseppe Viglietto
- Dipartimento di Medicina Sperimentale e Clinica, Università Magna Graecia, Catanzaro, Italy
- BIOGEM-Istituto di Ricerche Genetiche, Ariano Irpino (AV), Italy
- * E-mail: (GV); (DM)
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22
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Yu K, Yang J, Wang F, Chen L, Lu Y, Luo J, Wang S. Ethanol supports macrophage recruitment and reinforces invasion and migration of Lewis lung carcinoma. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 2015; 38:2597-606. [PMID: 25346504 DOI: 10.1111/acer.12512] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2014] [Accepted: 07/08/2014] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Inflammation plays a critical role in cancer progression, and our data suggested that ethanol (EtOH) could promote the progression of breast cancer via increased monocyte chemo-attractant protein-1 (MCP-1). Thus, we investigated the effects of EtOH on lung cancer growth and metastasis to explore whether immunosuppression had a role. METHODS C57BL/6 mice (n = 10) implanted with Lewis lung cancer (LLC) cells were used to model physiologically relevant EtOH intake on tumor growth and inflammation after macrophage polarization. Tumors were isolated and measured, and MCP-1 expression was measured via immunohistochemistry and Western blot. Recruitment of macrophages using CD11b and F4/80 antibodies was detected with immunohistochemistry and flow cytometry. Changes in arginase I and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) expression were measured with immunofluorescent microscopy. EtOH's effect on in vitro tumor angiogenesis was evaluated in culture, and the tumor microvessel density was assessed with CD31 immunohistochemistry. Matrix metalloproteinase 9 and interleukin 10 expressions were measured by Western blot, ELISA, and immunohistochemistry. Finally, we treated a macrophage cell line RAW264.7 with EtOH and measured changes in arginase I and iNOS expression. RESULTS With EtOH exposure, macrophage density was positively correlated with MCP-1 expression. Macrophages infiltrated the tumor site, becoming tumor-associated macrophages that polarized to M2 phenotypes (ArgI(high) /iNOS(low) ) after EtOH treatment. Cancerous cells interacted with immune cells, especially M2 macrophages, and promoted tumor angiogenesis, progression, and invasiveness. RAW264.7 cells stimulated with EtOH expressed more arginase I and less iNOS than controls. These results agreed with the features of M2 phenotype macrophages (ArgI(high) /iNOS(low) ). CONCLUSIONS Data show that EtOH induced M2 phenotype macrophages, suggesting that progression and metastasis of LLC may be mediated by recruitment of M2 macrophages, especially under the influence of EtOH.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keke Yu
- Department of Biaobank, Shanghai Chest Hospital, Shanghai JiaoTong University, Shanghai, China; Department of Pathophysiology, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, Anhui, China; Department of Immunology, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, Anhui, China
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Fritz JM, Tennis MA, Orlicky DJ, Lin H, Ju C, Redente EF, Choo KS, Staab TA, Bouchard RJ, Merrick DT, Malkinson AM, Dwyer-Nield LD. Depletion of tumor-associated macrophages slows the growth of chemically induced mouse lung adenocarcinomas. Front Immunol 2014; 5:587. [PMID: 25505466 PMCID: PMC4243558 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2014.00587] [Citation(s) in RCA: 124] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2014] [Accepted: 11/03/2014] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Chronic inflammation is a risk factor for lung cancer, and low-dose aspirin intake reduces lung cancer risk. However, the roles that specific inflammatory cells and their products play in lung carcinogenesis have yet to be fully elucidated. In mice, alveolar macrophage numbers increase as lung tumors progress, and pulmonary macrophage programing changes within 2 weeks of carcinogen exposure. To examine how macrophages specifically affect lung tumor progression, they were depleted in mice bearing urethane-induced lung tumors using clodronate-encapsulated liposomes. Alveolar macrophage populations decreased to ≤50% of control levels after 4–6 weeks of liposomal clodronate treatment. Tumor burden decreased by 50% compared to vehicle treated mice, and tumor cell proliferation, as measured by Ki67 staining, was also attenuated. Pulmonary fluid levels of insulin-like growth factor-I, CXCL1, IL-6, and CCL2 diminished with clodronate liposome treatment. Tumor-associated macrophages expressed markers of both M1 and M2 programing in vehicle and clodronate liposome-treated mice. Mice lacking CCR2 (the receptor for macrophage chemotactic factor CCL2) had comparable numbers of alveolar macrophages and showed no difference in tumor growth rates when compared to similarly treated wild-type mice suggesting that while CCL2 may recruit macrophages to lung tumor microenvironments, redundant pathways can compensate when CCL2/CCR2 signaling is inactivated. Depletion of pulmonary macrophages rather than inhibition of their recruitment may be an advantageous strategy for attenuating lung cancer progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jason M Fritz
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Colorado Denver , Aurora, CO , USA
| | - Meredith A Tennis
- Pulmonary Division, School of Medicine, University of Colorado Denver , Aurora, CO , USA
| | - David J Orlicky
- Department of Pathology, School of Medicine, University of Colorado Denver , Aurora, CO , USA
| | - Hao Lin
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Colorado Denver , Aurora, CO , USA
| | - Cynthia Ju
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Colorado Denver , Aurora, CO , USA
| | | | - Kevin S Choo
- Research Division, Eastern Colorado Veterans Administration Medical Center , Denver, CO , USA
| | - Taylor A Staab
- Research Division, Eastern Colorado Veterans Administration Medical Center , Denver, CO , USA
| | - Ronald J Bouchard
- Research Division, Eastern Colorado Veterans Administration Medical Center , Denver, CO , USA
| | - Daniel T Merrick
- Department of Pathology, School of Medicine, University of Colorado Denver , Aurora, CO , USA
| | - Alvin M Malkinson
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Colorado Denver , Aurora, CO , USA
| | - Lori D Dwyer-Nield
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Colorado Denver , Aurora, CO , USA
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Gong L, Cumpian AM, Caetano MS, Ochoa CE, De la Garza MM, Lapid DJ, Mirabolfathinejad SG, Dickey BF, Zhou Q, Moghaddam SJ. Promoting effect of neutrophils on lung tumorigenesis is mediated by CXCR2 and neutrophil elastase. Mol Cancer 2013; 12:154. [PMID: 24321240 PMCID: PMC3923587 DOI: 10.1186/1476-4598-12-154] [Citation(s) in RCA: 124] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2013] [Accepted: 11/29/2013] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Tumor cells produce various cytokines and chemokines that attract leukocytes. Leukocytes can amplify parenchymal innate immune responses, and have been shown to contribute to tumor promotion. Neutrophils are among the first cells to arrive at sites of inflammation, and the increased number of tumor-associated neutrophils is linked to poorer outcome in patients with lung cancer. RESULTS We have previously shown that COPD-like airway inflammation promotes lung cancer in a K-ras mutant mouse model of lung cancer (CC-LR). This was associated with severe lung neutrophilic influx due to the increased level of neutrophil chemoattractant, KC. To further study the role of neutrophils in lung tumorigenesis, we depleted neutrophils in CC-LR mice using an anti-neutrophil antibody. This resulted in a significant reduction in lung tumor number. We further selectively inhibited the main receptor for neutrophil chemo-attractant KC, CXCR2. Similarly, this resulted in suppression of neutrophil recruitment into the lung of CC-LR mice followed by significant tumor reduction. Neutrophil elastase (NE) is a potent elastolytic enzyme produced by neutrophils at the site of inflammation. We crossed the CC-LR mice with NE knock-out mice, and found that lack of NE significantly inhibits lung cancer development. These were associated with significant reduction in tumor cell proliferation and angiogenesis. CONCLUSION We conclude that lung cancer promotion by inflammation is partly mediated by activation of the IL-8/CXCR2 pathway and subsequent recruitment of neutrophils and release of neutrophil elastase. This provides a baseline for future clinical trials using the IL-8/CXCR2 pathway or NE inhibitors in patients with lung cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lei Gong
