Scientific Opinion on the risks for public health related to the presence of zearalenone in food

Zearalenone induces liver injury in mice through ferroptosis pathway

Throughout the world, some foods and feeds commonly consumed by humans and animals are inadvertently contaminated with mycotoxins. Zearalenone (ZEA) is a typical environmental/food contaminant that can cause varying degrees of damage to the body, such as reproductive toxicity, hepatotoxicity, immunotoxicity, etc. It poses a serious threat to the living environment and human and animal health. Increasing evidence shows that mycotoxin-induced organ damage may be closely related to ferroptosis. However, the mechanism of ZEA-induced liver injury is still not fully understood. Therefore, this study aimed to explore whether ZEA can trigger ferroptosis in the liver and cause liver injury. This study was conducted by establishing in vivo and in vitro ZEA exposure models. The results showed that ZEA exposure led to typical liver injury indicators. ZEA inhibited the Nrf2/keap1 antioxidant signaling pathway, aggravated the oxidative stress response, and inhibited the body's antioxidant function. Additionally, it was found that ZEA can aggravate lipid peroxidation by blocking the system Xc-/GSH/GPX4 axis, upregulating the protein expression of ACSL4, and affecting the import, storage, and export of iron ions, thereby inducing iron ion metabolism disorders. A combination of multiple factors induces ferroptosis in mouse liver and AML12 cells. Pretreatment with deferoxamine, an inhibitor of ferroptosis, can alleviate ferroptosis damage induced by ZEA, indicating the crucial role of ferroptosis in cell damage caused by ZEA. This study deeply explores the hepatic ferroptosis pathway induced by ZEA, provides a new theoretical basis for ZEA-induced hepatotoxicity, and offers new insights for exploring potential treatment strategies.

An impedimetric determination of zearalenone on MIP-modified carboceramic electrode

Zearalenone (ZEN) is a mycotoxin that poses significant risks to human and animal health due to its mutagenic, immunosuppressive, and carcinogenic properties. This study presents a novel analytical method for detecting ZEN using electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) combined with a molecularly imprinted polymer (MIP). ZEN, used as the template molecule, was incorporated into polypyrrole on screen-printed electrodes (SPE), and a ZEN-sensitive MIP sensor was created through template removal. The modified sensor surfaces were characterized by EIS and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). An impedimetric MIP sensor for ZEN was developed, offering a detection range from 1 pM to 500 pM. The method's limit of detection (LOD) was established at 1 pM (0.3 pg/mL) with a signal-to-noise ratio of 3 (S/N = 3). The method demonstrated high precision and accuracy, with a maximum relative standard deviation (RSD) of less than 4.4% at a 95% confidence level, and relative error (RE) values ranging from -0.8% to -2.7%. The selectivity of the developed MIP sensor was evaluated using ochratoxin A, ochratoxin B, and aflatoxin B1, with no significant interference observed. ZEN recovery from spiked samples was between 95% and 105%, indicating that the method was successfully applied to grain samples, including corn, rice, and wheat.

Development of a high-throughput UHPLC-MS/MS method for the analysis of Fusarium and Alternaria toxins in cereals and cereal-based food

A QuEChERS (quick, easy, cheap, effective, rugged, and safe)-based multi-mycotoxin method was developed, analyzing 24 (17 free and 7 modified) Alternaria and Fusarium toxins in cereals via ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS). A modified QuEChERS approach was optimized for sample preparation. Quantification was conducted using a combination of stable isotope dilution analysis (SIDA) for nine toxins and matrix-matched calibration for ten toxins. Quantification via a structurally similar internal standard was conducted for four analytes. Alternariol-9-sulfate (AOH-9-S) was measured qualitatively. Limits of detection (LODs) were between 0.004 µg/kg for enniatin A1 (ENN A1) and 3.16 µg/kg for nivalenol (NIV), while the limits of quantification were between 0.013 and 11.8 µg/kg, respectively. The method was successfully applied to analyze 136 cereals and cereal-based foods, including 28 cereal-based infant food products. The analyzed samples were frequently contaminated with Alternaria toxins, proving their ubiquitous occurrence. Interestingly, in many of those samples, some modified Alternaria toxins occurred, mainly alternariol-3-sulfate (AOH-3-S) and alternariol monomethyl ether-3-sulfate (AME-3-S), thus highlighting the importance of including modified mycotoxins in the routine analysis as they may significantly add to the total exposure of their parent toxins. Over 95% of the analyzed samples were contaminated with at least one toxin. Despite the general contamination, no maximum or indicative levels were exceeded.

Effect of zearalenone in sugar beet products on zootechnical and reproductive performance and lesions of sows and piglets

Following the use of sugar beet pulp that was retrospectively found to be predominantly contaminated with zearalenone (ZEN) in diets of reproducing sows largely exceeding the EU-guidance value for critical ZEN concentration of 0.25 mg/kg, farmers did not report any changes in the reproductive performance of sows. Thus, the aim of the study was to verify this guidance value in a dose-response setup by using sugar beet pulp as a ZEN source hitherto not considered a risky feedstuff additionally characterized by comparatively low levels of deoxynivalenol. A total of 90 sows was equally allocated to one of the three feed groups during experimental lactation 1 and up to 40 days after insemination: CON with a minimal ZEN concentration, ZEN1 with a target concentration of 250 µg ZEN/kg feed, and ZEN2 with a target concentration of 500 µg ZEN/kg feed. Thereafter, all sows received the same feed without ZEN for the rest of gestation, and the following lactation for testing of putative carry-over effects resulting from previous ZEN exposure. Exposure of sows to ZEN with blood serum as an indicator was linearly related to dietary ZEN concentrations. Reproductive and zootechnical performances of sows were only affected by ZEN exposure at weaning weight. Clinical-chemical parameters indicated no clear effect of ZEN exposure. An influence of ZEN on the occurrence of tail and ear injuries (not necrosis) in piglets and lesions on the mammary complexes in sows is possible. The influence of a ZEN concentration above the EU guidance value on the study farm can therefore not be neglected.

Mycotoxins in plant-based beverages: An updated occurrence

Plant-based diets are founded on consuming of foods of plant origin, aiming to replace or restrict the consumption of foods of animal origin. These diets have become popular in recent years, gaining new adherents daily. However, consumption of plant-based foods, like plant-based beverages, is a route of exposure to contaminants, such as mycotoxins. Mycotoxins are known for their toxic potential, causing damage to human health. Therefore, this study aimed to present a review providing new data to the population on exposure to mycotoxins by consumption of plant-based beverages. Based on the data collected, the occurrence of 21 mycotoxins was reported in plant-based beverages from different food matrices. Concerning probable daily intake, the highest values refer to deoxynivalenol, tentoxin, and fumonisin B1. In terms of exposure to mycotoxins, plant-based beverages can be present greater exposure to consumers than milk. Despite this, plant-based beverages alone do not pose a risk to consumer health.

Bacillus velezensis CL197: a zearalenone detoxifying strain isolated from wheat with potential to be used in animal production

Zearalenone (ZEA) is a mycotoxin produced by Fusarium species, and cause contamination of food and feed, with impacts in animal production and in food production chain. Effective detoxifying methods, such as biodegradation, are therefore required. This study aimed to isolate microorganisms and screen ZEA detoxifying strains. As a result, 197 microorganisms were isolated, and six were initially selected after colorimetric screening. ZEA (1 µg/mL) was added to culture media, and after 24 h, all six microorganisms were able to degrade ZEA, without the formation of α-ZOL. One isolate eliminated ~ 99% of ZEA and was identified as Bacillus velezensis CL197. ZEA metabolites produced by the bacteria were evaluated, and no metabolites with greater or similar toxicity than ZEA were detected. This strain was applied to swine in vitro digestion, and up to 64% of ZEA was degraded. B. velezensis CL197 significantly degraded ZEA, demonstrating potential to be used as a detoxifying agent in the food production chain as a biocontrol agent.

Estrogenic, androgenic, and genotoxic activities of zearalenone and deoxynivalenol in in vitro bioassays including exogenous metabolic activation

Zearalenone (ZEN) and deoxynivalenol (DON) and their derivatives are well-known mycotoxins, which can occur not only in crops but also in water bodies, including drinking water sources. In vitro bioassays can be used to detect biological effects of hazardous compounds in water. To this, when studying biological effects and toxicity in vitro, metabolism is important to consider. In this study, ZEN, α-zearalenol (α-ZEL), DON, 3-acetyl DON, and 15-acetyl DON were evaluated in vitro for hormone receptor-mediated effects (estrogen receptor [ER] and androgen receptor [AR]) and genotoxicity (micronucleus assay) in the presence of an exogenous metabolic activation system (MAS). The ER bioassay proved to be a highly sensitive method to detect low concentrations of the ZEN compounds (EC10 values of 31.4 pM for ZEN, 3.59 pM for α-ZEL) in aqueous solutions. In the presence of the MAS, reduced estrogenic effects were observed for both ZEN compounds (EC10 values of 6.47 × 103 pM for ZEN, 1.55 × 102 pM for α-ZEL). Of the DON compounds, only 3-acetyl DON was estrogenic (EC10 of 0.31 µM), and the effect was removed in the presence of the MAS. Anti-androgenic effects of the ZEN compounds and androgenic effects of the DON compounds were detected in the micromolar range. No induction of genotoxicity was detected for ZEN or DON in the presence of the MAS. Our study highlighted that inclusion of exogenous MAS is a useful tool to detect biological effects of metabolites in in vitro bioassays.

