MMP9 modulates the metastatic cascade and immune landscape for breast cancer anti-metastatic therapy

Methoxylated Flavones from Casimiroa edulis La Llave Suppress MMP9 Expression via Inhibition of the JAK/STAT3 Pathway and TNFα-Dependent Pathways

Matrix metalloproteinase 9 (MMP9), an MMP isozyme, plays a crucial role in tumor progression by degrading basement membranes. It has therefore been proposed that the pharmacological inhibition of MMP9 expression or activity could inhibit tumor metastasis. We previously isolated two novel methoxylated flavones, casedulones A and B, from the leaves and/or roots of Casimiroa edulis La Llave and determined that these casedulones have antitumor activity that acts via the reduction of MMP9. Here, we examined how these casedulones suppress lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced MMP9 expression in human monocytic THP-1 cells. The casedulones suppressed the LPS-induced signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) pathway, which participates in MMP9 induction. In addition, AG490 and S3I-201, inhibitors of Janus kinase (JAK) and STAT3, suppressed LPS-mediated MMP9 induction, suggesting that the casedulones suppressed MMP9 induction through the inhibition of JAK/STAT3 pathways. Based on the findings that cycloheximide, an inhibitor of de novo protein synthesis, completely inhibited LPS-mediated MMP9 induction, the role of de novo proteins in MMP9 induction was further investigated. We found that the casedulones inhibited the induction of interleukin-6 (IL-6), a key inflammatory cytokine that participates in STAT3 activation. Moreover, tumor necrosis factor-α (TNFα)-mediated MMP9 induction was significantly suppressed in the presence of the casedulones. Taken together, these findings suggest that casedulones inhibit the IL-6/STAT3 and TNFα pathways, which all involve LPS-mediated MMP9 induction.

Mouse Models to Evaluate the Functional Role of the Tumor Microenvironment in Cancer Progression and Therapy Responses

The tumor microenvironment (TME) is a complex ecosystem of both cellular and noncellular components that functions to impact the evolution of cancer. Various aspects of the TME have been targeted for the control of cancer; however, TME composition is dynamic, with the overall abundance of immune cells, endothelial cells (ECs), fibroblasts, and extracellular matrix (ECM) as well as subsets of TME components changing at different stages of progression and in response to therapy. To effectively treat cancer, an understanding of the functional role of the TME is needed. Genetically engineered mouse models have enabled comprehensive insight into the complex interactions within the TME ecosystem that regulate disease progression. Here, we review recent advances in mouse models that have been employed to understand how the TME regulates cancer initiation, progression, metastasis, and response to therapy.

Immunocytes interact directly with cancer cells in the tumor microenvironment: one coin with two sides and future perspectives

The tumor microenvironment is closely linked to the initiation, promotion, and progression of solid tumors. Among its constitutions, immunologic cells emerge as critical players, facilitating immune evasion and tumor progression. Apart from their indirect impact on anti-tumor immunity, immunocytes directly influence neoplastic cells, either bolstering or impeding tumor advancement. However, current therapeutic modalities aimed at alleviating immunosuppression from regulatory cells on effector immune cell populations may not consistently yield satisfactory results in various solid tumors, such as breast carcinoma, colorectal cancer, etc. Therefore, this review outlines and summarizes the direct, dualistic effects of immunocytes such as T cells, innate lymphoid cells, B cells, eosinophils, and tumor-associated macrophages on tumor cells within the tumor microenvironment. The review also delves into the underlying mechanisms involved and presents the outcomes of clinical trials based on these direct effects, aiming to propose innovative and efficacious therapeutic strategies for addressing solid tumors.

Targets in the Tumour Matrisome to Promote Cancer Therapy Response

The extracellular matrix (ECM) is composed of complex fibrillar proteins, proteoglycans, and macromolecules, generated by stromal, immune, and cancer cells. The components and organisation of the matrix evolves as tumours progress to invasive disease and metastasis. In many solid tumours, dense fibrotic ECM has been hypothesised to impede therapy response by limiting drug and immune cell access. Interventions to target individual components of the ECM, collectively termed the matrisome, have, however, revealed complex tumour-suppressor, tumour-promoter, and immune-modulatory functions, which have complicated clinical translation. The degree to which distinct components of the matrisome can dictate tumour phenotypes and response to therapy is the subject of intense study. A primary aim is to identify therapeutic opportunities within the matrisome, which might support a better response to existing therapies. Many matrix signatures have been developed which can predict prognosis, immune cell content, and immunotherapy responses. In this review, we will examine key components of the matrisome which have been associated with advanced tumours and therapy resistance. We have primarily focussed here on targeting matrisome components, rather than specific cell types, although several examples are described where cells of origin can dramatically affect tumour roles for matrix components. As we unravel the complex biochemical, biophysical, and intracellular transduction mechanisms associated with the ECM, numerous therapeutic opportunities will be identified to modify tumour progression and therapy response.

Targeting metabolic reprogramming promotes the efficacy of transarterial chemoembolization in the rabbit VX2 liver tumor model

Transarterial chemoembolization (TACE) may prolong the survival of patients with hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC); however, its efficacy is limited due to the high rate of incomplete embolization. Hypoxia after embolization can cause a series of changes in the tumor microenvironment, including lactate dehydrogenase A (LDHA) upregulation. Therefore, the current study assessed the antitumor effect and the underlying mechanism of the LDHA inhibitor, sodium oxamate (Ox), combined with TACE, using the rabbit VX2 liver tumor model. VX2 liver tumor models were created in the left liver lobe of rabbits, and after 14 days of treatments, the rabbits were sacrificed for the collection of the tumor tissues and blood samples. The antitumor effects of Ox, and the combination of Ox and TACE, and changes in the tumor microenvironment after treatments were assessed by histopathological evaluation, and the safety of the treatments was analyzed by measuring changes in the serum levels of alanine aminotransferase, aspartate aminotransferase, blood urea nitrogen and creatinine. The results demonstrated that the combination of Ox and TACE notably improved antitumor effects compared with in the other groups, as it significantly inhibited tumor growth. Additionally, treatment with Ox + TACE downregulated vascular endothelial growth factor and matrix metalloproteinase-9, and enhanced the infiltration of CD3+ and CD8+ T cells into tumor tissues, thus suggesting that Ox + TACE may have a synergistic effect on increasing the infiltration of immune cells in the tumor microenvironment. With a well-tolerated and manageable impairment of hepatorenal function, targeting metabolic reprogramming could promote the efficacy of TACE, thus providing novel avenues for the future clinical management of patients with advanced HCC.

Novel PEGylated cholephytosomes for targeting fisetin to breast cancer: in vitro appraisal and in vivo antitumoral studies

Fisetin (FIS) is a multifunctional bioactive flavanol that has been recently exploited as anticancer drug against various cancers including breast cancer. However, its poor aqueous solubility has constrained its clinical application. In the current work, fisetin is complexed for the first time with soy phosphatidylcholine in the presence of cholesterol to form a novel biocompatible phytosomal system entitled "cholephytosomes." To improve fisetin antitumor activity against breast cancer, stearylamine bearing cationic cholephytosomes (mPHY) were prepared and furtherly modified with hyaluronic acid (HPHY) to allow their orientation to cancer cells through their surface exposed phosphatidylserine and CD-44 receptors, respectively. In vitro characterization studies revealed promising physicochemical properties of both modified vesicles (mPHY and HPHY) including excellent FIS complexation efficiency (˷100%), improved octanol/water solubility along with a sustained drug release over 24 h. In vitro cell line studies against MDA-MB-231 cell line showed about 10- and 3.5-fold inhibition in IC50 of modified vesicles compared with free drug and conventional drug-phospholipid complex, respectively. Preclinical studies revealed that both modified cholephytosomes (mPHY and HPHY) had comparable cytotoxicity that is significantly surpassing free drug cytotoxicity. TGF-β1and its non-canonical related signaling pathway; ERK1/2, NF-κB, and MMP-9 were involved in halting tumorigenesis. Thus, tailoring novel phytosomal nanosystems for FIS could open opportunity for its clinical utility against cancer.

Cellular Context Dictates the Suppression or Augmentation of Triple-Negative Mammary Tumor Metastasis by NLRX1

Prior studies have defined multiple, but inconsistent, roles for the enigmatic pattern recognition receptor NLRX1 in regulating several cancer-associated biological functions. In this study, we explore the role of NLRX1 in the highly metastatic murine 4T1 mammary tumor model. We describe a functional dichotomy of NLRX1 between two different cellular contexts: expression in healthy host cells versus expression in the 4T1 tumor cells. Using Nlrx1-/- mice engrafted with 4T1 tumors, we demonstrate that NLRX1 functions as a tumor suppressor when expressed in the host cells. Specifically, NLRX1 in healthy host cells attenuates tumor growth and lung metastasis through suppressing characteristics of epithelial-mesenchymal transition and the lung metastatic niche. Conversely, we demonstrate that NLRX1 functions as a tumor promoter when expressed in 4T1 tumor cells using gain- and loss-of-function studies both in vitro and in vivo. Mechanistically, NLRX1 in the tumor cells augments 4T1 aggressiveness and metastasis through regulating epithelial-mesenchymal transition hallmarks, cell death, proliferation, migration, reactive oxygen species levels, and mitochondrial respiration. Collectively, we provide critical insight into NLRX1 function and establish a dichotomous role of NLRX1 in the 4T1 murine mammary carcinoma model that is dictated by cellular context.