- Departments of Pulmonary Medicine, The University of Texas M.D. Anderson Cancer Center, 1515 Holcombe Boulevard, Unit 1100, Houston, TX 77030, USA
- Tianjin Lung Cancer Institute, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin Medical University, Tianjin, China
- Department of Esophageal Cancer, Key Laboratory of Prevention and Therapy, Tianjin Medical University Cancer Institute and Hospital, National Clinical Research Center for Cancer, Tianjin, China
| | - Amber M Cumpian
- Departments of Pulmonary Medicine, The University of Texas M.D. Anderson Cancer Center, 1515 Holcombe Boulevard, Unit 1100, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Mauricio S Caetano
- Departments of Pulmonary Medicine, The University of Texas M.D. Anderson Cancer Center, 1515 Holcombe Boulevard, Unit 1100, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Cesar E Ochoa
- Departments of Pulmonary Medicine, The University of Texas M.D. Anderson Cancer Center, 1515 Holcombe Boulevard, Unit 1100, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Maria Miguelina De la Garza
- Departments of Pulmonary Medicine, The University of Texas M.D. Anderson Cancer Center, 1515 Holcombe Boulevard, Unit 1100, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Daniel J Lapid
- Departments of Pulmonary Medicine, The University of Texas M.D. Anderson Cancer Center, 1515 Holcombe Boulevard, Unit 1100, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Seyedeh Golsar Mirabolfathinejad
- Departments of Pulmonary Medicine, The University of Texas M.D. Anderson Cancer Center, 1515 Holcombe Boulevard, Unit 1100, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Burton F Dickey
- Departments of Pulmonary Medicine, The University of Texas M.D. Anderson Cancer Center, 1515 Holcombe Boulevard, Unit 1100, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Qinghua Zhou
- Tianjin Lung Cancer Institute, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin Medical University, Tianjin, China
| | - Seyed Javad Moghaddam
- Departments of Pulmonary Medicine, The University of Texas M.D. Anderson Cancer Center, 1515 Holcombe Boulevard, Unit 1100, Houston, TX 77030, USA
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25
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Du G, Sun T, Zhang Y, Lin H, Li J, Liu W, Wang Y, Zhao B, Li H, Liu Y. The mitochondrial dysfunction plays an important role in urethane-induced lung carcinogenesis. Eur J Pharmacol 2013; 715:395-404. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2013.04.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2012] [Revised: 04/25/2013] [Accepted: 04/26/2013] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
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Cook RS, Jacobsen KM, Wofford AM, DeRyckere D, Stanford J, Prieto AL, Redente E, Sandahl M, Hunter DM, Strunk KE, Graham DK, Earp HS. MerTK inhibition in tumor leukocytes decreases tumor growth and metastasis. J Clin Invest 2013; 123:3231-42. [PMID: 23867499 DOI: 10.1172/jci67655] [Citation(s) in RCA: 142] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2012] [Accepted: 05/10/2013] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
MerTK, a receptor tyrosine kinase (RTK) of the TYRO3/AXL/MerTK family, is expressed in myeloid lineage cells in which it acts to suppress proinflammatory cytokines following ingestion of apoptotic material. Using syngeneic mouse models of breast cancer, melanoma, and colon cancer, we found that tumors grew slowly and were poorly metastatic in MerTK-/- mice. Transplantation of MerTK-/- bone marrow, but not wild-type bone marrow, into lethally irradiated MMTV-PyVmT mice (a model of metastatic breast cancer) decreased tumor growth and altered cytokine production by tumor CD11b+ cells. Although MerTK expression was not required for tumor infiltration by leukocytes, MerTK-/- leukocytes exhibited lower tumor cell-induced expression of wound healing cytokines, e.g., IL-10 and growth arrest-specific 6 (GAS6), and enhanced expression of acute inflammatory cytokines, e.g., IL-12 and IL-6. Intratumoral CD8+ T lymphocyte numbers were higher and lymphocyte proliferation was increased in tumor-bearing MerTK-/- mice compared with tumor-bearing wild-type mice. Antibody-mediated CD8+ T lymphocyte depletion restored tumor growth in MerTK-/- mice. These data demonstrate that MerTK signaling in tumor-associated CD11b+ leukocytes promotes tumor growth by dampening acute inflammatory cytokines while inducing wound healing cytokines. These results suggest that inhibition of MerTK in the tumor microenvironment may have clinical benefit, stimulating antitumor immune responses or enhancing immunotherapeutic strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebecca S Cook
- Department of Cancer Biology, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, Tennessee, USA
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27
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ROS play a critical role in the differentiation of alternatively activated macrophages and the occurrence of tumor-associated macrophages. Cell Res 2013; 23:898-914. [PMID: 23752925 PMCID: PMC3698641 DOI: 10.1038/cr.2013.75] [Citation(s) in RCA: 364] [Impact Index Per Article: 33.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2013] [Revised: 04/18/2013] [Accepted: 04/26/2013] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Differentiation to different types of macrophages determines their distinct functions. Tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) promote tumorigenesis owing to their proangiogenic and immune-suppressive functions similar to those of alternatively activated (M2) macrophages. We report that reactive oxygen species (ROS) production is critical for macrophage differentiation and that inhibition of superoxide (O2−) production specifically blocks the differentiation of M2 macrophages. We found that when monocytes are triggered to differentiate, O2− is generated and is needed for the biphasic ERK activation, which is critical for macrophage differentiation. We demonstrated that ROS elimination by butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA) and other ROS inhibitors blocks macrophage differentiation. However, the inhibitory effect of ROS elimination on macrophage differentiation is overcome when cells are polarized to classically activated (M1), but not M2, macrophages. More importantly, the continuous administration of the ROS inhibitor BHA efficiently blocked the occurrence of TAMs and markedly suppressed tumorigenesis in mouse cancer models. Targeting TAMs by blocking ROS can be a potentially effective method for cancer treatment.