Determination of 10 mycotoxins in wine, baijiu, and huangjiu of the Chinese market by liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry and exposure estimation

In this study, liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) was employed to analyze the prevalence of 10 mycotoxins in 140 samples from the Chinese market, aiming to assess the exposure of Chinese individuals to these mycotoxins through the consumption of wine, baijiu, and huangjiu. Mycotoxins were detected in 98% of the samples, with fumonisins (FBs), deoxynivalenol (DON), and zearalenone (ZEN) exhibiting positive rates exceeding 50%. Regarding the exposure of the Chinese population to mycotoxins resulting from alcoholic beverage consumption, fruit wine intake made a relatively significant contribution to aflatoxin exposure, while baijiu showed a relatively significant contribution to ZEN exposure (1.84%). The analysis of the correlation between grape variety, wine region, and mycotoxin content demonstrated that FBs, ZEN, and DON were significantly influenced by grape variety and wine region. This research holds great significance in protecting human life and health, as well as in the production of safer alcoholic beverages.

Impact of Mycotoxin Metabolites Deepoxy-Deoxynivalenol and Beta-Zearalenol on Bovine Preimplantation Embryo Development in the Presence of Acetonitrile

The quality of animal feed is increasingly affected by weather conditions, high humidity, and damage to grains, which have led to various mycotoxin-producing moulds. The aim of this study was to determine the effects of the combination of deepoxy-deoxynivalenol and beta-zearalenol on the development of preimplantation bovine embryos, the extent to which the presence of both mycotoxin metabolites affects the development of in vitro cultured bovine embryos, or whether the effect of both toxins enhances embryotoxicity. Ovaries were transported from the abattoir to the laboratory and, after maturation and fertilisation, zygotes were placed in an embryo culture medium (IVC) with different mycotoxin metabolite concentrations diluted in acetonitrile. It was found that the blastocyst rate of cleaved embryos was affected by 1 μL acetonitrile in 400 μL medium (0.25%) compared to the group without acetonitrile. For this reason, it was decided to use acetonitrile as a control group, and the desired mycotoxin metabolite concentrations were diluted in the lowest possible amount of acetonitrile (0.5 μL) that could be accurately added to the study groups. There was no statistical difference when the higher mycotoxin metabolite concentrations were added.

A new physical and biological strategy to reduce the content of zearalenone in infected wheat kernels: the effect of cold needle perforation, microorganisms, and purified enzyme

With the aim of reintroducing wheat grains naturally contaminated with mycotoxins into the food value chain, a decontamination strategy was developed in this study. For this purpose, in a first step, the whole wheat kernels were pre-treated using cold needle perforation. The pore size was evaluated by scanning electron microscopy and the accessibility of enzymes and microorganisms determined using fluorescent markers in the size range of enzymes (5 nm) and microorganisms (10 μm), and fluorescent microscopy. The perforated wheat grains, as well as non-perforated grains as controls, were then incubated with selected microorganisms (Bacillus megaterium Myk145 and B. licheniformis MA572) or with the enzyme ZHD518. The two bacilli strains were not able to significantly reduce the amount of zearalenone (ZEA), neither in the perforated nor in the non-perforated wheat kernels in comparison with the controls. In contrast, the enzyme ZHD518 significantly reduced the initial concentration of ZEA in the perforated and non-perforated wheat kernels in comparison with controls. Moreover, in vitro incubation of ZHD518 with ZEA showed the presence of two non-estrogenic degradation products of ZEA: hydrolysed zearalenone (HZEA) and decarboxylated hydrolysed ZEA (DHZEA). In addition, the physical pre-treatment led to a reduction in detectable mycotoxin contents in a subset of samples. Overall, this study emphasizes the promising potential of combining physical pre-treatment approaches with biological decontamination solutions in order to address the associated problem of mycotoxin contamination and food waste reduction.

Monitoring Mycotoxin Exposure in Food-Producing Animals (Cattle, Pig, Poultry, and Sheep)

Food-producing animals are exposed to mycotoxins through ingestion, inhalation, or dermal contact with contaminated materials. This exposure can lead to serious consequences for animal health, affects the cost and quality of livestock production, and can even impact human health through foods of animal origin. Therefore, controlling mycotoxin exposure in animals is of utmost importance. A systematic literature search was conducted in this study to retrieve the results of monitoring exposure to mycotoxins in food-producing animals over the last five years (2019-2023), considering both external exposure (analysis of feed) and internal exposure (analysis of biomarkers in biological matrices). The most commonly used analytical technique for both approaches is LC-MS/MS due to its capability for multidetection. Several mycotoxins, especially those that are regulated (ochratoxin A, zearalenone, deoxynivalenol, aflatoxins, fumonisins, T-2, and HT-2), along with some emerging mycotoxins (sterigmatocystin, nivalenol, beauvericin, enniantins among others), were studied in 13,818 feed samples worldwide and were typically detected at low levels, although they occasionally exceeded regulatory levels. The occurrence of multiple exposure is widespread. Regarding animal biomonitoring, the primary objective of the studies retrieved was to study mycotoxin metabolism after toxin administration. Some compounds have been suggested as biomarkers of exposure in the plasma, urine, and feces of animal species such as pigs and poultry. However, further research is required, including many other mycotoxins and animal species, such as cattle and sheep.

Development and validation of a liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry method for the determination of 10 mycotoxins in beer of the Chinese market and exposure estimate

Mycotoxins are important risk factors in beer. In this study, a liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) method was developed to determine 10 mycotoxins in beer within 6 min. The method is fast, efficient, and has a simple and quick sample preparation. Validation was conducted based on the performance standards specified in Commission Decision 657/2002/EC, and the results demonstrated excellent linearity (R2 > 0.99), repeatability (RSD < 5 %), quantification limits (0.005-20.246 µg/L), and recovery rates (77 %-118 %). The prevalence of the 10 mycotoxins in 96 beers purchased from the Chinese market was analyzed, and the exposure of the Chinese population to mycotoxins through beer consumption was assessed. Deoxynivalenol (DON) was detected in 93.75 % of the beers, and the incidence of fumonisins (FBs) and zearalenone (ZEN) exceeded 50 %. Beer intake contributed significantly to the exposure of aflatoxins (AFs) and DON, especially in males. Correlation analysis between mycotoxin content in beer, raw materials, and the brewing process revealed that the brewing process significantly affected the content of DON (P < 0.001), while auxiliary materials also had a significant impact on the content of FBs and DON (P < 0.001). This study holds great significance in producing higher quality and safer beer.

Simultaneous determination of 17 regulated and non-regulated Fusarium mycotoxins co-occurring in foodstuffs by UPLC-MS/MS with solid-phase extraction

Fusarium species produce numerous mycotoxins known to co-occur in food. While some of these mycotoxins (e.g., deoxynivalenol, fumonisins) are regulated in several countries, others are non-regulated (e.g., nivalenol, beauvericin). In this study, UPLC-MS/MS with solid-phase extraction cleanup was used to determine 17 Fusarium mycotoxins (FTs) simultaneously. The method showed excellent performance in terms of linearity (R2 > 0.99), LOD (<1.2 μg/kg), LOQ (<3.6 μg/kg), accuracy (70.0-116.3 %), repeatability (<15.7 %), reproducibility (<25.3 %), and expanded uncertainty (<41.7 %). The validated method was successfully applied to 198 marketed food samples collected in South Korea. Of the tested samples, 79 % were contaminated with at least one FT. Job's tears showed the highest prevalence of 14 FTs, and sorghum had the highest total FTs level (3.03 mg/kg). The results suggest that this method can be used for the simultaneous analysis of 17 FTs in food samples, which would serve as crucial information for risk management.

A novel sandwich-type electrochemical immunosensor for sensitive detection of zearalenone using NG/PDDA/HNTs and Ti-MOF-KB composites for signal amplification

In this work, a novel sandwich-type electrochemical immunosensor based on signal amplification was developed for the ultrasensitive detection of zearalenone (ZEA). The composite consisting of poly(diallyldimethylammonium chloride) functionalized nitrogen doped graphene, halloysite nanotubes and toluidine blue (Tb/NG/PDDA/HNTs), was synthesized for the first time. Then it was modified with gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) to bind the secondary antibody (Ab2, 10 μg mL-1) and form the tracer label. In addition, ketjen black (KB) was doped into titanium-based metal-organic framework (Ti-MOF), which provided large specific surface area and employed as the sensing platform to increase the immobilization of the primary antibody (Ab1, 10 μg mL-1). This immunosensor showed a wide linear range for ZEA from 10 fg mL-1 to 100 ng mL-1 with a limit of detection (LOD) as low as 0.57 fg mL-1, which was below the maximum tolerable levels (50∼100 µg kg-1) set by the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO).