OMA1 and YME1L as a Diagnostic Panel in Hepatocellular Carcinoma

Identifying new hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC)-driven signaling molecules and discovering their molecular mechanisms are crucial for efficient and better outcomes. Recently, OMA1 and YME1L, the inner mitochondrial proteases, were displayed to be associated with tumor progression in various cancers; however, their role in HCC has not yet been studied. Therefore, we evaluated the possible role of OMA1/YME1L in HCC staging and discussed their potential role in cellular apoptosis and proliferation. Our study was performed using four groups of male albino rats: a normal control and three diethyl nitrosamine-treated groups for 8, 16, and 24 weeks. The OMA1 and YME1L, matrix-metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9), and cyclin D1 content were measured in liver tissues, while alpha-fetoprotein (AFP) level was assessed in serum. Additionally, Ki-67 expression was evaluated by immunohistochemistry. The relative hepatic expression of Bax, and tissue inhibitor matrix metalloproteinase (TIMP-3) was measured. Herein, we confirmed for the first time that OMA1 is down-regulated while YME1L is up-regulated in HCC in the three studied stages with subsequent inhibition of apoptosis and cell cycle progression. Furthermore, these proteases have a possible role in metastasis. These newly recognized results suggested OMA1 and YME1L as possible diagnostic tools and therapeutic targets for HCC management.

Curcumin analog GO-Y030 inhibits tumor metastasis and glycolysis

Tumor metastasis is one of the worst prognostic features of cancer. Although metastasis is a major cause of cancer-related deaths, an effective treatment has not yet been established. Here, we explore the antitumor effects of GO-Y030, a curcumin analog, via various mechanisms using a mouse model. GO-Y030 treatment of B16-F10 melanoma cells inhibited TGF-β expression and glycolysis. The invasion assay results showed almost complete invasion inhibition following GO-Y030 treatment. Mouse experiments demonstrated that GO-Y030 administration inhibited lung tumor metastasis without affecting vascular endothelial cells. Consistent with this result, GO-Y030 treatment led to the downregulation of MMP2 and VEGFα, inhibiting tumor invasion and metastasis. The silencing of eIF4B, a downstream molecule of S6, attenuated MMP2 expression. Our study demonstrates the novel efficacy of GO-Y030 in inhibiting tumor metastasis by regulating metastasis-associated gene expression via inhibiting dual access, glycolytic and TGF-β pathways.

Chromatin insulation orchestrates matrix metalloproteinase gene cluster expression reprogramming in aggressive breast cancer tumors

BACKGROUND

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is an aggressive subtype that exhibits a high incidence of distant metastases and lacks targeted therapeutic options. Here we explored how the epigenome contributes to matrix metalloprotease (MMP) dysregulation impacting tumor invasion, which is the first step of the metastatic process.

METHODS

We combined RNA expression and chromatin interaction data to identify insulator elements potentially associated with MMP gene expression and invasion. We employed CRISPR/Cas9 to disrupt the CCCTC-Binding Factor (CTCF) binding site on an insulator element downstream of the MMP8 gene (IE8) in two TNBC cellular models. We characterized these models by combining Hi-C, ATAC-seq, and RNA-seq with functional experiments to determine invasive ability. The potential of our findings to predict the progression of ductal carcinoma in situ (DCIS), was tested in data from clinical specimens.

RESULTS

We explored the clinical relevance of an insulator element located within the Chr11q22.2 locus, downstream of the MMP8 gene (IE8). This regulatory element resulted in a topologically associating domain (TAD) boundary that isolated nine MMP genes into two anti-correlated expression clusters. This expression pattern was associated with worse relapse-free (HR = 1.57 [1.06 - 2.33]; p = 0.023) and overall (HR = 2.65 [1.31 - 5.37], p = 0.005) survival of TNBC patients. After CRISPR/Cas9-mediated disruption of IE8, cancer cells showed a switch in the MMP expression signature, specifically downregulating the pro-invasive MMP1 gene and upregulating the antitumorigenic MMP8 gene, resulting in reduced invasive ability and collagen degradation. We observed that the MMP expression pattern predicts DCIS that eventually progresses into invasive ductal carcinomas (AUC = 0.77, p < 0.01).

CONCLUSION

Our study demonstrates how the activation of an IE near the MMP8 gene determines the regional transcriptional regulation of MMP genes with opposing functional activity, ultimately influencing the invasive properties of aggressive forms of breast cancer.

Synergistic suppressive effects on triple-negative breast cancer by the combination of JTC-801 and sodium oxamate

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) poses a significant clinical challenge due to the limited targeted therapies available at present. Cancer cells preferentially use glycolysis as their primary source of energy, characterized by increased glucose uptake and lactate production. JTC-801, a nociception/orphanin FQ opioid peptide (NOP) receptor antagonist, was reported to suppress the opioid receptor-like1 (ORL1) receptor/phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K)/protein kinase B (AKT)/nuclear factor (NF)-κB-mediated carbonic anhydrase 9 (CA9) signaling pathway. Sodium oxamate is an inhibitor of gluconeogenesis and a glycolysis inhibitor, as a competitive lactate dehydrogenase A (LDHA) inhibitor, which also produces tumor suppression due to loss of LDHA activity. However, the roles of opioid analgesic drugs (e.g., JTC-801) and glycolysis inhibitors (e.g., sodium oxamate) in TNBC have not fully been explored. Meanwhile, concurrent treatment with JTC-801 and sodium oxamate may cause synergistic anticancer effects in a TNBC model. In the present study, the combination of JTC-801 and sodium oxamate triggered cell death in the TNBC MDA MB-231 cell line. RNA-sequencing data revealed potential genes in the crosstalk between JTC-801 and sodium oxamate including ALDOC, DDIT4, DHTKD1, EIF6, ENO1, ENO3, FOXK1, FOXK2, HIF1A, MYC, PFKM, PFKP, PPARA, etc. The combination of JTC-801 and sodium oxamate provides a novel potential therapeutic strategy for TNBC patients via downregulating cell cycle- and amino acid metabolism-related pathways such as "Cell cycle-the metaphase checkpoint", "(L)-tryptophan pathways and transport", and "Glutamic acid pathway". Collectively, the present study demonstrated that the synergistic effect of co-treatment with JTC-801 and sodium oxamate significantly suppressed tumor growth and played a crucial role in tumor development, and in turn may serve as potential synergistic drugs for TNBC.

Self-assembled fisetin-phospholipid complex: Fisetin-integrated phytosomes for effective delivery to breast cancer

Nowadays, fisetin (FIS) is extensively studied as potent anticancer surrogate with a multitarget actions against various types of cancers including breast cancer. However, its poor aqueous solubility handicapped its clinical utility. The current work endeavored, for the first time, to develop FIS phytosomes (FIS-PHY) for improving its physicochemical properties and subsequently its anticancer activity. Optimization of FIS- phytosomes involved different preparation techniques (Thin film hydration and ethanol injection) and different FIS: phospholipid molar ratios (1:1, 1:2, and 1:3). Complex formation was confirmed by complexation efficiency, infrared spectroscopy (IR), solubility studies and transmission electron microscope. The optimized FIS-PHY of 1:1 M ratio (PHY1) exhibited a nanometric particle size of 233.01 ± 9.46 nm with homogenous distribution (PDI = 0.27), negative zeta potential of - 29.41 mV, 100% complexation efficiency and controlled drug release over 24 h. In-vitro cytotoxicity study showed 2.5-fold decrease in IC50 of PHY1 compared with free FIS. Also, pharmacodynamic studies confirmed the promoted cytotoxicity of PHY1 against breast cancer through modulating TGF-β1/MMP-9 molecular pathways of tumorigenesis. Overall, overcoming FIS drawbacks were successfully achieved through development of innovative biocompatible phytosomal system.

Pulmonary interleukin 1 beta/serum amyloid A3 axis promotes lung metastasis of hepatocellular carcinoma by facilitating the pre-metastatic niche formation

BACKGROUND

Increasing evidence suggests a vital role of the pre-metastatic niche in the formation of distant metastasis of many cancers. However, how the pre-metastatic niche is formed and promotes pulmonary metastasis of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) remains unknown.

METHODS

Orthotopic liver tumor models and RNA-Seq were used to identify dysregulated genes in the pre-metastatic lung. Il1b knockout (Il1b^-/-) mice and lentivirus-mediated gene knockdown/overexpression were utilized to demonstrate the role of interleukin 1 beta (IL-1β)/serum amyloid A3 (SAA3) in the pre-metastatic niche formation and pulmonary metastasis. The potential molecular mechanisms were investigated by RNA-Seq, real-time quantitative PCR (qPCR), western blotting, immunohistochemistry (IHC), flow cytometry, luciferase reporter assay, double immunofluorescent staining and H&E staining.