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Abstract
Pharmaco-nutrients have beneficial effects on protective and immunological mechanisms in patients undergoing surgery, which are important for recovery after injury and in combating infectious agents. The aim of this review article was to outline the potential of the administration of nutritional substrates to surgical patients and the underlying mechanisms that make them particularly important in peri-operative care. Surgery causes a stress response, which has catabolic effects on the body's substrate stores. The amino acid glutamine is a stimulating agent for immune cells. It activates protective mechanisms through its role as a precursor for antioxidants and it improves the barrier function of the gut. Arginine also enhances the function of the immune system, since it is the substrate for T-lymphocytes. Furthermore, n-3 PUFA stabilise surgery-induced hyper-inflammation. Taurine is another substrate that may counteract the negative effects of surgical injury on acid–base balance and osmotic balance. These pharmaco-nutrients rapidly become deficient under the influence of surgical stress. Supplementation of these nutrients in surgical patients may restore their protective and immune-enhancing actions and improve clinical outcome. Moreover, pre-operative fasting is still common practice in the Western world, although fasting has a negative effect on the patient's condition and the recovery after surgery. This may be counteracted by a simple intervention such as administering a carbohydrate-rich supplement just before surgery. In conclusion, there are various nutritional substrates that may be of great value in improving the condition of the surgical patient, which may be beneficial for post-operative recovery.
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29
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Anti- and Protumorigenic Effects of PPARγ in Lung Cancer Progression: A Double-Edged Sword. PPAR Res 2012; 2012:362085. [PMID: 22934105 PMCID: PMC3425863 DOI: 10.1155/2012/362085] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/29/2012] [Accepted: 07/09/2012] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ (PPARγ) is a member of the nuclear receptor superfamily of ligand-activated transcription factors that plays an important role in the control of gene expression linked to a variety of physiological processes, including cancer. Ligands for PPARγ include naturally occurring fatty acids and the thiazolidinedione class of antidiabetic drugs. Activation of PPARγ in a variety of cancer cells leads to inhibition of growth, decreased invasiveness, reduced production of proinflammatory cytokines, and promotion of a more differentiated phenotype. However, systemic activation of PPARγ has been reported to be protumorigenic in some in vitro systems and in vivo models. Here, we review the available data that implicate PPARγ in lung carcinogenesis and highlight the challenges of targeting PPARγ in lung cancer treatments.
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Locke LW, Mayo MW, Yoo AD, Williams MB, Berr SS. PET imaging of tumor associated macrophages using mannose coated 64Cu liposomes. Biomaterials 2012; 33:7785-93. [PMID: 22840225 DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2012.07.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 102] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2012] [Accepted: 07/09/2012] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Macrophages within the tumor microenvironment (TAMs) have been shown to play a major role in the growth and spread of many types of cancer. Cancer cells produce cytokines that cause macrophages to express scavenger receptors (e.g. the mannose receptor) and factors that facilitate tissue and blood vessel growth, suppress T cell mediated anti-tumor activity, and express enzymes that can break down the extracellular matrix, thereby promoting metastasis. We have designed a mannosylated liposome (MAN-LIPs) and show that it accumulates in TAMs in a mouse model of pulmonary adenocarcinoma. These liposomes are loaded with (64)Cu to allow tracking by PET imaging, and contain a fluorescent dye in the lipid bilayer permitting subsequent fluorescence microscopy. We injected these liposomes into a mouse model of lung cancer. In vivo PET images were acquired 6 h after injection followed by the imaging of select excised organs. MAN-LIPs accumulated in TAMs and exhibited little accumulation in remote lung areas. MAN-LIPs are a promising new vehicle for the delivery of imaging agents to lung TAMs. In addition to imaging, MAN-LIPs hold the potential for delivery of therapeutic agents to the tumor microenvironment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Landon W Locke
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, The University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22908, USA
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31
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Narayan C, Kumar A. Constitutive over expression of IL-1β, IL-6, NF-κB, and Stat3 is a potential cause of lung tumorgenesis in urethane (ethyl carbamate) induced Balb/c mice. J Carcinog 2012; 11:9. [PMID: 22919282 PMCID: PMC3424667 DOI: 10.4103/1477-3163.98965] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2011] [Accepted: 02/03/2012] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Lung cancer is a leading cause of cancer death. There has been found a substantial gap in the understanding of lung cancer genesis at the molecular level. We developed urethane (ethyl carbamate) induced lung tumor mice model to understand the mechanism and molecules involved in the cancer genesis. There might be many molecules involved, but we subsequently emphasized here the study of alternation in the expression of NF-κB, Stat3, and inflammatory cytokines interleukin-1β and interleukin-6 to hypothesize that the microenvironment created by these molecules is promoting tumor formation. Materials and Methods: 7–8 week old Balb/c mice of either sex were given intraperitoneal (i.p.) injection of urethane (1g/kgbw) for eight consecutive weeks. Histopathological analysis was done to detect abnormality or invasions occurred in the lung tissues. Automated cell counter was used to count the number of inflammatory cells. The expression of NF-κB, Stat3, and IL-1β was observed at translational level by western blot, while the expression of IL-1β and IL-6 was observed at transcriptional level by semiquantitative reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) method. Secretion of IL-1β and IL-6 in the blood was measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) method at different time intervals. Results: Histopathological analysis showed various lung cancer stages hyperplasia, atypical adenomatous hyperplasia, and adenocarcinoma. Increased population of inflammatory cells, persistant expression of NF-κB, Stat3, pStat3, and IL-1β at translational level, while at transcriptional level constitutive enhanced expression of IL-1β and IL-6 followed by increased secretion of IL-1β and IL-6 in the blood were observed in urethane-injected mice in comparison to phosphate buffer saline (PBS) injected mice at 12, 24, and 36 weeks Conclusions: Overexpression of key molecules such as NF-κB, Stat3, pStat3, IL-1β, and IL-6 might have caused chronic inflammation, leading to the progression of lung cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chandradeo Narayan