Enzymatic characterization and application of soybean hull peroxidase as an efficient and renewable biocatalyst for degradation of zearalenone

Zearalenone (ZEN) is a notorious mycotoxin commonly found in Fusarium-contaminated crops, which causes great loss in livestock farming and serious health problems to humans. In the present work, we found that crude peroxidase extraction from soybean hulls could use H2O2 as a co-substate to oxidize ZEN. Molecular docking and dynamic simulation also supported that ZEN could bind to the active site of soybean hull peroxidase (SHP). Subsequently, SHP extracted from soybean hulls was purified using a combined purification protocol involving ammonium sulfate precipitation, ion exchange chromatography and size exclusion chromatography. The purified SHP showed wide pH resistance and high thermal stability. This peroxidase could degrade 95 % of ZEN in buffer with stepwise addition of 100 μM H2O2 in 1 h. The two main ZEN degradation products were identified as 13-OH-ZEN and 13-OH-ZEN-quinone. Moreover, SHP-catalyzed ZEN degradation products displayed much less cytotoxicity to human liver cells than ZEN. The application of SHP in various food matrices obtained 54 % to 85 % ZEN degradation. The findings in this study will promote the utilization of SHP as a cheap and renewable biocatalyst for degrading ZEN in food.

Relevant mycotoxins in oil crops, vegetable oils, de-oiled cake and meals: Occurrence, control, and recent advances in elimination

Mycotoxins in agricultural commodities have always been a concern due to their negative impacts on human and livestock health. Issues associated with quality control, hot and humid climate, improper storage, and inappropriate production can support the development of fungus, causing oil crops to suffer from mycotoxin contamination, which in turn migrates to the resulting oil, de-oiled cake and meals during the oil processing. Related research which supports the development of multi-mycotoxin prevention programs has resulted in satisfactory mitigation effects, mainly in the pre-harvest stage. Nevertheless, preventive actions are unlikely to avoid the occurrence of mycotoxins completely, so removal strategies may still be necessary to protect consumers. Elimination of mycotoxin has been achieved broadly through the physical, biological, or chemical course. In view of the steadily increasing volume of scientific literature regarding mycotoxins, there is a need for ongoing integrated knowledge systems. This work revisited the knowledge of mycotoxins affecting oilseeds, food oils, cake, and meals, focusing more on their varieties, toxicity, and preventive strategies, including the methods adopted in the decontamination, which supplement the available information.

Protective effects of melanoidins from black garlic on zearalenone-induced toxicity in zebrafish embryonic developmental model

Zearalenone (ZEN), a ubiquitous mycotoxin that widely occurs in grain and foodstuff may induce serious toxic effects after accumulation in vivo. Melanoidins (MLDs) have shown multiple bio-functional properties such as antioxidant, anti-bacterial and prebiotic activities. Black garlic exhibits several advantages over fresh garlic related to health improvement. In this study, the alleviative effects of black garlic MLDs on ZEN-induced toxicity and the potential mechanisms were studied using zebrafish embryonic developmental model. The results showed that MLDs restored the ZEN-induced adverse influences on zebrafish embryonic development, including delay in hatching time, morphological abnormality and the impairment of nervous development. Further studies showed that MLDs significantly inhibited the ZEN-induced production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and enhanced the intrinsic antioxidant ability by increasing the activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) and catalase (CAT) and the content of glutathione (GSH). In addition, co-exposure of MLDs significantly inhibited the ZEN-stimulated cellular apoptosis in zebrafish larvae through down-regulation of pro-apoptotic genes of bax, caspase-3 and caspase-9 and up-regulation of anti-apoptotic gene bcl-2. Moreover, MLDs inhibited the in vivo accumulation of ZEN in zebrafish larvae. To sum up, MLDs attenuated the ZEN-induced zebrafish embryonic developmental toxicity through suppression of the oxidative stress and intervention on mitochondria apoptosis pathway as well as inhibiting the absorption of ZEN in zebrafish embryos/larvae. The results suggest that black garlic MLDs have potential to be used as a functional ingredient against the adverse effects of exogenous toxins.

Zearalenone exposure differentially affects the ovarian proteome in pre-pubertal gilts during thermal neutral and heat stress conditions

Zearalenone (ZEN), a nonsteroidal estrogenic mycotoxin, causes endocrine disruption and porcine reproductive dysfunction. Heat stress (HS) occurs when exogenous and metabolic heat accumulation exceeds heat dissipation. Independently, HS and ZEN both compromise swine reproduction; thus, the hypothesis investigated was two-pronged: that ZEN exposure would alter the ovarian proteome and that these effects would differ in thermal neutral (TN) and HS pigs. Pre-pubertal gilts (n = 38) were fed ad libitum and assigned to either (TN: 21.0 ± 0.1 °C) or HS (12 h cyclic temperatures of 35.0 ± 0.2 °C and 32.2 ± 0.1 °C). Within the TN group, a subset of pigs were pair-fed (PF) to the amount of feed that the HS gilts consumed to eliminate the confounding effects of dissimilar nutrient intake. All gilts orally received a vehicle control (CT) or ZEN (40 μg/kg/BW) resulting in six treatment groups: thermoneutral (TN) vehicle control (TC; n = 6); TN ZEN (TZ; n = 6); PF vehicle control (PC; n = 6); PF ZEN (PZ; n = 6); HS vehicle control (HC; n = 7); or HS ZEN (HZ; n = 7) for 7 d. When compared to the TC pigs, TZ pigs had 45 increased and 39 decreased proteins (P ≤ 0.05). In the HZ pigs, 47 proteins were increased and 61 were decreased (P ≤ 0.05). Exposure to ZEN during TN conditions altered sec61 translocon complex (40%), rough endoplasmic reticulum membrane (8.2%), and proteasome complex (5.4%), asparagine metabolic process (0.60%), aspartate family amino acid metabolic process (0.14%), and cellular amide metabolic process (0.02%) pathways. During HS, ZEN affected cellular pathways associated with proteasome core complex alpha subunit complex (0.23%), fibrillar collagen trimer (0.14%), proteasome complex (0.05%), and spliceosomal complex (0.03%). Thus, these data identify ovarian pathways altered by ZEN exposure and suggest that the molecular targets of ZEN differ in TN and HS pigs.

A mechanistic toxicology study to grasp the mechanics of zearalenone estrogenicity: Spotlighting aromatase and the effects of its genetic variability

Zearalenone (ZEN) is a mycoestrogen produced by Fusarium fungi contaminating cereals and in grain-based products threatening human and animal health due to its endocrine disrupting effects. Germane to the mechanisms of action, ZEN may activate the estrogen receptors and inhibit the estrogens-producing enzyme aromatase (CYP19A1). Both show single nucleotide variants (SNVs) among humans associated with a diverse susceptibility of being activated or inhibited. These variations might modify the endocrine disrupting action of ZEN, requiring dedicated studies to improve its toxicological understanding. This work focused on human aromatase investigating via 3D molecular modelling whether some of the SNVs reported so far (n = 434) may affect the inhibitory potential of ZEN. It has been also calculated the inhibition capability of α-zearalenol, the most prominent and estrogenically potent phase I metabolite of ZEN, toward those aromatase variants with an expected diverse sensitivity of being inhibited by ZEN. The study: i) described SNVs likely associated with a different susceptibility to ZEN and α-zearalenol inhibition - like T310S that is likely more susceptible to inhibition, or D309G and S478F that are possibly inactive variants; ii) proofed the possible existence of inter-individual susceptibility to ZEN; iii) prioritized aromatase variants for future investigations toward a better comprehension of ZEN xenoestrogenicity at an individual level.

The intestinal microbiota as mediators between dietary contaminants and host health

The gut microbiota sit at an important interface between the host and the environment, and are exposed to a multitude of nutritive and non-nutritive substances. These microbiota are critical to maintaining host health, but their supportive roles may be compromised in response to endogenous compounds. Numerous non-nutritive substances are introduced through contaminated foods, with three common groups of contaminants being bisphenols, phthalates, and mycotoxins. The former contaminants are commonly introduced through food and/or beverages packaged in plastic, while mycotoxins contaminate various crops used to feed livestock and humans alike. Each group of contaminants have been shown to shift microbial communities following exposure; however, specific patterns in microbial responses have yet to be identified, and little is known about the capacity of the microbiota to metabolize these contaminants. This review characterizes the state of existing research related to gut microbial responses to and biotransformation of bisphenols, phthalates, and mycotoxins. Collectively, we highlight the need to identify consistent, contaminant-specific responses in microbial shifts, whether these community alterations are a result of contaminant effects on the host or microbiota directly, and to identify the extent of contaminant biotransformation by microbiota, including if these transformations occur in physiologically relevant contexts.