RESULTS

Accumulation of myeloid cells and upregulation of IL-1β were observed in the pre-metastatic lung of orthotopic liver tumor models. Myeloid cells accumulation and pulmonary metastasis were suppressed in Il1b^-/- mice and Il1r1-silencing mice. Mechanistically, SAA3 and matrix metallopeptidase 9 (MMP9) were identified as potential downstream targets of IL-1β. Overexpression of SAA3 in the lungs of Il1b^-/- mice restored myeloid cells accumulation and pulmonary metastasis of the orthotopic HCC xenografts. Moreover, alveolar macrophages-derived IL-1β dramatically enhanced SAA3 expression in alveolar epithelial cells in an NF-κB dependent manner and increased MMP9 levels in an autocrine manner. Furthermore, SAA3 recruited myeloid cells to the lung without affecting the expression of MMP9 in myeloid cells.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study suggests a key role of pulmonary IL-1β and SAA3 in creating a permissive lung pre-metastatic niche by enhancing MMP9 expression and recruiting myeloid cells, respectively, thus promoting pulmonary metastasis of HCC.

RHAMM regulates MMTV-PyMT-induced lung metastasis by connecting STING-dependent DNA damage sensing to interferon/STAT1 pro-apoptosis signaling

BACKGROUND

RHAMM is a multifunctional protein that is upregulated in breast tumors, and the presence of strongly RHAMM+ve cancer cell subsets associates with elevated risk of peripheral metastasis. Experimentally, RHAMM impacts cell cycle progression and cell migration. However, the RHAMM functions that contribute to breast cancer metastasis are poorly understood.

METHODS

We interrogated the metastatic functions of RHAMM using a loss-of-function approach by crossing the MMTV-PyMT mouse model of breast cancer susceptibility with Rhamm-/- mice. In vitro analyses of known RHAMM functions were performed using primary tumor cell cultures and MMTV-PyMT cell lines. Somatic mutations were identified using a mouse genotyping array. RNA-seq was performed to identify transcriptome changes resulting from Rhamm-loss, and SiRNA and CRISPR/Cas9 gene editing was used to establish cause and effect of survival mechanisms in vitro.

RESULTS

Rhamm-loss does not alter initiation or growth of MMTV-PyMT-induced primary tumors but unexpectedly increases lung metastasis. Increased metastatic propensity with Rhamm-loss is not associated with obvious alterations in proliferation, epithelial plasticity, migration, invasion or genomic stability. SNV analyses identify positive selection of Rhamm-/- primary tumor clones that are enriched in lung metastases. Rhamm-/- tumor clones are characterized by an increased ability to survive with ROS-mediated DNA damage, which associates with blunted expression of interferon pathway and target genes, particularly those implicated in DNA damage-resistance. Mechanistic analyses show that ablating RHAMM expression in breast tumor cells by siRNA knockdown or CRISPR-Cas9 gene editing blunts interferon signaling activation by STING agonists and reduces STING agonist-induced apoptosis. The metastasis-specific effect of RHAMM expression-loss is linked to microenvironmental factors unique to tumor-bearing lung tissue, notably high ROS and TGFB levels. These factors promote STING-induced apoptosis of RHAMM+ve tumor cells to a significantly greater extent than RHAMM-ve comparators. As predicted by these results, colony size of Wildtype lung metastases is inversely related to RHAMM expression.

CONCLUSION

RHAMM expression-loss blunts STING-IFN signaling, which offers growth advantages under specific microenvironmental conditions of lung tissue. These results provide mechanistic insight into factors controlling clonal survival/expansion of metastatic colonies and has translational potential for RHAMM expression as a marker of sensitivity to interferon therapy.

PSMD8 can serve as potential biomarker and therapeutic target of the PSMD family in ovarian cancer: based on bioinformatics analysis and in vitro validation

BACKGROUND

The ubiquity-proteasome system is an indispensable mechanism for regulating intracellular protein degradation, thereby affecting human antigen processing, signal transduction, and cell cycle regulation. We used bioinformatics database to predict the expression and related roles of all members of the PSMD family in ovarian cancer. Our findings may provide a theoretical basis for early diagnosis, prognostic assessment, and targeted therapy of ovarian cancer.

METHODS

GEPIA, cBioPortal, and Kaplan-Meier Plotter databases were used to analyze the mRNA expression levels, gene variation, and prognostic value of PSMD family members in ovarian cancer. PSMD8 was identified as the member with the best prognostic value. The TISIDB database was used to analyze the correlation between PSMD8 and immunity, and the role of PSMD8 in ovarian cancer tissue was verified by immunohistochemical experiments. The relationship of PSMD8 expression with clinicopathological parameters and survival outcomes of ovarian cancer patients was analyzed. The effects of PSMD8 on malignant biological behaviors of invasion, migration, and proliferation of ovarian cancer cells were studied by in vitro experiments.

RESULTS

The expression levels of PSMD8/14 mRNA in ovarian cancer tissues were significantly higher than those in normal ovarian tissues, and the expression levels of PSMD2/3/4/5/8/11/12/14 mRNA were associated with prognosis. Up-regulation of PSMD4/8/14 mRNA expression was associated with poor OS, and the up-regulation of PSMD2/3/5/8 mRNA expression was associated with poor PFS in patients with ovarian serous carcinomas. Gene function and enrichment analysis showed that PSMD8 is mainly involved in biological processes such as energy metabolism, DNA replication, and protein synthesis. Immunohistochemical experiments showed that PSMD8 was mainly expressed in the cytoplasm and the expression level was correlated with FIGO stage. Patients with high PSMD8 expression had poor prognosis. Overexpression of PSMD8 significantly enhanced the proliferation, migration, and invasion abilities in ovarian cancer cells.

CONCLUSION

We observed different degrees of abnormal expression of members of PSMD family in ovarian cancer. Among these, PSMD8 was significantly overexpressed in ovarian malignant tissue, and was associated with poor prognosis. PSMDs, especially PSMD8, can serve as potential diagnostic and prognostic biomarkers and therapeutic targets in ovarian cancer.

Epigenetic regulation of SMAD3 by histone methyltransferase SMYD2 promotes lung cancer metastasis

Epigenetic alterations, especially histone methylation, are key factors in cell migration and invasion in cancer metastasis. However, in lung cancer metastasis, the mechanism by which histone methylation regulates metastasis has not been fully elucidated. Here, we found that the histone methyltransferase SMYD2 is overexpressed in lung cancer and that knockdown of SMYD2 could reduce the rates of cell migration and invasion in lung cancer cell lines via direct downregulation of SMAD3 via SMYD2-mediated epigenetic regulation. Furthermore, using an in vitro epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) system with a Transwell system, we generated highly invasive H1299 (In-H1299) cell lines and observed the suppression of metastatic features by SMYD2 knockdown. Finally, two types of in vivo studies revealed that the formation of metastatic tumors by shSMYD2 was significantly suppressed. Thus, we suggest that SMYD2 is a potential metastasis regulator and that the development of SMYD2-specific inhibitors may help to increase the efficacy of lung cancer treatment.

A functional gene module identification algorithm in gene expression data based on genetic algorithm and gene ontology

Since genes do not function individually, the gene module is considered an important tool for interpreting gene expression profiles. In order to consider both functional similarity and expression similarity in module identification, GMIGAGO, a functional Gene Module Identification algorithm based on Genetic Algorithm and Gene Ontology, was proposed in this work. GMIGAGO is an overlapping gene module identification algorithm, which mainly includes two stages: In the first stage (initial identification of gene modules), Improved Partitioning Around Medoids Based on Genetic Algorithm (PAM-GA) is used for the initial clustering on gene expression profiling, and traditional gene co-expression modules can be obtained. Only similarity of expression levels is considered at this stage. In the second stage (optimization of functional similarity within gene modules), Genetic Algorithm for Functional Similarity Optimization (FSO-GA) is used to optimize gene modules based on gene ontology, and functional similarity within gene modules can be improved. Without loss of generality, we compared GMIGAGO with state-of-the-art gene module identification methods on six gene expression datasets, and GMIGAGO identified the gene modules with the highest functional similarity (much higher than state-of-the-art algorithms). GMIGAGO was applied in BRCA, THCA, HNSC, COVID-19, Stem, and Radiation datasets, and it identified some interesting modules which performed important biological functions. The hub genes in these modules could be used as potential targets for diseases or radiation protection. In summary, GMIGAGO has excellent performance in mining molecular mechanisms, and it can also identify potential biomarkers for individual precision therapy.

Matrix metalloproteinases as therapeutic targets in breast cancer

Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are the most prominent proteinases involved in tumorigenesis. They were initially recognized to promote tumor progression by remodeling the extracellular matrix through their proteolytic activity. However, accumulating evidence has revealed that some MMPs have protective roles in cancer progression, and the same MMP can exert opposing roles depending on the cell type in which it is expressed or the stage of cancer. Moreover, studies have shown that MMPs are involved in cancer progression through their roles in other biological processes such as cell signaling and immune regulation, independent of their catalytic activity. Despite the prognostic significance of tumoral or stromal expression of MMPs in breast cancer, their roles and molecular mechanisms in breast cancer progression remain unclear. As the failures of early clinical trials with broad-spectrum MMP inhibitors were mainly due to a lack of drug specificity, substantial efforts have been made to develop highly selective MMP inhibitors. Some recently developed MMP inhibitory monoclonal antibodies demonstrated promising anti-tumor effects in preclinical models of breast cancer. Importantly, anti-tumor effects of these antibodies were associated with the modulation of tumor immune microenvironment, suggesting that the use of MMP inhibitors in combination with immunotherapy can improve the efficacy of immunotherapy in HER2-positive or triple-negative breast cancer. In this review, the current understanding of the roles of tumoral or stromal MMPs in breast cancer is summarized, and recent advances in the development of highly selective MMP inhibitors are discussed.