- School of Biotechnology, Faculty of Science, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India
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32
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Barta P, Van Pelt C, Men T, Dickey BF, Lotan R, Moghaddam SJ. Enhancement of lung tumorigenesis in a Gprc5a Knockout mouse by chronic extrinsic airway inflammation. Mol Cancer 2012; 11:4. [PMID: 22239913 PMCID: PMC3281775 DOI: 10.1186/1476-4598-11-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2011] [Accepted: 01/12/2012] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Although cigarette smoking is the principal cause of lung carcinogenesis, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), an inflammatory disease of the lung, has been identified as an independent risk factor for lung cancer. Bacterial colonization, particularly with non-typeable Haemophilus influenzae (NTHi), has been implicated as a cause of airway inflammation in COPD besides cigarette smoke. Accordingly, we hypothesized that lung cancer promotion may occur in a chronic inflammatory environment in the absence of concurrent carcinogen exposure. Results Herein, we investigated the effects of bacterial-induced COPD-like inflammation and tobacco carcinogen-enhanced tumorigenesis/inflammation in the retinoic acid inducible G protein coupled receptor knock out mouse model (Gprc5a-/- mouse) characterized by late-onset, low multiplicity tumor formation. Three-month-old Gprc5a-/- mice received 4 intraperitoneal injections of the tobacco-specific carcinogen, NNK, followed by weekly exposure to aerosolized NTHi lysate for 6 months. The numbers of inflammatory cells in the lungs and levels of several inflammatory mediators were increased in Gprc5a-/- mice treated with NTHi alone, and even more so in mice pretreated with NNK followed by NTHi. The incidence of spontaneous lung lesions in the Gprc5a-/- mice was low, but NTHi exposure led to enhanced development of hyperplastic lesions. Gprc5a-/- mice exposed to NNK alone developed multiple lung tumors, while NTHi exposure increased the number of hyperplastic foci 6-fold and the tumor multiplicity 2-fold. This was associated with increased microvessel density and HIF-1α expression. Conclusion We conclude that chronic extrinsic lung inflammation induced by bacteria alone or in combination with NNK enhances lung tumorigenesis in Gprc5a-/- mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter Barta
- Department of Pulmonary Medicine, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas, USA
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Zaynagetdinov R, Sherrill TP, Polosukhin VV, Han W, Ausborn JA, McLoed AG, McMahon FB, Gleaves LA, Degryse AL, Stathopoulos GT, Yull FE, Blackwell TS. A critical role for macrophages in promotion of urethane-induced lung carcinogenesis. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2011; 187:5703-11. [PMID: 22048774 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1100558] [Citation(s) in RCA: 108] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Macrophages have established roles in tumor growth and metastasis, but information about their role in lung tumor promotion is limited. To assess the role of macrophages in lung tumorigenesis, we developed a method of minimally invasive, long-term macrophage depletion by repetitive intratracheal instillation of liposomal clodronate. Compared with controls treated with repetitive doses of PBS-containing liposomes, long-term macrophage depletion resulted in a marked reduction in tumor number and size at 4 mo after a single i.p. injection of the carcinogen urethane. After urethane treatment, lung macrophages developed increased M1 macrophage marker expression during the first 2-3 wk, followed by increased M2 marker expression by week 6. Using a strategy to reduce alveolar macrophages during tumor initiation and early promotion stages (weeks 1-2) or during late promotion and progression stages (weeks 4-16), we found significantly fewer and smaller lung tumors in both groups compared with controls. Late-stage macrophage depletion reduced VEGF expression and impaired vascular growth in tumors. In contrast, early-stage depletion of alveolar macrophages impaired urethane-induced NF-κB activation in the lungs and reduced the development of premalignant atypical adenomatous hyperplasia lesions at 6 wk after urethane injection. Together, these studies elucidate an important role for macrophages in lung tumor promotion and indicate that these cells have distinct roles during different stages of lung carcinogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rinat Zaynagetdinov
- Division of Allergy, Pulmonary, and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Medicine, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN 37232, USA
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Targeted deletion of Nrf2 reduces urethane-induced lung tumor development in mice. PLoS One 2011; 6:e26590. [PMID: 22039513 PMCID: PMC3198791 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0026590] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2011] [Accepted: 09/29/2011] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Nrf2 is a key transcription factor that regulates cellular redox and defense responses. However, permanent Nrf2 activation in human lung carcinomas promotes pulmonary malignancy and chemoresistance. We tested the hypothesis that Nrf2 has cell survival properties and lack of Nrf2 suppresses chemically-induced pulmonary neoplasia by treating Nrf2+/+ and Nrf2-/- mice with urethane. Airway inflammation and injury were assessed by bronchoalveolar lavage analyses and histopathology, and lung tumors were analyzed by gross and histologic analysis. We used transcriptomics to assess Nrf2-dependent changes in pulmonary gene transcripts at multiple stages of neoplasia. Lung hyperpermeability, cell death and apoptosis, and inflammatory cell infiltration were significantly higher in Nrf2-/- mice compared to Nrf2+/+ mice 9 and 11 wk after urethane. Significantly fewer lung adenomas were found in Nrf2-/- mice than in Nrf2+/+ mice at 12 and 22 wk. Nrf2 modulated expression of genes involved cell-cell signaling, glutathione metabolism and oxidative stress response, and immune responses during early stage neoplasia. In lung tumors, Nrf2-altered genes had roles in transcriptional regulation of cell cycle and proliferation, carcinogenesis, organismal injury and abnormalities, xenobiotic metabolism, and cell-cell signaling genes. Collectively, Nrf2 deficiency decreased susceptibility to urethane-induced lung tumorigenesis in mice. Cell survival properties of Nrf2 were supported, at least in part, by reduced early death of initiated cells and heightened advantage for tumor cell expansion in Nrf2+/+ mice relative to Nrf2-/- mice. Our results were consistent with the concept that Nrf2 over-activation is an adaptive response of cancer conferring resistance to anti-cancer drugs and promoting malignancy.