Zearalenone-14-glucoside specifically promotes dysplasia of Gut-Associated Lymphoid Tissue: A natural product for constructing intestinal nodular lymphatic hyperplasia model

INTRODUCTION

Zearalenone-14-glucoside (Z14G) is a modified mycotoxin that widely contaminates food across the world. Our preliminary experiment showed that Z14G degrades to zearalenone (ZEN) in the intestine exerting toxicity. Notably, oral administration of Z14G in rats induces intestinal nodular lymphatic hyperplasia.

OBJECTIVES

To investigate the mechanism of Z14G intestinal toxicity and how it differs from ZEN toxicity. We conducted a precise toxicology study on the intestine of rats exposed to Z14G and ZEN using multi-omics technology.

METHODS

Rats were exposed to ZEN (5 mg/kg), Z14G-L (5 mg/kg), Z14G-H (10 mg/kg), and pseudo germ free (PGF)-Z14G-H (10 mg/kg) for 14 days. Histopathological studies were performed on intestines from each group and compared. Metagenomic, metabolomic, and proteomic analyses were performed on rat feces, serum, and intestines, respectively.

RESULTS

Histopathological studies showed that Z14G exposure resulted in dysplasia of gut-associated lymphoid tissue (GALT) compared to ZEN exposure. The elimination of gut microbes in the PGF-Z14G-H group alleviated or eliminated Z14G-induced intestinal toxicity and GALT dysplasia. Metagenomic analysis revealed that Z14G exposure significantly promoted the proliferation of Bifidobacterium and Bacteroides compared to ZEN. Metabolomic analysis showed that Z14G exposure significantly reduced bile acid, while proteomic analysis found that Z14G exposure significantly reduced the expression of C-type lectins compared to ZEN.

CONCLUSIONS

Our experimental results and previous research suggest that Z14G is hydrolyzed to ZEN by Bifidobacterium and Bacteroides promoting their co-trophic proliferation. This leads to inactivation of lectins by hyperproliferative Bacteroides when ZEN caused intestinal involvement, resulting in abnormal lymphocyte homing and ultimately GALT dysplasia. It is noteworthy that Z14G is a promising model drug to establish rat models of intestinal nodular lymphatic hyperplasia (INLH), which is of great significance for studying the pathogenesis, drug screening and clinical application of INLH.

Oxidative Status and Histological Evaluation of Wild Boars' Tissues Positive for Zearalenone Contamination in the Campania Region, Southern Italy

Zearalenone (ZEN) is a mycotoxin produced by fungi belonging to the genera Fusarium spp. and commonly found in feed and food. It is frequently related to reproductive disorders in farm animals and, occasionally, to hyperestrogenic syndromes in humans. Nowadays, knowledge about ZEN effects on wild boars (Sus scrofa) is extremely scarce, despite the fact that they represent one of the most hunted game species in Italy. The aim of this study was to investigate how ZEN affects the liver, kidney, and muscle oxidative status and morphology of wild boars hunted in various locations throughout the province of Avellino, Campania Region, Southern Italy, during the 2021-2022 hunting season. Superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), and glutathione peroxidase (GPx) activities, as well as the malondialdehyde (MDA) levels, were assessed by colorimetric assays; tissue morphology was evaluated by hematoxylin-eosin and Masson's stains. Our data showed that ZEN contamination might result in oxidative stress (OS) and some histopathological alterations in wild boars' livers and kidneys rather than in muscles, emphasizing the importance of developing a wildlife monitoring and management strategy for dealing not only with the problem of ZEN but the surveillance of mycotoxins in general.

Dietary exposure to zearalenone in maize and millet grains and their porridges marketed in Abidjan (Côte d'Ivoire)

Maize and millet are among the staple foods of sub-Saharan populations. In Côte d'Ivoire, maize and millet are, respectively, second and third most consumed cereals. In this work, we evaluate the health risk related to the presence of zearalenone in maize and millet and their porridges. The zearalenone contents of the foodstuffs were determined using HPLC-UV. The health risk was characterised by the ratio (R) of probable daily intake (PDI) to acceptable daily intake (ADI). The consumption of maize generates a significant health risk in infants (R = 163.4%). Likewise, millet contains excess zearalenone for infants and children with R = 2934.0% and 118.0%, respectively. The combination of maize and millet increases the risk for infants (R = 457.4%), children (R = 183.0%) and adolescents (R = 101.6%). Millet porridge caused a significant health risk in infants (R = 120%). Consumption of the two types of porridge significantly increases the health risk. Thus, the R ratio varies between 48% and 444% in the case of ingestion of both types of porridge, against 12-56% for maize porridge, and 24-120% for millet porridge. Children and infants were most exposed with respective R of 120% and 444%. These results suggest a need for vigilance to minimise exposure to zearalenone.

Occurrence and Exposure Assessment of Major Mycotoxins in Foodstuffs from Algeria

Cereal-based products, nuts and dried fruits are staple foods for the Algerian population. However, these foodstuffs may be sources of harmful mycotoxins, with negative impacts on human health. The purpose of this study was to investigate the occurrences and levels of aflatoxins (B1, B2, G1 and G2), ochratoxin A (OTA), deoxynivalenol (DON) and zearalenone (ZEA) in 198 samples of nuts, dried fruits and cereal products commercialized in Algeria, as well as to calculate the estimated daily intakes (EDIs). Aflatoxins were found in 26.2% of the nut samples (in peanuts and almonds, but not in walnuts), 38.7% of the dried fruit samples (in dried figs, dates and bradj pastries) and 47.9% of the cereal-based products (in rechta noodles and metlou bread, but not in couscous), with mean concentrations ranging from 0.03 to 0.49 μg/kg. OTA occurred in 16.9% of the cereal-based samples, averaging 0.15 μg/kg, but it was not detected in nuts or dried fruits. The incidence of DON in the cereal-based products was 85.9% on average, with a mean concentration from 90 to 123 μg/kg. ZEA mycotoxin was not detected in any samples. Four peanut samples exceeded the EU maximum level for aflatoxin B1 set at 2 μg/kg, while three of them surpassed the maximum level for the sum of aflatoxins (4 μg/kg). Traditional foods such as bradj, rechta and metlou were significant sources of aflatoxins, with MOE (margin of exposure) values ranging from 648 to 9333, indicating a potential risk for the Algerian population.

Scrambled eggs-Negative impacts of heat stress and chemical exposures on ovarian function in swine

Exposure to environmental toxicants and hyperthermia can hamper reproduction in female mammals including swine. Phenotypic manifestations include poor quality oocytes, endocrine disruption, infertility, lengthened time to conceive, pregnancy loss, and embryonic defects. The ovary has the capacity for toxicant biotransformation, regulated in part by the phosphatidylinositol-3 kinase signaling pathway. The impacts of exposure to mycotoxins and pesticides on swine reproduction and the potential for an emerging chemical class of concern, the per- and polyfluoroalkylated substances, to hamper porcine reproduction are reviewed. The negative impairments of heat stress (HS) on swine reproductive outcomes are also described and the cumulative effect of environmental exposures, such as HS, when present in conjunction with a toxicant is considered.

Simultaneous determination of zearalenone and alternariol mycotoxins in oil samples using mixed molecularly imprinted polymer beads

This work reports the optimization of a method using Molecularly Imprinted Polymers (MIPs) for the simultaneous determination of zearalenone and alternariol mycotoxins. The method was optimized using a chemometric approach where in the optimized conditions, the cartridges with a mixture (50:50, w/w) of both MIPs, were loaded with 30 mL of sample, washed with 2 mL of ACN/water (20/80, v/v) and eluted with 2.5 mL of trifluoroacetic acid/MeOH (3/97, v/v). The extracts were analyzed by HPLC coupled to a fluorescence detector (FLD). The optimized method has been applied and validated to the analysis of the mycotoxins in maize, sunflower and olive oils samples with a limit of detection of 5 and 2 µg kg^-1, respectively. Recoveries were in the range of 94 % to 108 % (RSD < 6 %) for zearalenone and 92 % to 113 % (RSD < 5 %) for alternariol. The results were confirmed by HPLC-MS/MS.

Determination of mycotoxins and their dietary exposure assessment in pale lager beers using immunoaffinity columns and UPLC-MS/MS

The use of contaminated raw materials can lead to the transfer of mycotoxins into the final product, including beer. This study describes the use of the commercially available immunoaffinity column 11⁺Myco MS-PREP^® and UPLC-MS/MS for the determination of mycotoxins in pale lager-type beers brewed in Czech Republic and other European countries. The additional aim of the work was to develop, optimize and validate this analytical method. Validation parameters such as linearity, limit of detection (LOD), limit of quantification (LOQ), precision and accuracy were tested. The calibration curves were linear with correlation coefficients (R² > 0.99) for all mycotoxins under investigation. The LOD ranged from 0.1 to 50 ng/L and LOQ from 0.4 to 167 ng/L. Recoveries of the selected analytes ranged from 72.2 to 101.1%, and the relative standard deviation under conditions repeatability (RSDr) did not exceed 16.3% for any mycotoxin. The validated procedure was successfully applied for the analysis of mycotoxins in a total of 89 beers from the retail network. The results were also processed using advanced chemometric techniques and compared with similar published studies. The toxicological impact was taken into account.