Tailoring therapies to counter the divergent immune landscapes of breast cancer

Breast cancer remains a significant clinical concern affecting millions of women worldwide. Immunotherapy is a rapidly growing drug class that has revolutionized cancer treatment but remains marginally successful in breast cancer. The success of immunotherapy is dependent on the baseline immune responses as well as removing the brakes off pre-existing anti-tumor immunity. In this review, we summarize the different types of immune microenvironment observed in breast cancer as well as provide approaches to target these different immune subtypes. Such approaches have demonstrated pre-clinical success and are currently under clinical evaluation. The impact of combination of these approaches with already approved chemotherapies and immunotherapies may improve patient outcome and survival.

Integrated bioinformatics analysis of microarray data from the GEO database to identify the candidate genes linked to poor prognosis in lung adenocarcinoma

BACKGROUND

Lung adenocarcinoma (LUAD) is one of the most common cancers with high morbidity and mortality and remains a crucial factor endangering human health.

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to elucidate the potential treatment target and prognostic biomarker in patients with LUAD through a comprehensive bioinformatics analysis.

METHODS

The three public microarray datasets of GSE118370, GSE116959, and GSE43767 were obtained from the GEO data resource. The DEGs were explored between LUAD and non-malignant samples using GEO2R online tool in GEO data resource. GO along with KEGG analysis of DEGs were examined using WebGestalt tool. The STRING web resource was employed to develop the PPI network of DEGs, whereas Cytoscape software was employed to perform module analysis. Finally, the mRNA, protein expression along with survival analysis of hub genes were explored via GEPIA, HPA along with Kaplan-Meier plotter web resource, respectively.

RESULTS

Only 82 upregulated and 105 downregulated DEGs were found among the three datasets. Further, GO analysis illustrated that 187 DEGs were primary enriched in extracellular structure organization, tube development along with cell adhesion. The KEGG enrichments showed that these DEGs were primary linked to leukocyte transendothelial migration, vascular smooth muscle contraction along with ECM-receptor interaction. Among the 187 DEGs, the 10 hub genes (P4HB, SPP1, CP, GOLM1, COL1A1, MMP9, COL10A1, APOA1, COL4A6, and TIMP1) were identified. The mRNA along with protein levels of hub genes in LUAD tissues were further verified by Oncomine, UCSC Xena, GEPIA and HPA databases. Additionally, overall survival curves illustrated that LUAD patients with the higher levels of P4HB, SPP1, COL1A1, and MMP9 were dramatically linked to shorter overall survival.

CONCLUSIONS

The current study identified DEGs candidate genes (P4HB, SPP1, COL1A1, and MMP9) and pathways in LUAD using bioinformatics analysis, which could enhance our understanding of pathogenesis along with underlying molecular events in LUAD, and these hub genes and pathways may help provide candidate treatment targets for LUAD.

Radiation Type- and Dose-Specific Transcriptional Responses across Healthy and Diseased Mammalian Tissues

Ionizing radiation (IR) is a genuine genotoxic agent and a major modality in cancer treatment. IR disrupts DNA sequences and exerts mutagenic and/or cytotoxic properties that not only alter critical cellular functions but also impact tissues proximal and distal to the irradiated site. Unveiling the molecular events governing the diverse effects of IR at the cellular and organismal levels is relevant for both radiotherapy and radiation protection. Herein, we address changes in the expression of mammalian genes induced after the exposure of a wide range of tissues to various radiation types with distinct biophysical characteristics. First, we constructed a publicly available database, termed RadBioBase, which will be updated at regular intervals. RadBioBase includes comprehensive transcriptomes of mammalian cells across healthy and diseased tissues that respond to a range of radiation types and doses. Pertinent information was derived from a hybrid analysis based on stringent literature mining and transcriptomic studies. An integrative bioinformatics methodology, including functional enrichment analysis and machine learning techniques, was employed to unveil the characteristic biological pathways related to specific radiation types and their association with various diseases. We found that the effects of high linear energy transfer (LET) radiation on cell transcriptomes significantly differ from those caused by low LET and are consistent with immunomodulation, inflammation, oxidative stress responses and cell death. The transcriptome changes also depend on the dose since low doses up to 0.5 Gy are related with cytokine cascades, while higher doses with ROS metabolism. We additionally identified distinct gene signatures for different types of radiation. Overall, our data suggest that different radiation types and doses can trigger distinct trajectories of cell-intrinsic and cell-extrinsic pathways that hold promise to be manipulated toward improving radiotherapy efficiency and reducing systemic radiotoxicities.

Exploitation of tumor antigens and construction of immune subtype classifier for mRNA vaccine development in bladder cancer

Background

Bladder cancer (BLCA) is one of the most prevalent urinary system malignancies, with high mortality and recurrence. The present study aimed to identify potential tumor antigens for mRNA vaccines in BLCA and patient subtypes suitable for different immunotherapy.

Methods

Gene expression profiles, mutation data, methylation data, and corresponding clinical information were obtained from the Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA), Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO), and ArrayExpress databases. Immunohistochemical staining of microarrays was performed to assess protein expression levels of IGF2BP2 and MMP9. Differential gene analysis, survival analysis, correlation analysis, consensus clustering analysis, and immune cell infiltration analysis were conducted using R software. Finally, the R package "immcluster" was used based on Combat and eXtreme Gradient Boosting algorithms to predict immune clusters of BLCA samples.

Results

Two mutated, amplified, and over-expressed tumor antigens, IGF2BP2 and MMP9, were found to be associated with clinical outcomes and the abundance of antigen-presenting cells (APCs). Subsequently, three immune subtypes (BIS1, BIS2, and BIS3) were defined in the BLCA cohort. BIS3 subtype exhibited an "active" immune phenotype, while BIS1 and BIS2 subtypes have a "suppressive" immune phenotype. Patients in BIS1 and BIS2 had a poor prognosis compared to BIS3. BIS3 had a higher score in checkpoints or immunomodulators (CP) and immunophenoscore (IPS), while BIS1 and BIS2 scored higher in major histocompatibility complex-related molecules (MHC molecules). Meanwhile, BIS2 and BIS3 had a significantly higher tumor mutational burden (TMB) compared to patients with BIS1. Finally, the "immcluster" package was applied to the dataset, which has been shown to accurately predict the immune subtypes of BLCA samples in many cohorts.

Conclusions

IGF2BP2 and MMP9 were potential antigens for developing mRNA vaccines against BLCA. The results in the present study suggested that immunotherapy targeting these two antigens would be suitable for patients falling under the BIS2 subtype. R package "immcluster" could assist in screening suitable BLCA patients for antitumor therapy.

Connecting multiple microenvironment proteomes uncovers the biology in head and neck cancer

The poor prognosis of head and neck cancer (HNC) is associated with metastasis within the lymph nodes (LNs). Herein, the proteome of 140 multisite samples from a 59-HNC patient cohort, including primary and matched LN-negative or -positive tissues, saliva, and blood cells, reveals insights into the biology and potential metastasis biomarkers that may assist in clinical decision-making. Protein profiles are strictly associated with immune modulation across datasets, and this provides the basis for investigating immune markers associated with metastasis. The proteome of LN metastatic cells recapitulates the proteome of the primary tumor sites. Conversely, the LN microenvironment proteome highlights the candidate prognostic markers. By integrating prioritized peptide, protein, and transcript levels with machine learning models, we identify nodal metastasis signatures in blood and saliva. We present a proteomic characterization wiring multiple sites in HNC, thus providing a promising basis for understanding tumoral biology and identifying metastasis-associated signatures.

Post-Remedial Oxygen Supply: A New Perspective on Photodynamic Therapy to Suppress Tumor Metastasis

Photodynamic therapy (PDT) holds great promise in tumor therapy due to high safety, efficacy, and specificity. However, the risk of increased metastasis in hypoxic tumors after oxygen-dependent PDT remains underestimated. Here, we propose a post-PDT oxygen supply (POS) strategy to reduce the risk of metastasis. Herein, biocompatible and tumor-targeting Ce6@BSA and PFC@BSA nanoparticles were constructed for PDT and POS in a 4T1-orthotropic breast cancer model. PDT with Ce6@BSA nanoparticles increased tumor metastasis via the HIF-1α signaling pathway, whereas POS significantly reduced the PDT-triggered metastasis by blocking this pathway. Furthermore, POS, with clinical protocols and an FDA-approved photosensitizer (hypericin), and oxygen inhalation reduced PDT-induced metastasis. Our study findings indicate that PDT may increase the risk of tumor metastasis and that POS may solve this problem. POS can reduce the metastasis resulting not only from PDT but also from other oxygen-dependent treatments such as radiotherapy and sonodynamic therapy.