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35
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Tyagi A, Agarwal C, Dwyer-Nield LD, Singh RP, Malkinson AM, Agarwal R. Silibinin modulates TNF-α and IFN-γ mediated signaling to regulate COX2 and iNOS expression in tumorigenic mouse lung epithelial LM2 cells. Mol Carcinog 2011; 51:832-42. [PMID: 21882257 DOI: 10.1002/mc.20851] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2011] [Revised: 08/01/2011] [Accepted: 08/10/2011] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Silibinin inhibits mouse lung tumorigenesis in part by targeting tumor microenvironment. Tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) and interferon-gamma (IFN-γ) can be pro- or anti-tumorigenic, but in lung cancer cell lines they induce pro-inflammatory enzymes cyclooxygenase 2 (COX2) and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS). Accordingly, here we examined mechanism of silibinin action on TNF-α + IFN-γ (hereafter referred as cytokine mixture) elicited signaling in tumor-derived mouse lung epithelial LM2 cells. Both signal transducers and activators of the transcription (STAT)3 (tyr705 and ser727) and STAT1 (tyr701) were activated within 15 min of cytokine mixture exposure, while STAT1 (ser727) activated after 3 h. Cytokine mixture also activated Erk1/2 and caused an increase in both COX2 and iNOS levels. Pretreatment of cells with a MEK, NF-κB, and/or epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) inhibitor inhibited cytokine mixture-induced activation of Erk1/2, NF-κB, or EGFR, respectively, and strongly decreased phosphorylation of STAT3 and STAT1 and expression of COX2 and iNOS. Also, janus family kinases (JAK)1 and JAK2 inhibitors specifically decreased cytokine-induced iNOS expression, suggesting possible roles of JAK1, JAK2, Erk1/2, NF-κB, and EGFR in cytokine mixture-caused induction of COX2 and iNOS expression via STAT3/STAT1 activation in LM2 cells. Importantly, silibinin pretreatment inhibited cytokine mixture-induced phosphorylation of STAT3, STAT1, and Erk1/2, NF-κB-DNA binding, and expression of COX2, iNOS, matrix metalloproteinases (MMP)2, and MMP9, which was mediated through impairment of STAT3 and STAT1 nuclear localization. Silibinin also inhibited cytokine mixture-induced migration of LM2 cells. Together, we showed that STAT3 and STAT1 could be valuable chemopreventive and therapeutic targets within the lung tumor microenvironment in addition to being targets within tumor itself, and that silibinin inhibits their activation as a plausible mechanism of its efficacy against lung cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alpna Tyagi
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Colorado Denver, Aurora, Colorado 80045, USA
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Kossenkov AV, Vachani A, Chang C, Nichols C, Billouin S, Horng W, Rom WN, Albelda SM, Showe MK, Showe LC. Resection of non-small cell lung cancers reverses tumor-induced gene expression changes in the peripheral immune system. Clin Cancer Res 2011; 17:5867-77. [PMID: 21807633 DOI: 10.1158/1078-0432.ccr-11-0737] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE To characterize the interactions of non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) tumors with the immune system at the level of mRNA and microRNA (miRNA) expression and to define expression signatures that characterize the presence of a malignant tumor versus a nonmalignant nodule. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN We have examined the changes of both mRNA and miRNA expression levels in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) between paired samples collected from NSCLC patients before and after tumor removal using Illumina gene expression arrays. RESULTS We found that malignant tumor removal significantly changes expression of more than 3,000 protein-coding genes, especially genes in pathways associated with suppression of the innate immune response, including natural killer cell signaling and apoptosis-associated ceramide signaling. Binding sites for the ETS domain transcription factors ELK1, ELK4, and SPI1 were enriched in promoter regions of genes upregulated in the presence of a tumor. Additional important regulators included five miRNAs expressed at significantly higher levels before tumor removal. Repressed protein-coding targets of those miRNAs included many transcription factors, several involved in immunologically important pathways. Although there was a significant overlap in the effects of malignant tumors and benign lung nodules on PBMC gene expression, we identified one gene panel which indicates a tumor or nodule presence and a second panel that can distinguish malignant from nonmalignant nodules. CONCLUSIONS A tumor presence in the lung influences mRNA and miRNA expression in PBMC and this influence is reversed by tumor removal. These results suggest that PBMC gene expression signatures could be used for lung cancer diagnosis.
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Fritz JM, Dwyer-Nield LD, Malkinson AM. Stimulation of neoplastic mouse lung cell proliferation by alveolar macrophage-derived, insulin-like growth factor-1 can be blocked by inhibiting MEK and PI3K activation. Mol Cancer 2011; 10:76. [PMID: 21699731 PMCID: PMC3135566 DOI: 10.1186/1476-4598-10-76] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2010] [Accepted: 06/24/2011] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Worldwide, lung cancer kills more people than breast, colon and prostate cancer combined. Alterations in macrophage number and function during lung tumorigenesis suggest that these immune effector cells stimulate lung cancer growth. Evidence from cancer models in other tissues suggests that cancer cells actively recruit growth factor-producing macrophages through a reciprocal signaling pathway. While the levels of lung macrophages increase during tumor progression in mouse models of lung cancer, and high pulmonary macrophage content correlates with a poor prognosis in human non-small cell lung cancer, the specific role of alveolar macrophages in lung tumorigenesis is not clear. Methods After culturing either an immortalized lung macrophage cell line or primary murine alveolar macrophages from naïve and lung-tumor bearing mice with primary tumor isolates and immortalized cell lines, the effects on epithelial proliferation and cellular kinase activation were determined. Insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) was quantified by ELISA, and macrophage conditioned media IGF-1 levels manipulated by IL-4 treatment, immuno-depletion and siRNA transfection. Results Primary macrophages from both naïve and lung-tumor bearing mice stimulated epithelial cell proliferation. The lungs of tumor-bearing mice contained 3.5-times more IGF-1 than naïve littermates, and media conditioned by freshly isolated tumor-educated macrophages contained more IGF-1 than media conditioned by naïve macrophages; IL-4 stimulated IGF-1 production by both macrophage subsets. The ability of macrophage conditioned media to stimulate neoplastic proliferation correlated with media IGF-1 levels, and recombinant IGF-1 alone was sufficient to induce epithelial proliferation in all cell lines evaluated. Macrophage-conditioned media and IGF-1 stimulated lung tumor cell growth in an additive manner, while EGF had no effect. Macrophage-derived factors increased p-Erk1/2, p-Akt and cyclin D1 levels in neoplastic cells, and the combined inhibition of both MEK and PI3K ablated macrophage-mediated increases in epithelial growth. Conclusions Macrophages produce IGF-1 which directly stimulates neoplastic proliferation through Erk and Akt activation. This observation suggests that combining macrophage ablation therapy with IGF-1R, MEK and/or PI3K inhibition could improve therapeutic response in human lung cancer. Exploring macrophage-based intervention could be a fruitful avenue for future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jason M Fritz