Metabolomics as an emerging approach for deciphering the biological impact and toxicity of food contaminants: the case of mycotoxins

Exposure to mycotoxins through the dietary route occurs on a daily basis while their deleterious effects are exhibited in the form of ailments, such as inflammation, cancer, and hormonal imbalance. The negative impact of mycotoxins can be attributed to their interaction with various biomolecules and their interference in metabolic pathways. The activity of biomolecules, such as enzymes/receptors, which engage the intricate mechanism of endogenous metabolism, is more susceptible to disruption by metabolites of high toxicity, which gives rise to adverse health effects. Metabolomics is a useful analytical approach that can assist in unraveling such information. It can simultaneously and comprehensively analyze a large number of endogenous and exogenous molecules present in biofluids and can, thus, reveal biologically relevant perturbations following mycotoxin exposure. Information provided by genome, transcriptome and proteome analyses, which have been utilized for the elucidation of biological mechanisms so far, are further complemented by the addition of metabolomics in the available bioanalytics toolbox. Metabolomics can offer insight into complex biological processes and their respective response to several (co-)exposures. This review focuses on the most extensively studied mycotoxins reported in literature and their respective impact on the metabolome upon exposure.

Next generation risk assessment of human exposure to estrogens using safe comparator compound values based on in vitro bioactivity assays

In next generation risk assessment (NGRA), the Dietary Comparator Ratio (DCR) can be used to assess the safety of chemical exposures to humans in a 3R compliant approach. The DCR compares the Exposure Activity Ratio (EAR) for exposure to a compound of interest (EARtest) to the EAR for an established safe exposure level to a comparator compound (EARcomparator), acting by the same mode of action. It can be concluded that the exposure to a test compound is safe at a corresponding DCR ≤ 1. In this study, genistein (GEN) was selected as a comparator compound by comparison of reported safe internal exposures to GEN to its BMCL05, as no effect level, the latter determined in the in vitro estrogenic MCF7/Bos proliferation, T47D ER-CALUX, and U2OS ERα-CALUX assay. The EARcomparator was defined using the BMCL05 and EC50 values from the 3 in vitro assays and subsequently used to calculate the DCRs for exposures to 14 test compounds, predicting the (absence of) estrogenicity. The predictions were evaluated by comparison to reported in vivo estrogenicity in humans for these exposures. The results obtained support in the DCR approach as an important animal-free new approach methodology (NAM) in NGRA and show how in vitro assays can be used to define DCR values.

Inactivation of zearalenone (ZEN) and deoxynivalenol (DON) in complete feed for weaned piglets: Efficacy of ZEN hydrolase ZenA and of sodium metabisulfite (SBS) as feed additives

Female pigs respond sensitive both to DON and ZEN with anorexia and endocrine disruption, respectively, when critical diet concentrations are exceeded. Therefore, the frequent co-contamination of feed by DON and ZEN requires their parallel inactivation. The additive ZenA hydrolyzes ZEN while SBS inactivates DON through sulfonation. Both supplements were simultaneously added (+, 2.5 g SBS and 100 U ZenA/kg) to a control diet (CON-, 0.04 mg DON and < 0.004 mg ZEN/kg; CON+, 0.03 mg DON and < 0.004 mg ZEN/kg) and a Fusarium toxin contaminated diet (FUS-, 2.57 mg DON and 0.24 mg ZEN/kg; FUS+, 2.04 mg DON and 0.24 mg ZEN/kg). The 4 diets were fed to 20 female weaned piglets each (6 kg initial body weight) for 35 days; the piglets were sacrificed thereafter for collecting samples. Supplements improved performance and modified metabolism and hematology independent of dietary DON contamination. The mechanisms behind these changes could not be clarified and require further consideration. SBS reduced DON concentration in feed by approximately 20% and to the same extent in blood plasma and urine suggesting that no further DON sulfonate formation occurred in the digestive tract before absorbing DON in the upper digestive tract or that additionally formed DON sulfonates escaped absorption. DON sulfonates were detected in feces suggesting that unabsorbed DON sulfonates reached feces and/or that unabsorbed DON was sulfonated in the hindgut. The observed reduction rate of 20% was evaluated to be insufficient for feeding practice. Galenic form of SBS added to dry feed needs to be improved to support the DON sulfonation in the proximal digestive tract.ZenA was active in the digestive tract as demonstrated by the presence of its hydrolyzed none-estrogenic reaction products hydrolyzed ZEN (HZEN) and decarboxylated and hydrolyzed ZEN (DHZEN) both in feces, systemic circulation, and urine of group FUS+ compared to group FUS-. The presence of these hydrolysis products was paralleled by a significant decrease in high-estrogenic ZEN concentrations which, in turn, was related to a decrease in relative weights of uteri and ovaries when compared to group FUS-. Thus, ZenA was proven to be effective; both in terms of biomarkers and biological effects.

Longitudinal follow-up of zearalenone and deoxynivalenol mycotoxins in breast milk in the first five months of life

OBJECTIVES

There is a possibility for exposed lactating mammalians to transfer some contaminants to their milk. This study aimed to determine the levels and changes of Zearalenone (ZEN), Deoxynivalenol (DON) mycotoxins for the first five months in human milk.

METHODS

Voluntary lactating mothers having infants with gestational length ≥ 37 weeks were enrolled between August 2017 and June 2018 in Şanlıurfa. Mothers and infants with chronic health problems were not included in the study. Human milk samples were taken at three different times; on enrollment (Day 6-10, visit 1), between 4 and 6 weeks postpartum (visit 2), and between 14 and 19 weeks postpartum (visit 3). Mycotoxin levels in human milk were measured utilizing Helica brand commercial kit.

RESULTS

Nineteen voluntary mothers and their breastfed infants with three human milk samples completed the study. The mean ages of mothers and infant (± SD) were 27.4 (± 5.4) years and 7.6 (± 0.9) days on enrollment. Median levels of ZEN and DON in human milk samples were 0.39 and 16.7 ng/mL, respectively. None of the cases had a ZEN daily intake higher than 250 ng/kg bw per day. However, three fourth of the cases had DON intake higher than > 1000 ng/kg bw per day. When adjusted for infant weight for age and sex, both ZEN levels and daily intake were decreased progressively from visit 1 to visit 3 (p < 0.001). DON levels and daily intake at visit 2 were found to be significantly lower in samples of visit 3 than that taken in visit 2 (p = 0.004 and p < 0.001, respectively).

CONCLUSIONS

Breast milk monitoring study revealed that ZEN and DON mycotoxins were present in the mother-infant environment. Contamination levels changed during the lactation period.

Zearalenone Does Not Show Genotoxic Effects in the Drosophila melanogaster Wing Spot Test, but It Induces Oxidative Imbalance, Development, and Fecundity Alterations

Zearalenone (ZEN) is a non-steroidal mycoestrogen produced by the Fusarium genus. ZEN and its metabolites compete with 17-beta estradiol for cytosolic estrogen receptors, causing reproductive alterations in vertebrates. ZEN has also been associated with toxic and genotoxic effects, as well as an increased risk for endometrial adenocarcinomas or hyperplasia, breast cancer, and oxidative damage, although the underlying mechanisms remain unclear. Previous studies have monitored cellular processes through levels of transcripts associated with Phase I Xenobiotic Metabolism (Cyp6g1 and Cyp6a2), oxidative stress (hsp60 and hsp70), apoptosis (hid, grim, and reaper), and DNA damage genes (Dmp53). In this study, we evaluated the survival and genotoxicity of ZEN, as well as its effects on emergence rate and fecundity in Drosophila melanogaster. Additionally, we determined levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) using the D. melanogaster flare and Oregon R(R)-flare strains, which differ in levels of Cyp450 gene expression. Our results showed that ZEN toxicity did not increase mortality by more than 30%. We tested three ZEN concentrations (100, 200, and 400 μM) and found that none of the concentrations were genotoxic but were cytotoxic. Taking into account that it has previously been demonstrated that ZEN administration increased hsp60 expression levels and apoptosis gene transcripts in both strains, the data agree with an increase in ROS and development and fecundity alterations. Since Drosophila lacks homologous genes for mammalian estrogen receptors alpha and beta, the effects of this mycotoxin can be explained by a mechanism different from estrogenic activity.