Decellularized organ biomatrices facilitate quantifiable in vitro 3D cancer metastasis models

Metastatic cancers are chemoresistant, involving complex interplay between disseminated cancer cell aggregates and the distant organ microenvironment (extracellular matrix and stromal cells). Conventional metastasis surrogates (scratch/wound healing, Transwell migration assays) lack 3D architecture and ECM presence. Metastasis studies can therefore significantly benefit from biomimetic 3D in vitro models recapitulating the complex cascade of distant organ invasion and colonization by collective clusters of cells. We aimed to engineer reproducible and quantifiable 3D models of highly therapy-resistant cancer processes: (i) colorectal cancer liver metastasis; and (ii) breast cancer lung metastasis. Metastatic seeds are engineered using 3D tumor spheroids to recapitulate the 3D aggregation of cancer cells both in the tumor and in circulation throughout the metastatic cascade of many cancers. Metastatic soil was engineered by decellularizing porcine livers and lungs to generate biomatrix scaffolds, followed by extensive materials characterization. HCT116 colorectal and MDA-MB-231 breast cancer spheroids were generated on hanging drop arrays to initiate clustered metastatic seeding into liver and lung biomatrix scaffolds, respectively. Between days 3-7, biomatrix cellular colonization was apparent with increased metabolic activity and the presence of cellular nests evaluated via multiphoton microscopy. HCT116 and MDA-MB-231 cells colonized liver and lung biomatrices, and at least 15% of the cells invaded more than 20 μm from the surface. Engineered metastases also expressed increased signatures of genes associated with the metastatic epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT). Importantly, inhibition of matrix metalloproteinase-9 inhibited metastatic invasion into the biomatrix. Furthermore, metastatic nests were significantly more chemoresistant (>3 times) to the anti-cancer drug oxaliplatin, compared to 3D spheroids. Together, our data indicated that HCT116 and MDA-MB-231 spheroids invade, colonize, and proliferate in livers and lungs establishing metastatic nests in 3D settings in vitro. The metastatic nature of these cells was confirmed with functional readouts regarding EMT and chemoresistance. Modeling the dynamic metastatic cascade in vitro has potential to identify therapeutic targets to treat or prevent metastatic progression in chemoresistant metastatic cancers.

Curcumin and its nano-formulations: Defining triple-negative breast cancer targets through network pharmacology, molecular docking, and experimental verification

Background: Curcumin (CUR) displays the capability of suppressing the proliferation and metastasis of various cancer cells. However, the effects and underline mechanisms of CUR to treat triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) have not been systematically elucidated with an appropriate method.

Methods: In the present research, a combination method of network pharmacology, molecular docking, and in vitro bio-experiment was used to investigate the pharmacological actions and underline mechanisms of CUR against TNBC. First, common targets of CUR and TNBC were screened via Venny 2.1.0 after potential CUR-related targets and targets of TNBC were got from several public databases. Then, the Gene Ontology (GO) function and the Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway enrichment were performed on the Metascape website, and the network of compound-targets-pathways was constructed via Cytoscape software. Moreover, the network of protein-protein interaction was constructed by the STRING database to screen potential targets. Moreover, molecular docking was applied to affirm the interaction of CUR with the screened top 10 potential targets. Finally, in vitro experiments were used to further verify the effects and mechanisms of CUR and its nano-formulation (CUR-NPs) against TNBC.

Results: Forty potential targets of CUR against TNBC were obtained. STAT3, AKT1, TNF, PTGS2, MMP9, EGFR, PPARG, NFE2L2, EP300, and GSK3B were identified as the top 10 targets of CUR against TNBC. In vitro experiment verified that CUR and CUR-NPs could not only restrain the invasion, migration, and proliferation of MDA-MB-231 cells but also induce their apoptosis. In addition, molecular docking demonstrated that CUR could bind spontaneously with the screened top 10 targeted proteins, and a real-time PCR experiment demonstrated that both CUR and CUR-NPs could downregulate the genetic expression levels of the 10 targets. Moreover, according to the CUR-targets-pathways network, PI3K-Akt, EGFR tyrosine kinase inhibitor resistance, JAK-STAT, Foxo, and HIF-1 signaling pathways were identified as the important pathways of CUR effects on TNBC. Among them, the inhibiting effects of CUR and CUR-NPs on the JAK-STAT signaling pathway were further verified by the western blot analysis.

Conclusion: Taken together, the present research demonstrates that CUR and CUR-NPs have pharmacological effects against TNBC via a multi-target and multi-pathway manner.

Differential expression profile of mRNAs, lncRNAs and circRNAs reveals potential molecular mechanism in breast cancer

In recent years, breast cancer attracts more and more attention because of its high incidence. To explore the molecular functions and mechanisms, we performed RNA sequencing on the tumor tissues and their paired normal tissues from three breast cancer patients. By differential expression analysis, we found 3764 differentially expressed (DE) mRNAs, 5416 DE lncRNAs, and 148 DE circRNAs. Enrichment analysis suggested that the DE lncRNAs and DE circRNAs were enriched in mitochondria and nucleus, which indicated that they may participate in the vital metabolism directly or indirectly, such as fatty acid metabolism. Subsequently, the protein–protein interaction (PPI) network was constructed and we got 8 key proteins, of which the matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP9; degree 5) draws our attention. Based on the 38 up-regulated circRNAs and 14 down-regulated circRNAs, we constructed competing endogenous RNA (ceRNA) networks, from which the has-miR-6794-5p has been identified to enriched in the up-regulated network and correlated with the circNFIX directly. At this point, we presented that the circNFIX and MMP9 may play a significant role by regulating fatty acid metabolism in breast cancer.

The risk of relapse in breast cancer patients is associated with MMP-9 gene polymorphism: a prospective study in a sample of the Iranian population

We investigated the association of MMP-9 rs1056628 and rs17576 polymorphisms with breast cancer (BC) relapse in a cohort of prospectively observed BC patients. The polymorphisms were genotyped in 200 BC subjects with(case) and without(control) relapse by Tetra-primer Amplification Refractory Mutation System-Polymerase Chain Reaction (T-ARMS-PCR) method. A significant association was found between the rs1056628C allele and increased risk of BC relapse (OR = 1.8, P = 0.006). Also, rs17576 allele and genotypes were shown protective effects against BC relapse. Increased risk of relapse was observed in haplotype CG (OR = 2.1, P = 0.001). Our results suggest for the first time that rs1056628 and rs17576 polymorphisms may influence BC relapse.

NEUTROPHIL INFLUENCE ON EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX IN CANCER PROGRESSION

1 in 3 persons will develop cancer in their lifetime and the majority of these patients will die from the spread of their cancer through their body - a process known as metastasis. Metastasis is strongly regulated by the tumor microenvironment (TME) comprised of cellular and non-cellular components. In this review, we will focus on the role of neutrophils regulating the extracellular matrix (ECM), enabling ECM remodeling and cancer progression. In particular, we highlight the role of neutrophil-secreted proteases (NSP) and how these promote metastasis.

MMP9: A Tough Target for Targeted Therapy for Cancer

Having the capability to proteolyze diverse structural and signaling proteins, matrix metalloproteinase 9 (MMP9), one of the best-studied secretory endopeptidases, has been identified as a crucial mediator of processes closely associated with tumorigenesis, such as the extracellular matrix reorganization, epithelial to mesenchymal transition, cell migration, new blood vessel formation, and immune response. In this review, we present the current state of knowledge on MMP9 and its role in cancer growth in the context of cell adhesion/migration, cancer-related inflammation, and tumor microenvironment formation. We also summarize recent achievements in the development of selective MMP9 inhibitors and the limitations of using them as anticancer drugs.

Comprehensive analysis of matrix metalloproteinases and their inhibitors in head and neck squamous cell carcinoma

Objective: This study aimed to explore the association of matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) and tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases (TIMPs) with cancer progression and prognosis in head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC).Methods: Differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were identified by LIMMA package using R software. The correlation between the expression levels of MMPs and TIMPs in HNSCC cancer samples and adjacent normal tissue samples was performed using Pearson correlation analysis. The Kruskal-Wallis test (H-test) was used to determine the association between the expression level of MMPs/TIMPs and HNSCC clinical stage. The survival result was expressed as a KM curve, and the log-rank test was used for statistical analysis. Lasso regression and multivariate Cox regression analyses were used to examine whether the gene signature based on MMPs and TIMPs was an independent prognostic factor in patients with HNSCC.Results: Among the top 10 most up-regulated genes in HNSCC cancer tissues when compared with normal tissues, six genes belonged to the MMPs. Spearman correlation analysis revealed that only MMP11 and MMP23B were positively correlated with tumor stage. Survival analysis showed that patients with a high expression of MMP14, MMP20, TIMP1, and TIMP4 had a worse prognosis than low expression patients. Additionally, a novel five-gene (MMP3, MMP17, MMP19, MMP24, and TIMP1) signature was constructed and significantly associated with prognosis as an independent prognostic signature.Conclusions: Our data show that the accuracy of a single gene of MMP or TIMP as predictors of progression and prognosis of HNSCC is limited, although some studies have proposed that MMPs act as driving factors for cancer progression. The prediction performance of the five-gene signature prediction model was much better than that of the gene signatures based on every single gene in prognosis prediction.

TRIM66 hastens the malignant progression of non-small cell lung cancer via modulating MMP9-mediated TGF-β/SMAD pathway

OBJECTIVE

To investigate regulatory function and underlying mechanism of TRIM66 in non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC).