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Skagg School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, 12850 E, Montview Blvd, C-238 V20-4460, Aurora, CO 80045, USA
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Kakinoki K, Nakamoto Y, Kagaya T, Tsuchiyama T, Sakai Y, Nakahama T, Mukaida N, Kaneko S. Prevention of intrahepatic metastasis of liver cancer by suicide gene therapy and chemokine ligand 2/monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 delivery in mice. J Gene Med 2011; 12:1002-13. [PMID: 21157824 DOI: 10.1002/jgm.1528] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The prognosis of patients with hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) remains poor, largely as a result of intrahepatic metastasis. Using a mouse model of intrahepatic metastasis, we investigated whether chemokine ligand 2/monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (CCL2/MCP-1) could potentiate the antitumor effects of the herpes simplex virus thymidine kinase/ganciclovir (HSV-tk/GCV) system. METHODS Mouse hepatoma cells infected with recombinant adenovirus vectors expressing HSV-tk, CCL2/MCP-1 and LacZ at multiplicities of infection of Ad-tk/Ad-MCP1 = 3/0.03 (T/M(Low)), 3/3 (T/M(High)) and Ad-tk/Ad-LacZ = 3/3 (T/L) were injected into BALB/c mice. RESULTS Intrahepatic tumor growth was significantly lower in T/M(Low) mice. By contrast, no tumor suppression was observed in T/M(High) mice. The tumor-specific cytolytic activities of splenocytes from T/M(Low) and T/M(High) mice were comparable. Immunohistochemical analysis of liver tissues showed similar infiltration by Mac-1(+) and T cells in these animals, whereas the proportions of classical activated (M1) monocytes/macrophages were significantly higher in T/M(Low) mice. In addition, interleukin-12 production was elevated in these tissues. Vascular endothelial growth factor-A expression and CD31(+) microvessels were increased in T/M(High) mice. CONCLUSIONS Collectively, these results demonstrate that an adequate amount of CCL2/MCP-1, together with the HSV-tk/GCV system, may induce T helper 1-polarized antitumor effects without inducing tumor angiogenesis in the microenvironment of intrahepatic HCC progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kaheita Kakinoki
- Disease Control and Homeostasis, Graduate School of Medical Science, Kanazawa University, Kanazawa, Japan
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Egenolf DD, Rafferty P, Brosnan K, Walker M, Jordan J, Makropoulos D, Kavalkovich K, Watson S, Johns L, Volk A, Bugelski PJ. Development of a murine model of lymph node metastases suitable for immunotoxicity studies. J Pharmacol Toxicol Methods 2011; 63:236-49. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vascn.2010.12.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2010] [Accepted: 12/01/2010] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
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Walter ND, Rice PL, Redente EF, Kauvar EF, Lemond L, Aly T, Wanebo K, Chan ED. Wound healing after trauma may predispose to lung cancer metastasis: review of potential mechanisms. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 2010; 44:591-6. [PMID: 21177982 DOI: 10.1165/rcmb.2010-0187rt] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Inflammatory oncotaxis, the phenomenon in which mechanically injured tissues are predisposed to cancer metastases, has been reported for a number of tumor types, but not previously for histologically proven lung cancer. We review clinical and experimental evidence and mechanisms that may underlie inflammatory oncotaxis, and provide illustrative examples of two patients with squamous cell carcinoma of the lung who developed distant, localized metastatic disease at sites of recent physical trauma. Trauma may predispose to metastasis through two distinct, but not mutually exclusive, mechanisms: (1) physical trauma induces tissue damage and local inflammation, creating a favorable environment that is permissive for seeding of metastatic cells from distant sites; and/or (2) micrometastatic foci are already present at the time of physical injury, and trauma initiates changes in the microenvironment that stimulate the proliferation of the metastatic cells. Further exploration of post-traumatic inflammatory oncotaxis may elucidate fundamental mechanisms of metastasis and could provide novel strategies to prevent cancer metastasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas D Walter
- Division of Pulmonary Sciences and Critical Care Medicine, University of Colorado Denver Anschutz Medical Campus, Denver, Colorado, USA
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Redente EF, Dwyer-Nield LD, Merrick DT, Raina K, Agarwal R, Pao W, Rice PL, Shroyer KR, Malkinson AM. Tumor progression stage and anatomical site regulate tumor-associated macrophage and bone marrow-derived monocyte polarization. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PATHOLOGY 2010; 176:2972-85. [PMID: 20431028 DOI: 10.2353/ajpath.2010.090879] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) encourage and coordinate neoplastic growth. In late stage human lung adenocarcinoma, TAMs exhibited mixed M1 (classical; argI(low)iNOS(high)) and M2 (alternative; argI(high)iNOS(low)) polarization based on arginine metabolism. In several murine cancer models including chemically and genetically-induced primary lung tumors, prostate tumors, colon xenografts, and lung metastases, TAMs expressed argI(high)iNOS(low) early during tumor formation; argI(low)iNOS(high) polarization also occurred during malignancy in some models. In a chemically-induced lung tumor model, macrophages expressed argI(high)iNOS(low) within one week after carcinogen treatment, followed by similar polarization of bone marrow-derived monocytes (BDMCs) a few days later. TAMs surrounding murine prostate tumors also expressed argI(high)iNOS(low) early during tumorigenesis, indicating that this polarization is not unique to neoplastic lungs. In a human colon cancer xenograft model, the primary tumor was surrounded by argI(high)iNOS(low)-expressing TAMs, and BDMCs also expressed argI(high)iNOS(low), but pulmonary macrophages adopted argI(high)iNOS(low) polarization only after tumors metastasized to the lungs. Persistence of tumors is required to maintain TAM polarization. Indeed, in both conditional mutant Kras- and FGF10-driven models of lung cancer, mice expressing the transgene develop lung tumors that regress rapidly when the transgene is silenced. Furthermore, pulmonary macrophages expressed argI(high)iNOS(low) on tumor induction, but then returned to argI(low) iNOS(low) (no polarization) after tumors regressed. Manipulating TAM function or depleting TAMs may provide novel therapeutic strategies for preventing and treating many types of cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth F Redente
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Colorado Denver, 12700 East 19th Avenue, Aurora, CO 80045, USA