Oestrogens and progesterone in human milk and their effects on infant health outcomes: A narrative review

Human milk (HM) is a complex biological system that contains a wide range of bioactive components including oestrogens and progesterone. Whilst maternal oestrogens and progesterone concentrations drop rapidly after birth, they remain detectable in HM across lactation. Phytoestrogens and mycoestrogens, which are produced by plants and fungi, are also present in HM and can interact with oestrogen receptors to interfere with normal hormone functions. Despite the potential impact of HM oestrogens and progesterone on the infant, limited research has addressed their impact on the growth and health of breastfed infants. Furthermore, it is important to comprehensively understand the factors that contribute to these hormone levels in HM, in order to establish effective intervention strategies. In this review, we have summarized the concentrations of naturally occurring oestrogens and progesterone in HM from both endogenous and exogenous sources and discussed both maternal factors impacting HM levels and relationships with infant growth.

Hazard characterisation for significant mycotoxins in food

This review updates the current status of activities related to hazard characterisation for mycotoxins, with special reference to regulatory work accomplished within the European Union. Because the relevant information on these topics is widely scattered in the scientific literature, this review intends to provide a condensed overview on the most pertinent aspects. Human health risk assessment is a procedure to estimate the nature and potential for harmful effects of mycotoxins on human health due to exposure to them via contaminated food. This assessment involves hazard identification, hazard characterisation, exposure assessment, and risk characterisation. Mycotoxins covered in this review are aflatoxins, ochratoxin A, cyclopiazonic acid, citrinin, trichothecenes (deoxynivalenol, nivalenol, T-2, and HT-2 toxins), fumonisins, zearalenone, patulin, and ergot alkaloids. For mycotoxins with clear genotoxic/carcinogenic properties, the focus is on the margin of exposure approach. One of its goals is to document predictive characterisation of the human hazard, based on studies in animals using conditions of low exposure. For the other, non-genotoxic toxins, individual 'no adverse effect levels' have been established, but structural analogues or modified forms may still complicate assessment. During the process of hazard characterisation, each identified effect is assessed for human relevance. The estimation of a 'safe dose' is the hazard characterisation endpoint. The final aim of all of these activities is to establish a system, which is able to minimise and control the risk for the consumer from mycotoxins in food. Ongoing research on mycotoxins constantly comes up with new findings, which may have to be implemented into this system.

The N-terminal hydrophobicity modulates a distal structural domain conformation of zearalenone lacton hydrolase and its application in protein engineering

Zearalenone (ZEN) is one of the most common mycotoxins in maize, wheat, barley, sorghum, rye and other grains. ZEN contamination in feed is an international health issue due to its estrogenicity by competitively binding to estrogen receptors. Enzymatic detoxification of ZEN is superior to physical and chemical methods in terms of safety, environmental impact and preserving nutritional value and palatability, but is hampered by both the currently limited repertoire of detoxifying enzymes and the lack of knowledge about their structure-function relationships. In this study, a ZEN lacton hydrolase candidate (ZHD11C) was identified from thermo-tolerant Fonsecaea multimorphosa CBS 102226, and characterized to be more thermostable than these reported homologues. An intriguing feature of ZHD11C is that the N-terminal hydrophobicity affects its thermal stability and causes conformational change of a domain far from the N-terminal. This finding was successfully applied to enhance the thermostability of the most active ZEN lacton hydrolase ZHD518 through rationally tailoring its N-terminal hydrophobicity. Our results not only provide more insights into the structure-function relationships of ZEN lacton hydrolases, but generate better candidate for bio-decontamination of zearalenone in feed industries.

Mycotoxins in Seafood: Occurrence, Recent Development of Analytical Techniques and Future Challenges

The co-occurrence of mycotoxigenic fungi and mycotoxins in aquatic food commodities has recently become a source of severe worldwide food insecurity since these toxicants may damage human health. The consumption of aquatic food itself represents a relatively novel and non-negligible source of mycotoxins. Mycotoxins in seafood lead to important human genotoxins, carcinogens, and immunosuppressors. Consequently, it is crucial to quantify and characterize these contaminants in aquatic food products subject to extensive consumption and develop new regulations. The present paper provides an overview of recent advancements in liquid chromatography and mass spectrometry and the coupling of these techniques for identifying and characterizing mycotoxins in various fresh, comestible, and treated marine products. The disposable data display that a multiplicity of fungal species and further mycotoxins have been detected in seafood, comprising aflatoxins, ochratoxins, fumonisins, deoxynivalenol, zearalenone, and trichothecenes. In addition, a wider and up-to-date overview of global occurrence surveys of mycotoxin occurrence in seafood in 2017–2022 is explored. In this regard, the predominant occurrence of enniatins has been documented in seafood products. Likewise, special attention has been given to current EU seafood legal and existing national regulations of mycotoxins in seafood. In this way, rigorous national and international guidelines are needed for palpable and effective measures in the future. Nevertheless, controlling mycotoxins in aquatic foods is an ambitious aim for scientists and industry stakeholders to ensure sustainable global food safety.

Mycosorb A+® como adsorbente de micotoxinas en la dieta sobre la salud y la producción en cuyes

Los alimentos destinados a los animales están contaminados por hongos filamentosos que producen micotoxinas. El estudio tuvo como objetivo evaluar el efecto de Mycosorb A+® como adsorbente de micotoxinas en la dieta sobre la salud, producción y beneficio económico de cuyes en crianza comercial. Se utilizaron 80 cuyes en crecimiento de la raza Perú, entre machos y hembras, con un peso de 435,5 ± 35,5 gramos (g), distribuidos al azar en dos grupos de alimentación: dieta con Mycosorb A+® (experimental) y dieta sin Mycosorb A+® (control), realizado en el distrito de Ilabaya-Tacna, Perú, a 1.425 metros de altitud, durante 57 días. La dieta se elaboró con heno molido de alfalfa, maíz amarillo, afrecho de trigo, torta de soya, harina integral de soya y fuentes de minerales y vitaminas, ofrecida para consumo ad libitum, más 12,5 g·día-1 de alfalfa fresca (H° 78 %) por cuy. Los resultados indican que todas las variables evaluadas, excepto el consumo de materia seca, fueron significativas (P<0,05): morbilidad 2,5 vs. 35,0 %; consumo de materia seca, 59,8 ± 2,1 vs. 58,0 ± 2,4 g·día-1; ganancia de peso vivo, 9,7 ± 1,4 vs. 7,8 ± 0,9 g·día-1; conversión alimenticia, 6,3 ± 0,9 vs. 7,5 ± 0,6; y relación beneficio-costo, 1,52 vs. 1,35, respectivamente. Se concluye que la inclusión de Mycosorb A+® como adsorbente de micotoxinas en la dieta tiene efecto positivo en la salud, producción y beneficio económico en la crianza comercial de cuyes.

Exploring the impact of lactic acid bacteria on the biocontrol of toxigenic Fusarium spp. and their main mycotoxins

The occurrence of fungi and mycotoxins in foods is a serious global problem. Most of the regulated mycotoxins in food are produced by Fusarium spp. This work aimed to assess the antifungal activity of selected lactic acid bacteria (LAB) strains against the main toxigenic Fusarium spp. isolated from cereals. Various machine learning (ML) algorithms such as neural networks (NN), random forest (RF), extreme gradient boosted trees (XGBoost), and multiple linear regression (MLR), were applied to develop models able to predict the percentage of fungal growth inhibition caused by the LAB strains tested. In addition, the ability of the assayed LAB strains to reduce/inhibit the production of the main mycotoxins associated with these fungi was studied by UPLC-MS/MS. All assays were performed at 20, 25, and 30 °C in dual culture (LAB plus fungus) on MRS agar-cereal-based media. All factors and their interactions very significantly influenced the percentage of growth inhibition compared to controls. The efficacy of LAB strains was higher at 20 °C followed by 30 °C and 25 °C. Overall, the order of susceptibility of the fungi to LAB was F. oxysporum > F. poae = F. culmorum ≥ F. sporotrichioides > F. langsethiae > F. graminearum > F. subglutinans > F. verticillioides. In general, the most effective LAB was Leuconostoc mesenteroides ssp. mesenteroides (T3Y6b), and the least effective were Latilactobacillus sakei ssp. carnosus (T3MM1 and T3Y2). XGBoost and RF were the algorithms that produced the most accurate predicting models of fungal growth inhibition. Mycotoxin levels were usually lower when fungal growth decreased. In the cultures of F. langsethiae treated with LAB, T-2 and HT-2 toxins were not detected except in the treatments with Pediococcus pentosaceus (M9MM5b, S11sMM1, and S1M4). These three strains of P. pentosaceus, L. mesenteroides ssp. mesenteroides (T3Y6b) and L. mesenteroides ssp. dextranicum (T2MM3) inhibited fumonisin production in cultures of F. proliferatum and F. verticillioides. In F. culmorum cultures, zearalenone production was inhibited by all LAB strains, except L. sakei ssp. carnosus (T3MM1) and Companilactobacillus farciminis (T3Y6c), whereas deoxynivalenol and 3-acetyldeoxynivalenol were only detected in cultures of L. sakei ssp. carnosus (T3MM1). The results show that an appropriate selection and use of LAB strains can be one of the most impacting tools in the control of toxigenic Fusarium spp. and their mycotoxins in food and therefore one of the most promising strategies in terms of efficiency, positive impact on the environment, food safety, food security, and international economy.