METHODS

TRIM66 and MMP9 expression in NSCLC cells and tissues was assayed via qRT-PCR and western blot. CCK-8, colony formation, Transwell and flow cytometry assays were conducted to measure cell functional alternations in NSCLC. Western blot was employed to measure expression as well as phosphorylation levels of epithelial-mesenchymal transition-(EMT) and TGF-β/SMAD pathways-related proteins. Co-immunoprecipitation (Co-IP) assay was done to probe interaction between TRIM66 and MMP9. Xenograft in vivo experiment and tumor metastasis model in nude mice were utilized to investigate effects of TRIM66 on tumor growth of NSCLC.

RESULTS

TRIM66 and MMP9 were conspicuously highly expressed in NSCLC cells and tissues. High TRIM66 level was markedly correlated with metastasis. Silencing TRIM66 prominently repressed the proliferation, migration and invasion of transfected cells, while inducing cell apoptosis. Whereas forced expression of TRIM66 exerted the opposite effect. The aberrant expression of TRIM66 modulated EMT pathway. TRIM66 also regulated MMP9 expression, and the interaction between them was validated by Co-IP assay. Overexpression of MMP9 could activate TGF-β/SMAD pathway. Rescue experiments manifested that si-MMP9 or SB431542 could partially reverse phenotypes induced by TRIM66. In vivo experiments revealed that silencing TRIM66 could hamper NSCLC tumor growth and metastasis.

CONCLUSION

TRIM66 and MMP9 were up-regulated in NSCLC. TRIM66 facilitated the malignant progression of NSCLC through modulating MMP9-mediated TGF-β/SMAD pathway.

Molecular regulations of circadian rhythm and implications for physiology and diseases

The term “circadian rhythms” describes endogenous oscillations with ca. 24-h period associated with the earth’s daily rotation and light/dark cycle. Such rhythms reflect the existence of an intrinsic circadian clock that temporally orchestrates physiological processes to adapt the internal environment with the external cues. At the molecular level, the circadian clock consists of multiple sets of transcription factors resulting in autoregulatory transcription-translation feedback loops. Notably, in addition to their primary role as generator of circadian rhythm, the biological clock plays a key role in controlling physiological functions of almost all tissues and organs. It regulates several intracellular signaling pathways, ranging from cell proliferation, DNA damage repair and response, angiogenesis, metabolic and redox homeostasis, to inflammatory and immune response. In this review, we summarize findings showing the crosstalk between the circadian molecular clock and some key intracellular pathways, describing a scenario wherein their reciprocal regulation impinges upon several aspects of mammalian physiology. Moreover, based on evidence indicating that circadian rhythms can be challenged by environmental factors, social behaviors, as well as pre-existing pathological conditions, we discuss implications of circadian misalignment in human pathologies, such as cancer and inflammatory diseases. Accordingly, disruption of circadian rhythm has been reported to affect several physiological processes that are relevant to human diseases. Expanding our understanding of this field represents an intriguing and transversal medicine challenge in order to establish a circadian precision medicine.

Molecular and behavioral assessment in larval zebrafish (Danio rerio) following exposure to environmentally relevant levels of the antineoplastic cyclophosphamide

Antineoplastics treat cancers and enter aquatic ecosystems through wastewater and hospital effluent. Risks associated with antineoplastics are not well characterized in aquatic organisms. We conducted zebrafish embryo/larvae toxicity assays to evaluate responses to cyclophosphamide (0.01-50 µM). Zebrafish survival was affected by 5 µM cyclophosphamide and deformities were noted at > 1 µM. Oxidative respiration remained unchanged in embryos with exposure up to 200 µM. Reactive oxygen species were not increased by 50 µM cyclophosphamide exposure. More than 15 oxidative stress and immune-related transcripts were measured. Superoxide dismutase 2 and heat shock protein 70 and 90a were induced in larvae by cyclophosphamide. Immune-related transcripts were assessed due to immunosuppressive properties of cyclophosphamide, and mmp9 and myd88 levels were altered in expression. Hyperactivity of larvae was noted following 5 µM cyclophosphamide exposure. There was no change in anxiety-related endpoints (light-dark preference). Risks for larval fish exposed to cyclophosphamide in the environment may be low.

Prognostic and immune infiltration signatures of proteasome 26S subunit, non-ATPase (PSMD) family genes in breast cancer patients

The complexity of breast cancer includes many interacting biological processes that make it difficult to find appropriate therapeutic treatments. Therefore, identifying potential diagnostic and prognostic biomarkers is urgently needed. Previous studies demonstrated that 26S proteasome delta subunit, non-ATPase (PSMD) family members significantly contribute to the degradation of damaged, misfolded, abnormal, and foreign proteins. However, transcriptional expressions of PSMD family genes in breast cancer still remain largely unexplored. Consequently, we used a holistic bioinformatics approach to explore PSMD genes involved in breast cancer patients by integrating several high-throughput databases, including The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA), cBioPortal, Oncomine, and Kaplan-Meier plotter. These data demonstrated that PSMD1, PSMD2, PSMD3, PSMD7, PSMD10, PSMD12, and PSMD14 were expressed at significantly higher levels in breast cancer tissue compared to normal tissues. Notably, the increased expressions of PSMD family genes were correlated with poor prognoses of breast cancer patients, which suggests their roles in tumorigenesis. Meanwhile, network and pathway analyses also indicated that PSMD family genes were positively correlated with ubiquinone metabolism, immune system, and cell-cycle regulatory pathways. Collectively, this study revealed that PSMD family members are potential prognostic biomarkers for breast cancer progression and possible promising clinical therapeutic targets.

Peripherally-driven myeloid NFkB and IFN/ISG responses predict malignancy risk, survival, and immunotherapy regime in ovarian cancer

Background

Tumors can influence peripheral immune macroenvironment, thereby creating opportunities for non-invasive serum/plasma immunobiomarkers for immunostratification and immunotherapy designing. However, current approaches for immunobiomarkers’ detection are largely quantitative, which is unreliable for assessing functional peripheral immunodynamics of patients with cancer. Hence, we aimed to design a functional biomarker modality for capturing peripheral immune signaling in patients with cancer for reliable immunostratification.

Methods

We used a data-driven in silico framework, integrating existing tumor/blood bulk-RNAseq or single-cell (sc)RNAseq datasets of patients with cancer, to inform the design of an innovative serum-screening modality, that is, serum-functional immunodynamic status (sFIS) assay. Next, we pursued proof-of-concept analyses via multiparametric serum profiling of patients with ovarian cancer (OV) with sFIS assay combined with Luminex (cytokines/soluble immune checkpoints), CA125-antigen detection, and whole-blood immune cell counts. Here, sFIS assay’s ability to determine survival benefit or malignancy risk was validated in a discovery (n=32) and/or validation (n=699) patient cohorts. Lastly, we used an orthotopic murine metastatic OV model, with anti-OV therapy selection via in silico drug–target screening and murine serum screening via sFIS assay, to assess suitable in vivo immunotherapy options.

Results

In silico data-driven framework predicted that peripheral immunodynamics of patients with cancer might be best captured via analyzing myeloid nuclear factor kappa-light-chain enhancer of activated B cells (NFκB) signaling and interferon-stimulated genes' (ISG) responses. This helped in conceptualization of an ‘in sitro’ (in vitro+in situ) sFIS assay, where human myeloid cells were exposed to patients’ serum in vitro, to assess serum-induced (si)-NFκB or interferon (IFN)/ISG responses (as active signaling reporter activity) within them, thereby ‘mimicking’ patients’ in situ immunodynamic status. Multiparametric serum profiling of patients with OV established that sFIS assay can: decode peripheral immunology (by indicating higher enrichment of si-NFκB over si-IFN/ISG responses), estimate survival trends (si-NFκB or si-IFN/ISG responses associating with negative or positive prognosis, respectively), and coestimate malignancy risk (relative to benign/borderline ovarian lesions). Biologically, we documented dominance of pro-tumorigenic, myeloid si-NFκB response^HIGHsi-IFN/ISG response^LOW inflammation in periphery of patients with OV. Finally, in an orthotopic murine metastatic OV model, sFIS assay predicted the higher capacity of chemo-immunotherapy (paclitaxel–carboplatin plus anti-TNF antibody combination) in achieving a pro-immunogenic peripheral milieu (si-IFN/ISG response^HIGHsi-NFκB response^LOW), which aligned with high antitumor efficacy.

Conclusions

We established sFIS assay as a novel biomarker resource for serum screening in patients with OV to evaluate peripheral immunodynamics, patient survival trends and malignancy risk, and to design preclinical chemo-immunotherapy strategies.