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Redente EF, Higgins DM, Dwyer-Nield LD, Orme IM, Gonzalez-Juarrero M, Malkinson AM. Differential polarization of alveolar macrophages and bone marrow-derived monocytes following chemically and pathogen-induced chronic lung inflammation. J Leukoc Biol 2010; 88:159-68. [PMID: 20360403 DOI: 10.1189/jlb.0609378] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Alveolar macrophages and BDMCs undergo sequential biochemical changes during the chronic inflammatory response to chemically induced lung carcinogenesis in mice. Herein, we examine two chronic lung inflammation models-repeated exposure to BHT and infection with Mycobacterium tuberculosis-to establish whether similar macrophage phenotype changes occur in non-neoplastic pulmonary disease. Exposure to BHT or M. tuberculosis results in pulmonary inflammation characterized by an influx of macrophages, followed by systemic effects on the BM and other organs. In both models, pulmonary IFN-gamma and IL-4 production coincided with altered polarization of alveolar macrophages. Soon after BHT administration or M. tuberculosis infection, IFN-gamma content in BALF increased, and BAL macrophages became classically (M1) polarized, as characterized by increased expression of iNOS. As inflammation progressed in both models, the amount of BALF IFN-gamma content and BAL macrophage iNOS expression decreased, and BALF IL-4 content and macrophage arginase I expression rose, indicating alternative/M2 polarization. Macrophages present in M. tuberculosis-induced granulomas remained M1-polarized, implying that these two pulmonary macrophage populations, alveolar and granuloma-associated, are exposed to different activating cytokines. BDMCs from BHT-treated mice displayed polarization profiles similar to alveolar macrophages, but BDMCs in M. tuberculosis-infected mice did not become polarized. Thus, only alveolar macrophages in these two models of chronic lung disease exhibit a similar progression of polarization changes; polarization of BDMCs was specific to BHT-induced pulmonary inflammation, and polarization of granuloma macrophages was specific to the M. tuberculosis infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth F Redente
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Colorado Denver, Aurora, CO 80045, USA
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Showe MK, Vachani A, Kossenkov AV, Yousef M, Nichols C, Nikonova EV, Chang C, Kucharczuk J, Tran B, Wakeam E, Yie TA, Speicher D, Rom WN, Albelda S, Showe LC. Gene expression profiles in peripheral blood mononuclear cells can distinguish patients with non-small cell lung cancer from patients with nonmalignant lung disease. Cancer Res 2010; 69:9202-10. [PMID: 19951989 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-09-1378] [Citation(s) in RCA: 126] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Early diagnosis of lung cancer followed by surgery presently is the most effective treatment for non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). An accurate, minimally invasive test that could detect early disease would permit timely intervention and potentially reduce mortality. Recent studies have shown that the peripheral blood can carry information related to the presence of disease, including prognostic information and information on therapeutic response. We have analyzed gene expression in peripheral blood mononuclear cell samples including 137 patients with NSCLC tumors and 91 patient controls with nonmalignant lung conditions, including histologically diagnosed benign nodules. Subjects were primarily smokers and former smokers. We have identified a 29-gene signature that separates these two patient classes with 86% accuracy (91% sensitivity, 80% specificity). Accuracy in an independent validation set, including samples from a new location, was 78% (sensitivity of 76% and specificity of 82%). An analysis of this NSCLC gene signature in 18 NSCLCs taken presurgery, with matched samples from 2 to 5 months postsurgery, showed that in 78% of cases, the signature was reduced postsurgery and disappeared entirely in 33%. Our results show the feasibility of using peripheral blood gene expression signatures to identify early-stage NSCLC in at-risk populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael K Showe
- The Wistar Institute, 3601 Spruce Street, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
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Redente EF, Dwyer-Nield LD, Barrett BS, Riches DW, Malkinson AM. Lung tumor growth is stimulated in IFN-gamma-/- mice and inhibited in IL-4Ralpha-/- mice. Anticancer Res 2009; 29:5095-101. [PMID: 20044622 PMCID: PMC2860728] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Alternative (M2) macrophage activation is associated with tumor development in many tumor types, including those in the lung. Herein the biological consequences of forcing classical (M1) or alternative (M2) macrophage activation on lung tumor development are examined. MATERIALS AND METHODS Urethane-induced lung tumor multiplicity and size were compared in IFN-gamma(-/-) mice which lack M1 macrophage activation, IL-4Ralpha(-/-) mice which lack M2 macrophage activation, and wild-type BALB/cJ (background strain of the IFN-gamma(-/-) and IL-4Ralpha(-/-) mice) mice. Tumor-associated macrophage (TAM) and bone marrow-derived monocyte (BDMC) activation were each examined. RESULTS The TAMs and BDMCs in the IFN-gamma(-/-) mice exhibited M2 activation, and their lung tumors were significantly larger than those in the wild-type mice. In contrast, urethane-treated IL-4Ralpha(-/-) mice, whose TAMs and BDMCs were M1 activated, developed smaller tumors than the wild-type mice. CONCLUSION Altered innate immunity can diminish or accelerate lung tumor progression in response to defective cytokine signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth F. Redente
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Colorado at Denver, Aurora, CO 80045, U.S.A
| | - Lori D. Dwyer-Nield
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Colorado at Denver, Aurora, CO 80045, U.S.A
| | - Bradley S. Barrett
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Colorado at Denver, Aurora, CO 80045, U.S.A
| | - David W.H. Riches
- Department of Pediatrics, National Jewish Health, Denver, CO 80206, U.S.A
| | - Alvin M. Malkinson
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Colorado at Denver, Aurora, CO 80045, U.S.A
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Dwyer-Nield LD, McQuillan J, Hill-Baskin A, Radcliffe RA, You M, Nadeau JH, Malkinson AM. Epistatic interactions govern chemically-induced lung tumor susceptibility and Kras mutation site in murine C57BL/6J-ChrA/J chromosome substitution strains. Int J Cancer 2009; 126:125-32. [PMID: 19609923 DOI: 10.1002/ijc.24743] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
Cancer susceptibility results from interactions between sensitivity and resistance alleles. We employed murine chromosome substitution strains to study how resistance alleles affected sensitive alleles during chemically-induced lung carcinogenesis. The C57BL/6J-Chr#(A/J) strains, constructed by selectively breeding sensitive A/J and resistant C57BL/6J (B6) mice, each contain one pair of A/J chromosomes within an otherwise B6 genome. Pas1, the major locus responsible for this differential strain response to urethane carcinogenesis, resides on Chr 6, but C57BL/6J-Chr6(A/J) mice (hereafter CSS-6) developed few tumors following a single urethane injection, which demonstrates epistatic interactions with other B6 alleles. CSS6 mice developed dozens of lung tumors after chronic urethane exposure, however, indicating that these epistatic interactions could be overcome by repeated carcinogen administration. Unlike A/J, but similar to B6 mice, CSS6 mice were resistant to lung carcinogenesis induced by 3-methylcholanthrene (MCA). Tumor multiplicity increased if BHT administration followed urethane exposure, showing that a Chr 6 gene(s) regulates sensitivity to chemically-induced tumor promotion. Unlike A/J tumors (predominantly codon 61 A-->T transversions), Kras mutations in tumors induced by urethane in CSS-6 mice were similar to B6 tumors (codon 61 A-->G transitions). DNA repair genes not located on Chr 6 may determine the nature of Kras mutations. CSS-6 mice are a valuable resource for testing the ability of candidate genes to modulate lung carcinogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lori D Dwyer-Nield
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Colorado Denver, Aurora, CO 80045, USA.