Comparative Analysis of Transcriptomic Changes including mRNA and microRNA Expression Induced by the Xenoestrogens Zearalenone and Bisphenol A in Human Ovarian Cells

Xenoestrogens are natural or synthetic compounds that mimic the effect of endogenous estrogens and might cause cancer. We aimed to compare the global transcriptomic response to zearalenone (ZEA; mycotoxin) and bisphenol A (BPA; plastic additive) with the effect of physiological estradiol (E2) in the PEO1 human ovarian cell line by mRNA and microRNA sequencing. Estrogen exposure induced remarkable transcriptomic changes: 308, 288 and 63 genes were upregulated (log₂FC > 1); 292, 260 and 45 genes were downregulated (log₂FC < -1) in response to E2 (10 nM), ZEA (10 nM) and BPA (100 nM), respectively. Furthermore, the expression of 13, 11 and 10 miRNAs changed significantly (log₂FC > 1, or log₂FC < -1) after exposure to E2, ZEA and BPA, respectively. Functional enrichment analysis of the significantly differentially expressed genes and miRNAs revealed several pathways related to the regulation of cell proliferation and migration. The effect of E2 and ZEA was highly comparable: 407 genes were coregulated by these molecules. We could identify 83 genes that were regulated by all three treatments that might have a significant role in the estrogen response of ovarian cells. Furthermore, the downregulation of several miRNAs (miR-501-5p, let-7a-2-3p, miR-26a-2-3p, miR-197-5p and miR-582-3p) was confirmed by qPCR, which might support the proliferative effect of estrogens in ovarian cells.

Zearalenone (ZEN) and Its Metabolite Levels in Tissues of Wild Boar (Sus scrofa) from Southern Italy: A Pilot Study

Zearalenone (ZEN) is a non-steroidal estrogenic mycotoxin produced by the fungi of the Fusarium genera, and is a contaminant of cereals and plant products. ZEN and its metabolites are considered endocrine disruptors, and could have various toxic effects on animals and humans. In recent years, there has been a significant demographic increase in wild boar (Sus scrofa) in many mountainous and hilly areas of Italy, including the Campania region, mainly due to global climate change. The wild boar can be defined as a generalist and omnivorous species capable of varying its diet; therefore, it can play a role as an environmental bioindicator towards contaminants such as mycotoxins. This study was conducted to evaluate, for the first time, the concentrations of ZEN and its metabolites in the liver, kidney, and muscle of 82 wild boars shot in their habitat by hunters with hunting permits in different localities of Avellino province (Campania region, Southern Italy) from 2021 to 2022. The samples were collected and analyzed with an SPE clean-up and high-pressure liquid chromatography method with fluorescence detection. The results indicated that ZEN and α-Zearalenol were present in most of the samples, suggesting that a plan to monitor these mycoestrogens is essential to achieve the goals of "One Health".

Fuzzy Model for the Automatic Recognition of Human Dendritic Cells

Background and objective: Nowadays, foodborne illness is considered one of the most outgrowing diseases in the world, and studies show that its rate increases sharply each year. Foodborne illness is considered a public health problem which is caused by numerous factors, such as food intoxications, allergies, intolerances, etc. Mycotoxin is one of the food contaminants which is caused by various species of molds (or fungi), which, in turn, causes intoxications that can be chronic or acute. Thus, even low concentrations of Mycotoxin have a severely harmful impact on human health. It is, therefore, necessary to develop an assessment tool for evaluating their impact on the immune response. Recently, researchers have approved a new method of investigation using human dendritic cells, yet the analysis of the geometric properties of these cells is still visual. Moreover, this type of analysis is subjective, time-consuming, and difficult to perform manually. In this paper, we address the automation of this evaluation using image-processing techniques. Methods: Automatic classification approaches of microscopic dendritic cell images are developed to provide a fast and objective evaluation. The first proposed classifier is based on support vector machines (SVM) and Fisher's linear discriminant analysis (FLD) method. The FLD-SVM classifier does not provide satisfactory results due to the significant confusion between the inhibited cells on one hand, and the other two cell types (mature and immature) on the other hand. Then, another strategy was suggested to enhance dendritic cell recognition results that are emitted from microscopic images. This strategy is mainly based on fuzzy logic which allows us to consider the uncertainties and inaccuracies of the given data. Results: These proposed methods are tested on a real dataset consisting of 421 images of microscopic dendritic cells, where the fuzzy classification scheme efficiently improved the classification results by successfully classifying 96.77% of the dendritic cells. Conclusions: The fuzzy classification-based tools provide cell maturity and inhibition rates which help biologists evaluate severe health impacts caused by food contaminants.

Exposure assessment of aflatoxins and zearalenone in edible vegetable oils in Shandong, China: health risks posed by mycotoxin immunotoxicity and reproductive toxicity in children

Human exposure to aflatoxins (AFs) and zearalenone (ZEA) has not been sufficiently investigated. Here, we analyzed the exposure level and health risks posed by AFs (B1, B2, G1, G2) and ZEA through cooking oil consumption in Shandong, China. The individual daily consumption of cooking oil was calculated through 2745 questionnaires during 2017-2019. The average contamination levels of mycotoxins were estimated by examining 60 cooking oil samples. For the peanut oil, AFs ranged from <0.2 to 274 μg/kg, with a positive rate of 66.6% (20/30). Average levels of 36.62 μg/kg AFB₁ and 44.43 μg/kg total AFs were found. Over-the-limit level (20 μg/kg) of AFB₁ was detected in 8/30 samples. Estimated daily intake (EDI) and margin of exposure (MOE) for age-stratified population groups showed that children are facing highest adverse health risk with AFB₁ (MOE 5.88-6.39). The liver cancer incidences attributable to AFB₁ exposure are non-negligible as 0.896, 0.825, and 0.767 cases per 100,000 for 6-14 age group, 15-17 age group, and adult labor-intensive workers. Over-the-limit level (60 μg/kg) ZEA contamination was detected in 25/30 corn oil samples with a 50th percentile value of 97.95 μg/kg. Our health risk assessment suggested significant health risks of enterohepatic (inflammation and cancer), reproductive, and endocrine systems posed by AFs and ZEA. However, the health risk of immunotoxicity is unclear because currently animal study data are not available for the immunotoxicity induced after long-term exposure. In general, the health risks posed by mycotoxins are non-negligible and long-term mycotoxin surveillance is necessary.

Composition-Based Risk Estimation of Mycotoxins in Dry Dog Foods

The risk of mycotoxins co-occurrence in extrusion-produced dry foods increases due to their composition based on various grains and vegetables. This study aimed to validate a risk estimation for the association between ingredients and the ELISA-detected levels of DON, FUM, ZEA, AFs, T2, and OTA in 34 dry dog food products. The main ingredients were corn, beet, and oil of different origins (of equal frequency, 79.41%), rice (67.6%), and wheat (50%). DON and FUM had the strongest positive correlation (0.635, p = 0.001). The presence of corn in the sample composition increased the median DON and ZEA levels, respectively, by 99.45 μg/kg and 65.64 μg/kg, p = 0.011. In addition to DON and ZEA levels, integral corn presence increased the FUM median levels by 886.61 μg/kg, p = 0.005. For corn gluten flour-containing samples, DON, FUM, and ZEA median differences still existed, and OTA levels also differed by 1.99 μg/kg, p < 0.001. Corn gluten flour presence was strongly associated with DON levels > 403.06 μg/kg (OR = 38.4, RR = 9.90, p = 0.002), FUM levels > 1097.56 μg/kg (OR = 5.56, RR = 1.45, p = 0.048), ZEA levels > 136.88 μg/kg (OR = 23.00, RR = 3.09, p = 0.002), and OTA levels > 3.93 μg/kg (OR = 24.00, RR = 3.09, p = 0.002). Our results suggest that some ingredients or combinations should be avoided due to their risk of increasing mycotoxin levels.

Magnetic Core-Shell Nanoparticles Using Molecularly Imprinted Polymers for Zearalenone Determination

This paper describes the synthesis of novel molecularly imprinted magnetic nano-beads for the selective extraction (MISPE) of zearalenone mycotoxin in river and tap waters and further analysis by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with fluorescence detection (FLD). A semi-covalent imprinting approach was achieved for the synthesis of the molecularly imprinted polymers (MIP). The nanoparticles were prepared by covering the starting Fe3O4 material with a first layer of tetraethyl orthosilicate (TEOS) and then with a second layer using cyclododecyl 2-hydroxy-4-(3-triethoxysilylpropylcarbamoyloxy) benzoate. The last was used with a dual role, template and functional monomer after the extraction of the template molecule. The material was characterized by transmission electron microscopy (TEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD) and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopies (FT-IR). The solid phase extraction was optimized in all the steps: loading, washing and elution. The optimal conditions allowed the determination of zearalenone in trace levels of 12.5, 25 and 50 µg L-1 without significant differences between the fortified and found level concentrations.