Remodeling the ECM: Implications for Metastasis and Tumor Dormancy

While most primary tumors can be effectively treated, therapeutics fail to efficiently eliminate metastases. Metastases arise from cancer cells that leave the primary tumor and seed distant sites. Recent studies have shown that cancer cells disseminate early during tumor progression and can remain dormant for years before they resume growth. In these metastatic organs, cancer cells reside in microenvironments where they interact with other cells, but also with the extracellular matrix (ECM). The ECM was long considered to be an inert, non-cellular component of tissues, providing their architecture. However, in recent years, a growing body of evidence has shown that the ECM is a key driver of cancer progression, and it can exert effects on tumor cells, regulating their metastatic fate. ECM remodeling and degradation is required for the early steps of the metastatic cascade: invasion, tumor intravasation, and extravasation. Similarly, ECM molecules have been shown to be important for metastatic outgrowth. However, the role of ECM molecules on tumor dormancy and their contribution to the dormancy-supportive niches is not well understood. In this perspective article, we will summarize the current knowledge of ECM and its role in tumor metastasis and dormancy. We will discuss how a better understanding of the individual components of the ECM niche and their roles mediating the dormant state of disseminated tumor cells (DTCs) will advance the development of new therapies to target dormant cells and prevent metastasis outgrowth.

Simultaneous targeting of CD44 and MMP9 catalytic and hemopexin domains as a therapeutic strategy

Crosstalk of the oncogenic matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP9) and one of its ligands, CD44, involves cleavage of CD44 by the MMP9 catalytic domain, with the CD44–MMP9 interaction on the cell surface taking place through the MMP9 hemopexin domain (PEX). This interaction promotes cancer cell migration and invasiveness. In concert, MMP9-processed CD44 induces the expression of MMP9, which degrades ECM components and facilitates growth factor release and activation, cancer cell invasiveness, and metastasis. Since both MMP9 and CD44 contribute to cancer progression, we have developed a new strategy to fully block this neoplastic process by engineering a multi-specific inhibitor that simultaneously targets CD44 and both the catalytic and PEX domains of MMP9. Using a yeast surface display technology, we first obtained a high-affinity inhibitor for the MMP9 catalytic domain, which we termed C9, by modifying a natural non-specific MMP inhibitor, N-TIMP2. We then conjugated C9 via a flexible linker to PEX, thereby creating a multi-specific inhibitor (C9-PEX) that simultaneously targets the MMP9 catalytic and PEX domains and CD44. It is likely that, via its co-localization with CD44, C9-PEX may compete with MMP9 localization on the cell surface, thereby inhibiting MMP9 catalytic activity, reducing MMP9 cellular levels, interfering with MMP9 homodimerization, and reducing the activation of downstream MAPK/ERK pathway signaling. The developed platform could be extended to other oncogenic MMPs as well as to other important target proteins, thereby offering great promise for creating novel multi-specific therapeutics for cancer and other diseases.

Prognoses and genomic analyses of proteasome 26S subunit, ATPase (PSMC) family genes in clinical breast cancer

Breast cancer is a complex disease, and several processes are involved in its development. Therefore, potential therapeutic targets need to be discovered for these patients. Proteasome 26S subunit, ATPase gene (PSMC) family members are well reported to be involved in protein degradation. However, their roles in breast cancer are still unknown and need to be comprehensively researched. Leveraging publicly available databases, such as cBioPortal and Oncomine, for high-throughput transcriptomic profiling to provide evidence-based targets for breast cancer is a rapid and robust approach. By integrating the aforementioned databases with the Kaplan–Meier plotter database, we investigated potential roles of six PSMC family members in breast cancer at the messenger RNA level and their correlations with patient survival. The present findings showed significantly higher expression profiles of PSMC2, PSMC3, PSMC4, PSMC5, and PSMC6 in breast cancer compared to normal breast tissues. Besides, positive correlations were also revealed between PSMC family genes and ubiquinone metabolism, cell cycle, and cytoskeletal remodeling. Meanwhile, we discovered that high levels of PSMC1, PSMC3, PSMC4, PSMC5, and PSMC6 transcripts were positively correlated with poor survival, which likely shows their importance in breast cancer development. Collectively, PSMC family members have the potential to be novel and essential prognostic biomarkers for breast cancer development.

Local Mutations Can Serve as a Game Changer for Global Protein Solvent Interaction

Although it is well-known that limited local mutations of enzymes, such as matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), may change enzyme activity by orders of magnitude as well as its stability, the completely rational design of proteins is still challenging. These local changes alter the electrostatic potential and thus local electrostatic fields, which impacts the dynamics of water molecules close the protein surface. Here we show by a combined computational design, experimental, and molecular dynamics (MD) study that local mutations have not only a local but also a global effect on the solvent: In the specific case of the matrix metalloprotease MMP14, we found that the nature of local mutations, coupled with surface morphology, have the ability to influence large patches of the water hydrogen-bonding network at the protein surface, which is correlated with stability. The solvent contribution can be experimentally probed via terahertz (THz) spectroscopy, thus opening the door to the exciting perspective of rational protein design in which a systematic tuning of hydration water properties allows manipulation of protein stability and enzymatic activity.

The pre-metastatic niche in lymph nodes: formation and characteristics

Lymph node metastasis is a crucial prognostic parameter in many different types of cancers and a gateway for further dissemination to distant organs. Prior to metastatic dissemination, the primary tumor prepares for the remodeling of the draining (sentinel) lymph node by secreting soluble factors or releasing extracellular vesicles that are transported by lymphatic vessels. These important changes occur before the appearance of the first metastatic cell and create what is known as a pre-metastatic niche giving rise to the subsequent survival and growth of metastatic cells. In this review, the lymph node structure, matrix composition and the emerging heterogeneity of cells forming it are described. Current knowledge of the major cellular and molecular processes associated with nodal pre-metastatic niche formation, including lymphangiogenesis, extracellular matrix remodeling, and immunosuppressive cell enlisting in lymph nodes are additionally summarized. Finally, future directions that research could possibly take and the clinical impact are discussed.

Regulation of the epigenetic landscape by immune cell oxidants

Excessive production of microbicidal oxidants by neutrophils can damage host tissue. The short-term response of cells to oxidative stress is well understood, but the mechanisms behind long-term consequences require further clarification. Epigenetic pathways mediate cellular adaptation, and are therefore a potential target of oxidative stress. Indeed, there is evidence that many proteins and metabolites involved in epigenetic pathways are redox sensitive. In this review we provide an overview of the epigenetic landscape and discuss the potential for redox regulation. Using this information, we highlight specific examples where neutrophil oxidants react with epigenetic pathway components. We also use published data from redox proteomics to map out known intersections between oxidative stress and epigenetics that may signpost helpful directions for future investigation. Finally, we discuss the role neutrophils play in adaptive pathologies with a focus on tumour initiation and progression. We hope this information will stimulate further discourse on the emerging field of redox epigenomics.

Msi1 promotes breast cancer metastasis by regulating invadopodia-mediated extracellular matrix degradation via the Timp3-Mmp9 pathway

Metastasis is the main cause of death in breast cancer patients. The initial step of metastasis is invadopodia-mediated extracellular matrix (ECM) degradation, which enables local breast tumor cells to invade surrounding tissues. However, the molecular mechanism underlying invadopodia-mediated metastasis remains largely unknown. Here we found that the RNA-binding protein Musashi1 (Msi1) exhibited elevated expression in invasive breast tumors and promoted lung metastasis of mammary cancer cells. Suppression of Msi1 reduced invadopodia formation in mammary cancer cells. Furthermore, Msi1 deficiency decreased the expression and activity of Mmp9, an important enzyme in ECM degradation. Mechanistically, Msi1 directly suppressed Timp3, an endogenous inhibitor of Mmp9. In clinical breast cancer specimens, TIMP3 and MSI1 levels were significantly inversely correlated both in normal breast tissue and breast cancer tissues and associated with overall survival in breast cancer patients. Taken together, our findings demonstrate that the MSI1-TIMP3-MMP9 cascade is critical for invadopodia-mediated onset of metastasis in breast cancer, providing novel insights into a promising therapeutic strategy for breast cancer metastasis.

Immunoregulatory Monocyte Subset Promotes Metastasis Associated With Therapeutic Intervention for Primary Tumor

Systemic and local inflammation associated with therapeutic intervention of primary tumor occasionally promotes metastatic recurrence in mouse and human. However, it remains unclear what types of immune cells are involved in this process. Here, we found that the tissue-repair-promoting Ym1⁺Ly6C^hi monocyte subset expanded as a result of systemic and local inflammation induced by intravenous injection of lipopolysaccharide or resection of primary tumor and promoted lung metastasis originating from circulating tumor cells (CTCs). Deletion of this subset suppressed metastasis induced by the inflammation. Furthermore, transfer of Ym1⁺Ly6C^hi monocytes into naïve mice promoted lung metastasis in the mice. Ym1⁺Ly6C^hi monocytes highly expressed matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9) and CXCR4. MMP-9 inhibitor and CXCR4 antagonist decreased Ym1⁺Ly6C^hi-monocyte-promoted lung metastasis. These findings indicate that Ym1⁺Ly6C^hi monocytes are therapeutic target cells for metastasis originating from CTCs associated with systemic and local inflammation. In addition, these findings provide a novel predictive cellular biomarker for metastatic recurrence after intervention for primary tumor.