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Bauer AK, Fostel J, Degraff LM, Rondini EA, Walker C, Grissom SF, Foley J, Kleeberger SR. Transcriptomic analysis of pathways regulated by toll-like receptor 4 in a murine model of chronic pulmonary inflammation and carcinogenesis. Mol Cancer 2009; 8:107. [PMID: 19925653 PMCID: PMC2785769 DOI: 10.1186/1476-4598-8-107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2009] [Accepted: 11/19/2009] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Therapeutic strategies exist for human pulmonary neoplasia, however due to the heterogeneity of the disease, most are not very effective. The innate immunity gene, toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4), protects against chronic pulmonary inflammation and tumorigenesis in mice, but the mechanism is unclear. This study was designed to identify TLR4-mediated gene expression pathways that may be used as prognostic indicators of susceptibility to lung tumorigenesis in mice and provide insight into the mechanism. Methods Whole lung mRNA was isolated from C.C3H-Tlr4Lps-d (BALBLps-d; Tlr4 mutant) and BALB/c (Tlr4 normal) mice following butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT)-treatment (four weekly ip. injections; 150-200 mg/kg/each; "promotion"). mRNA from micro-dissected tumors (adenomas) and adjacent uninvolved tissue from both strains were also compared 27 wks after a single carcinogen injection (3-methylcholanthrene (MCA), 10 μg/g; "control") or followed by BHT (6 weekly ip. injections; 125-200 mg/kg/each; "progression"). Bronchoalveolar lavage fluid was analyzed for inflammatory cell content and total protein determination, a marker of lung hyperpermeability; inflammation was also assessed using immunohistochemical staining for macrophages (F4/80) and lymphocytes (CD3) in mice bearing tumors (progression). Results During promotion, the majority of genes identified in the BALBLps-d compared to BALB/c mice (P < 0.05) were involved in epithelial growth factor receptor (EGFR) signaling (e.g. epiregulin (Ereg)), secreted phosphoprotein 1(Spp1)), which can lead to cell growth and eventual tumor development. Inflammation was significantly higher in BALBLps-d compared to BALB/c mice during progression, similar to the observed response during tumor promotion in these strains. Increases in genes involved in signaling through the EGFR pathway (e.g. Ereg, Spp1) were also observed during progression in addition to continued inflammation, chemotactic, and immune response gene expression in the BALBLps-d versus BALB/c mice (P < 0.05), which appears to provide more favorable conditions for cell growth and tumor development. In support of these findings, the BALB/c mice also had significantly reduced expression of many immune response and inflammatory genes in both the tumors and uninvolved tissue. Conclusion This transcriptomic study determined the protective effect of TLR4 in lung carcinogenesis inhibition of multiple pathways including EGFR (e.g. Ereg), inflammatory response genes (e.g. Cxcl5), chemotaxis (e.g. Ccr1) and other cell proliferation genes (e.g. Arg1, Pthlh). Future studies will determine the utility of these pathways as indicators of immune system deficiencies and tumorigenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alison K Bauer
- Department of Pathobiology and Diagnostic Investigation, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA.
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Gibbons MA, Sethi T. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and lung cancer: inflammation, the missing link. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2009. [DOI: 10.2217/thy.09.77] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
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Tyagi A, Singh RP, Ramasamy K, Raina K, Redente EF, Dwyer-Nield LD, Radcliffe RA, Malkinson AM, Agarwal R. Growth inhibition and regression of lung tumors by silibinin: modulation of angiogenesis by macrophage-associated cytokines and nuclear factor-kappaB and signal transducers and activators of transcription 3. Cancer Prev Res (Phila) 2009; 2:74-83. [PMID: 19139021 DOI: 10.1158/1940-6207.capr-08-0095] [Citation(s) in RCA: 100] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
The latency period for lung tumor progression offers a window of opportunity for therapeutic intervention. Herein, we studied the effect of oral silibinin (742 mg/kg body weight, 5 d/wk for 10 weeks) on the growth and progression of established lung adenocarcinomas in A/J mice. Silibinin strongly decreased both tumor number and tumor size, an antitumor effect that correlates with reduced antiangiogenic activity. Silibinin reduced microvessel size (50%, P < 0.01) with no change in the number of tumor microvessels and reduced (by 30%, P < 0.05) the formation of nestin-positive microvessels in tumors. Analysis of several proteins involved in new blood vessel formation showed that silibinin decreased the tumor expression of interleukin-13 (47%) and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (47%), and increased tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase-1 (2-fold) and tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase-2 (7-fold) expression, without significant changes in vascular endothelial growth factor levels. Hypoxia- inducible factor-1 alpha expression and nuclear localization were also decreased by silibinin treatment. Cytokines secreted by tumor cells and tumor-associated macrophages regulate angiogenesis by activating nuclear factor-kappaB (NF-kappaB) and signal transducers and activators of transcription (STAT). Silibinin decreased the phosphorylation of p65NF-kappaB (ser276, 38%; P < 0.01) and STAT-3 (ser727, 16%; P < 0.01) in tumor cells and decreased the lung macrophage population. Angiopoietin-2 (Ang-2) and Ang-receptor tyrosine kinase (Tie-2) expression were increased by silibinin. Therapeutic efficacy of silibinin in lung tumor growth inhibition and regression by antiangiogenic mechanisms seem to be mediated by decreased tumor-associated macrophages and cytokines, inhibition of hypoxia-inducible factor-1 alpha, NF-kappaB, and STAT-3 activation, and up-regulation of the angiogenic inhibitors, Ang-2 and Tie-2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alpna Tyagi
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Colorado Denver, Denver, CO 80262, USA
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Marigo I, Dolcetti L, Serafini P, Zanovello P, Bronte V. Tumor-induced tolerance and immune suppression by myeloid derived suppressor cells. Immunol Rev 2009; 222:162-79. [PMID: 18364001 DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-065x.2008.00602.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 489] [Impact Index Per Article: 32.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Emerging evidence indicates that the Achilles' heel of cancer immunotherapies is often the complex interplay of tumor-derived factors and deviant host properties, which involve a wide range of immune elements in the lymphoid and myeloid compartments. Regulatory lymphocytes, tumor-conditioned myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs), tumor-associated macrophages, and dysfunctional and immature dendritic cells take part in a complex immunoregulatory network. Despite the fact that some mechanisms governing tumor-induced immune tolerance and suppression are starting to be better understood and their complexity dissected, little is known about the diachronic picture of immune tolerance. Based on observations of MDSCs, we present a time-structured and topologically consistent idea of tumor-dependent tolerance progression in tumor-bearing hosts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ilaria Marigo
- Department of Oncology and Surgical Sciences, Padova University, Padova, Italy, and Venetian Institute for Molecular Medicine, Padova, Italy
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Bauer AK, Rondini EA. Review paper: the role of inflammation in mouse pulmonary neoplasia. Vet Pathol 2009; 46:369-90. [PMID: 19176494 DOI: 10.1354/vp.08-vp-0217-b-rev] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Inflammation is a risk factor for the development of many types of neoplasia, including skin, colon, gastric, and mammary cancers, among others. Chronic pulmonary diseases, such as chronic bronchitis and asthma, predispose to lung neoplasia. We will review the mouse literature examining the role of inflammation in lung neoplasia, focusing specifically on genetic susceptibility, pharmacologic modulation of inflammatory pathways, and both transgenic and knockout mouse models used to assess pro- and anti-inflammatory pathways involved in lung neoplasia. Identification of molecular mechanisms that govern the association between inflammation and pulmonary neoplasia could provide novel preventive, diagnostic, and therapeutic strategies for a disease in which few biomarkers currently exist.
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Affiliation(s)
- A K Bauer
- Department of Pathobiology and Diagnostic Investigation, Center for Integrative Toxicology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824 (USA).
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