Isolation and Characterization of Lactobacillus paracasei 85 and Lactobacillus buchneri 93 to Absorb and Biotransform Zearalenone

As one of the most prevalent estrogenic mycotoxins in cereals and animal feed, zearalenone (ZEN) can cause serious reproductive disorders. ZEN control in food and feed commodities has been an imperative area of research. In this study, 87 lactic acid bacteria (LAB) were isolated from pickles and their ZEN (5 mg/L) removal abilities ranged from 0% to 68.4%. Then, five strains with potent ZEN removal ability (>50%) were identified: Lactobacillus plantarum 22, L. plantarum 37, L. plantarum 47, L. paracasei 85, and L. buchneri 93. Under optimization conditions (48 h, pH 4.0, 37 °C, and 5 mg/L), the highest ZEN removal abilities of L. paracasei 85 and L. buchneri 93 reached 77.7% and 72.8%, respectively. Moreover, the two lactic acid bacteria decreased the toxicity of ZEN, because the levels of β-zearalenol (β-ZOL) transformed from ZEN were more than two-fold higher than α-zearalenol (α-ZOL). Additionally, cell free supernatant and pellet biotransformation of ZEN to α-ZOL and β-ZOL in LAB were detected for the first time. Furthermore, chemical and enzymatical treatments combined with Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy analysis indicated that exopolysaccharides, proteins, and lipids on the cell wall could bond to ZEN through hydrophobic interactions. Scanning electron microscopy indicated that cell structure damage occurred during the ZEN clearance to L. buchneri 93, but it did not with L. paracasei 85. In addition, various organic acids, alcohols, and esters of the two LAB participated in ZEN removal. Hence, L. paracasei 85 and L. buchneri 93 can be considered as potential detoxification agents for ZEN removal for food and feedstuff.

Zearalenone Induces Apoptosis in Porcine Endometrial Stromal Cells through JNK Signaling Pathway Based on Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress

Zearalenone (ZEA) is an estrogen-like mycotoxin characterized mainly by reproductive toxicity, to which pigs are particularly sensitive. The aim of this study was to investigate the molecular mechanism of ZEA-induced apoptosis in porcine endometrial stromal cells (ESCs) by activating the JNK signaling pathway through endoplasmic reticulum stress (ERS). In this study, ESCs were exposed to ZEA, with the ERS inhibitor sodium 4-Phenylbutyrate (4-PBA) as a reference. The results showed that ZEA could damage cell structures, induce endoplasmic reticulum swelling and fragmentation, and decreased the ratio of live cells to dead cells significantly. In addition, ZEA could increase reactive oxygen species and Ca²⁺ levels; upregulate the expression of GRP78, CHOP, PERK, ASK1 and JNK; activate JNK phosphorylation and its high expression in the nucleus; upregulate the expression Caspase 3 and Caspase 9; and increase the Bax/Bcl-2 ratio, resulting in increased apoptosis. After 3 h of 4-PBA-pretreatment, ZEA was added for mixed culture, which showed that the inhibition of ERS could reduce the cytotoxicity of ZEA toward ESCs. Compared with the ZEA group, ERS inhibition increased cell viability; downregulated the expression of GRP78, CHOP, PERK, ASK1 and JNK; and decreased the nuclear level of p-JNK. The Bax/Bcl-2 ratio and the expression of Caspase 3 and Caspase 9 were downregulated, significantly alleviating apoptosis. These results demonstrate that ZEA can alter the morphology of ESCs, destroy their ultrastructure, and activate the JNK signaling via the ERS pathway, leading to apoptosis.

Toxicity of zearalenone and its nutritional intervention by natural products

Zearalenone (ZEN) is a toxic secondary metabolite mainly produced by fungi of the genus Fusarium, and is often present in various food and feed ingredients such as corn and wheat. The structure of ZEN is similar to that of natural estrogen, and it can bind to estrogen receptors and has estrogenic activity. Therefore, it can cause endocrine-disrupting effects and promote the proliferation of estrogen receptor-positive cell lines. In addition, ZEN can cause oxidative damage, endoplasmic reticulum stress, apoptosis, and other hazards, resulting in systemic toxic effects, including reproductive toxicity, hepatotoxicity, and immunotoxicity. In the past few decades, researchers have tried many ways to remove ZEN from food and feed, but it is still a challenge to eliminate it. In recent years, natural compounds have become of interest for their excellent protective effects on human health from food contaminants. Researchers have discovered that natural compounds often used as dietary supplements can effectively alleviate ZEN-induced systemic toxic effects. Most of the compounds mitigate ZEN-induced toxicity through antioxidant effects. In this article, the contamination of food and feed by ZEN and the various toxic effects and mechanisms of ZEN are reviewed, as well as the mitigation effects of natural compounds on ZEN-induced toxicity.

Development of a Reliable ic-ELISA with a Robust Antimatrix Interference Capability Based on QuEChERS Technology for the Rapid Detection of Zearalenone in Edible and Medical Coix Seeds and Subsequent Risk Assessments

Indirect competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ic-ELISA) is an ideal immunoassay method for large-scale screenings to detect mycotoxin contaminants. However, the matrix effect of complicated samples has always been challenging when performing immunoassays, as it leads to false-positive or negative results. In this study, convenient QuEChERS technology combined with optimizing the dilution solvent was ingeniously used to eliminate interference from the sample matrix to greatly improve the detection accuracy, and reliable ic-ELISAs for the two official tolerance levels of 60 and 500 μg/kg were developed to screen zearalenone (ZEN) in edible and medical coix seeds without any further correction. Then, the 122 batches of coix seeds were determined, and the positive rate was up to 97.54%. The contaminated distribution was further analyzed, and risk assessment was subsequently performed for its edible and medical purposes. The findings indicated that consumption of coix seeds with higher ZEN contamination levels may cause adverse health effects for both medical and edible consumption in the adult population; even under the condition of average contamination level, ZEN from coix seeds was the more prominent contributor to the total risk compared to other sources when used as food; thus, effective prevention and control should be an essential topic in the future.

Zearalenone and Its Masked Forms in Cereals and Cereal-Derived Products: A Review of the Characteristics, Incidence, and Fate in Food Processing

Zearalenone (ZEA) is known as a Fusarium-produced mycotoxin, representing a risk to cereal food safety with repercussions for economies and worldwide trade. Recent studies have reported the co-occurrence of ZEA and masked ZEA in a variety of cereals and cereal-based products, which may exert adverse effects on public health due to additive/synergistic interactions. However, the co-contamination of ZEA and masked ZEA has received little attention. In order to minimize the threats of co-contamination by ZEA and masked ZEA, it is necessary to recognize the occurrence and formation of ZEA and masked ZEA. This review focuses on the characteristics, incidence, and detection of ZEA and its masked forms. Additionally, the fate of ZEA and masked ZEA during the processing of bread, cake, biscuits, pasta, and beer, as well as the ZEA limit, are discussed. The incidence of masked ZEA is lower than that of ZEA, and the mean level of masked ZEA varies greatly between cereal samples. Published data showed a considerable degree of heterogeneity in the destiny of ZEA during cereal-based food processing, mostly as a result of the varying contamination levels and complicated food processing methods. Knowledge of the fate of ZEA and masked ZEA throughout cereal-based food processing may reduce the likelihood of severe detrimental market and trade ramifications. The revision of legislative limits of masked ZEA may become a challenge in the future.

Determination of Mycotoxin Contamination Levels in Rice and Dietary Exposure Assessment

The contamination by aflatoxins, ochratoxin A, and zearalenone of samples of paddy and polished rice stored in silos located in Chiriquí, Panama, was evaluated. A total of 23 samples were extracted using immunoaffinity columns and analyzed by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with a fluorescence detector (FLD) and post-column photochemical derivatization. For the method used, the detection limits were lower than 0.25 μg/Kg for aflatoxins (AFB1, AFB2, AFG1, AFG2) and ochratoxin A and 9.35 μg/Kg for zearalenone; the limits of quantification were between 0.25 and 18.75 μg/Kg, respectively. Of the samples analyzed, all of the paddy rice samples were positive for at least one of the mycotoxins studied, zearalenone being the one found with the highest incidence (90.91%); for the polished rice samples, the mycotoxin with the highest incidence was zearalenone (50%), although in concentrations lower than those established in European legislation (100 μg/Kg). The estimate of the daily zearalenone intake according to the concentrations found was always less than 0.07 μg/Kg/bw. This is the first report on the determination of 6 mycotoxins in rice grains from Panama by the HPLC-FLD methodology. Considering the high incidence of mycotoxins in the analyzed rice samples, regular control in the production process is recommended to improve quality and ascertain its safety.