Analysis of LAGEs Family Gene Signature and Prognostic Relevance in Breast Cancer

Breast cancer (BRCA) is one of the most complex diseases and involves several biological processes. Members of the L-antigen (LAGE) family participate in the development of various cancers, but their expressions and prognostic values in breast cancer remain to be clarified. High-throughput methods for exploring disease progression mechanisms might play a pivotal role in the improvement of novel therapeutics. Therefore, gene expression profiles and clinical data of LAGE family members were acquired from the cBioportal database, followed by verification using the Oncomine and The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) databases. In addition, the Kaplan-Meier method was applied to explore correlations between expressions of LAGE family members and prognoses of breast cancer patients. MetaCore, GlueGo, and GluePedia were used to comprehensively study the transcript expression signatures of LAGEs and their co-expressed genes together with LAGE-related signal transduction pathways in BRCA. The result indicated that higher LAGE3 messenger (m)RNA expressions were observed in BRCA tissues than in normal tissues, and they were also associated with the stage of BRCA patients. Kaplan-Meier plots showed that overexpression of LAGE1, LAGE2A, LAGE2B, and LAGE3 were highly correlated to poor survival in most types of breast cancer. Significant associations of LAGE family genes were correlated with the cell cycle, focal adhesion, and extracellular matrix (ECM) receptor interactions as indicated by functional enrichment analyses. Collectively, LAGE family members’ gene expression levels were related to adverse clinicopathological factors and prognoses of BRCA patients; therefore, LAGEs have the potential to serve as prognosticators of BRCA patients.

Establishment and characterization of a new spontaneously immortalized ER-/PR-/HER2+ human breast cancer cell line, DHSF-BR16

Invasive ductal carcinoma (IDC) constitutes the most frequent malignant cancer endangering women’s health. In this study, a new spontaneously immortalized breast cancer cell line, DHSF-BR16 cells, was isolated from the primary IDC of a 74-years old female patient, treated with neoadjuvant chemotherapy and disease-free 5-years after adjuvant chemotherapy. Primary breast cancer tissue surgically removed was classified as ER⁻/PR⁻/HER2⁺, and the same phenotype was maintained by DHSF-BR16 cells. We examined DHSF-BR16 cell morphology and relevant biological and molecular markers, as well as their response to anticancer drugs commonly used for breast cancer treatment. MCF-7 cells were used for comparison purposes. The DHSF-BR16 cells showed the ability to form spheroids and migrate. Furthermore, DHSF-BR16 cells showed a mixed stemness phenotype (i.e. CD44⁺/CD24^−/low), high levels of cytokeratin 7, moderate levels of cytokeratin 8 and 18, EpCAM and E-Cadh. Transcriptome analysis showed 2071 differentially expressed genes between DHSF-BR16 and MCF-7 cells (logFC > 2, p-adj < 0.01). Several genes were highly upregulated or downregulated in the new cell line (log2 scale fold change magnitude within − 9.6 to + 12.13). A spontaneous immortalization signature, mainly represented by extracellular exosomes-, plasma membrane- and endoplasmic reticulum membrane pathways (GO database) as well as by metabolic pathways (KEGG database) was observed in DHSF-BR16 cells. Also, these cells were more resistant to anthracyclines compared with MCF-7 cells. Overall, DHSF-BR16 cell line represents a relevant model useful to investigate cancer biology, to identify both novel prognostic and drug response predictive biomarkers as well as to assess new therapeutic strategies.

Absence of progesterone receptor membrane component 1 reduces migration and metastasis of breast cancer

BACKGROUND

Progesterone receptor membrane component 1 (Pgrmc1) is a non-classical progesterone receptor associated with the development of the mammary gland and xenograft-induced breast cancer. Importantly, Pgrmc1 is associated with the expression of estrogen receptor alpha and can be used for predicting the prognosis of breast cancer. Whether the genetic deletion of Pgrmc1 affects the progression of breast cancer is still unclear.

METHODS

We used MMTV-PyMT transgenic mice that spontaneously develop breast tumors. In backcrossed FVB Pgrmc1 knockout (KO) mice, we monitored the development of the primary tumor and lung metastasis. In MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231 tumor cell lines, the migratory activity was evaluated after Pgrmc1 knockdown.

RESULTS

There was no significant difference in the development of breast cancer in terms of tumor size at 13 weeks of age between WT and Pgrmc1 KO mice. However, Pgrmc1 KO mice had a significantly longer survival duration compared with WT mice. Furthermore, Pgrmc1 KO mice exhibited a significantly lower degree of lung metastasis. Compared with those of WT mice, the tumors of Pgrmc1 KO mice had a low expression of focal adhesion kinase and epithelial-mesenchymal transition markers. PGRMC1 knockdown resulted in a significantly reduced migration rate in breast cancer cell lines.

CONCLUSIONS

Pgrmc1 KO mice with breast cancer had a prolonged survival, which was accompanied by a low degree of lung metastasis. PGRMC1 showed a significant role in the migration of breast cancer cells, and may serve as a potential therapeutic target in breast cancer. Video Abstract.

CCDC167 as a potential therapeutic target and regulator of cell cycle-related networks in breast cancer

According to cancer statistics reported in 2020, breast cancer constitutes 30% of new cancer cases diagnosed in American women. Histological markers of breast cancer are expressions of the estrogen receptor (ER), the progesterone receptor (PR), and human epidermal growth factor receptor (HER)-2. Up to 80% of breast cancers are grouped as ER-positive, which implies a crucial role for estrogen in breast cancer development. Therefore, identifying potential therapeutic targets and investigating their downstream pathways and networks are extremely important for drug development in these patients. Through high-throughput technology and bioinformatics screening, we revealed that coiled-coil domain-containing protein 167 (CCDC167) was upregulated in different types of tumors; however, the role of CCDC167 in the development of breast cancer still remains unclear. Integrating many kinds of databases including ONCOMINE, MetaCore, IPA, and Kaplan-Meier Plotter, we found that high expression levels of CCDC167 predicted poor prognoses of breast cancer patients. Knockdown of CCDC167 attenuated aggressive breast cancer growth and proliferation. We also demonstrated that treatment with fluorouracil, carboplatin, paclitaxel, and doxorubicin resulted in decreased expression of CCDC167 and suppressed growth of MCF-7 cells. Collectively, these findings suggest that CCDC167 has high potential as a therapeutic target for breast cancer.

Prognostic role of matrix metalloproteinase 9 in early breast cancer

MMP9 is involved in extracellular matrix degradation during various physiological and pathological conditions, including tumorigenesis. The present study aimed to assess the prognostic role of intratumoral MMP9 and to determine its association with circulating tumor cells (CTCs) in patients with early breast cancer. A total of 318 patients with primary breast cancer (PBC) were enrolled into the present study. Specimens were subjected to immunohistochemistry analysis, using the MMP9 monoclonal antibody. MMP9 expression was scored using a weighted histoscore (WH). The results demonstrated that the mean WH ± SEM for MMP9 expression was significantly higher in breast tumor cells compared with tumor associated stromas (132.0±5.2 vs. 50.8±3.7; P<0.00001). Furthermore, a positive association was observed between MMP9 expression, the hormone positive status and proliferation index of analysed breast cancer tumour cells. Notably, the prognostic role of MMP9 was not observed in tumor cells [hazard ratio (HR) =0.96; 95% confidence interval (CI), 0.58-1.59; P=0.864] or tumor associated stroma (HR=1.29; 95% CI, 0.60-2.78; P=0.547). Subgroup analysis demonstrated that patients that were HR negative or triple negative, with low MMP9 expression in tumor cells and stroma had a significantly improved disease-free survival than patients with high MMP9 expression. Taken together, the results of the present study demonstrated that high MMP9 expression in PBC was associated with favorable tumor characteristics. However, the prognostic value of MMP9 was limited to only the HR negative and CTC epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition positive subgroups. Thus, analyzing MMP9 tumor expression may help identify patients with increased risk of disease recurrence in these subgroups.

SLC39A1 contribute to malignant progression and have clinical prognostic impact in gliomas

BACKGROUND

Gliomas are one of the most common primary tumors of the central nervous system, and have an unfavorable prognosis. SLC39A1 is a zinc ion transport protein which inhibits the progression of prostate cancer. By studying the role and mechanism of SLC39A1 in the progression of gliomas, perhaps a new therapeutic target can be provided for their treatment.

METHOD

The TCGA, CCGA, GSE16011, GSE44971 and GSE11260 data sets were employed to evaluate the expression level of SLC39A1 in paracancerous and glioma tissues. In addition, Kaplan-Meier analysis, Cox analysis, and the ESTIMATE and CIBERSORT algorithms were used to analyze its prognostic value and immune infiltration correlation. A CCK-8 and flow cytometer were used to measure the effects of SLC39A1 on U87 cell proliferation or apoptosis; RT-qPCR and western blot were used to detect its effects on the expression of MMP2\MMP9.

RESULTS

SLC39A1 has up-regulated expression in glioma tissues. High SLC39A1 expression predicted significantly worse survival. Univariate and multivariate analysis show that SLC39A1 independently indicated poor prognosis in patients with gliomas. The expression of SLC39A1 is significantly correlated with clinical pathological parameters such as Grade, IDH mutation status, and 1p19q codeletion status. In vitro experimental results show that SLC39A1 promotes proliferation of glioma cells, inhibits their apoptosis, and promotes expression of MMP2\MMP9. In addition, it may affect infiltration of immune cells into the glioma microenvironment.

CONCLUSION

SLC39A1 may serve as a new prognostic biomarker and potential target for treatment of gliomas.