1
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van der Fels-Klerx HJ, van Asselt ED, van Leeuwen SPJ, Dorgelo FO, Hoek-van den Hil EF. Prioritization of chemical food safety hazards in the European feed supply chain. Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf 2024; 23:e70025. [PMID: 39379291 DOI: 10.1111/1541-4337.70025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2024] [Revised: 08/29/2024] [Accepted: 09/01/2024] [Indexed: 10/10/2024]
Abstract
Extensive monitoring programs of chemical hazards in the animal feed chain are in place, both organized by public and private organizations. The objective of this review was to prioritize chemical hazards for monitoring in the European animal feed supply chain. A step-wise approach was designed for the prioritization, based on: historical occurrence of the chemicals in animal feed ingredients and animal feeds (in relation to European guidance values or maximum limits in feed); information on transfer of the chemical to edible animal products, and; the extent of human dietary intake of the products and possible adverse human health effects of the chemical. Possible prioritization outcomes were: high (H), medium (M), or low (L) priority for monitoring, or classification not possible (NC) because of limited available data on the transfer of the chemical to edible animal tissues. The selection of chemicals included (with results in parentheses): dioxins and polychlorinated biphenyls (H); brominated flame retardants (H); per- and polyfluorinated alkyl substances (H); the heavy metals arsenic (H) and cadmium (H) as well as lead (M) and mercury (M); aflatoxins (H), ochratoxin A (NC), and other mycotoxins (L); pyrrolizidine alkaloids (H) and other plant toxins (NC); organochlorine pesticides (H) and other pesticides (L); pharmaceutically active substances (M); hormones (NC); polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (L), heat-induced processing contaminants (NC), and mineral oils (NC). Results of this study can be used to support risk-based monitoring by food safety authorities and feed-producing companies in Europe.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - E D van Asselt
- Wageningen Food Safety Research, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | | | - F O Dorgelo
- Wageningen Food Safety Research, Wageningen, The Netherlands
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2
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Végh R, Csóka M, Sörös C, Sipos L. Underexplored food safety hazards of beekeeping products: Key knowledge gaps and suggestions for future research. Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf 2024; 23:e13404. [PMID: 39136999 DOI: 10.1111/1541-4337.13404] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2024] [Revised: 06/06/2024] [Accepted: 06/16/2024] [Indexed: 08/15/2024]
Abstract
These days, a growing consumer demand and scientific interest can be observed for nutraceuticals of natural origin, including apiculture products. Due to the growing emphasis on environmental protection, extensive research has been conducted on the pesticide and heavy metal contamination of bee products; however, less attention is devoted on other food safety aspects. In our review, scientific information on the less-researched food safety hazards of honey, bee bread, royal jelly, propolis, and beeswax are summarized. Bee products originating from certain plants may inherently contain phytotoxins, like pyrrolizidine alkaloids, tropane alkaloids, matrine alkaloids, grayanotoxins, gelsemium alkaloids, or tutin. Several case studies evidence that bee products can induce allergic responses to sensitive individuals, varying from mild to severe symptoms, including the potentially lethal anaphylaxis. Exposure to high temperature or long storage may lead to the formation of the potentially toxic 5-hydroxymethylfurfural. Persistent organic pollutants, radionuclides, and microplastics can potentially be transferred to bee products from contaminated environmental sources. And lastly, inappropriate beekeeping practices can lead to the contamination of beekeeping products with harmful microorganisms and mycotoxins. Our review demonstrates the necessity of applying good beekeeping practices in order to protect honeybees and consumers of their products. An important aim of our work is to identify key knowledge gaps regarding the food safety of apiculture products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rita Végh
- Department of Nutrition Science, Institute of Food Science and Technology, Hungarian University of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Mariann Csóka
- Department of Nutrition Science, Institute of Food Science and Technology, Hungarian University of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Csilla Sörös
- Department of Food Chemistry and Analysis Institute of Food Science and Technology, Hungarian University of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Budapest, Hungary
| | - László Sipos
- Department of Postharvest, Institute of Food Science and Technology, Commercial and Sensory Science, Hungarian University of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Budapest, Hungary
- Institute of Economics, Centre of Economic and Regional Studies, Hungarian Research Network (HUN-REN), Budapest, Hungary
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3
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Klein LM, Lamp J, Schopf C, Gabler AM, Kaltner F, Guldimann C, Rychlik M, Schwake-Anduschus C, Knappstein K, Gottschalk C. Pyrrolizidine alkaloids and tropane alkaloids in milk samples from individual dairy farms of the German federal states of Bavaria and Schleswig-Holstein. Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess 2024; 41:629-647. [PMID: 38592240 DOI: 10.1080/19440049.2024.2336054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2024] [Accepted: 03/24/2024] [Indexed: 04/10/2024]
Abstract
1,2-Dehydro-pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PA), their corresponding N-oxides (PANO) and tropane alkaloids (TA), are toxic plant metabolites. If plant material, containing these toxins, is present in the feed of dairy cows these toxins can be transferred into milk. Here, milk was sampled directly from dairy farms in the German federal states of Bavaria and Schleswig-Holstein in 2020-2022 in order to investigate a possible contamination of milk at the production stage. In total, 228 milk samples were analysed for 54 PA/PANO and two TA by a sensitive LC-ESI-MS/MS method. In addition, a subset of milk samples (n = 85) was independently analysed for TA by a cooperating laboratory for verification. PA/PANO were found in 26 samples (11%) with a low median sum content of the contaminated samples of 0.024 µg/L. The highest level of contamination was 5.6 µg/L. Senecionine-, lycopsamine- and heliotrine-type PA/PANO were detected. In four samples (1.8%), atropine was determined up to 0.066 µg/L. The toxin levels in the milk samples hardly contributed to the total daily exposure. These data are first-time results on contamination rates and levels occurring in milk from individual dairy farms, based on a large sample number.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisa Monika Klein
- Chair of Food Safety and Analytics, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, LMU in Munich, Munich, Germany
- Chair of Analytical Food Chemistry, TUM School of Life Sciences Weihenstephan, Technical University of Munich, Freising, Germany
| | - Julika Lamp
- Department of Safety and Quality of Milk and Fish Products, Max Rubner-Institut, Federal Research Institute of Nutrition and Food, Kiel, Germany
| | - Christina Schopf
- Chair of Food Safety and Analytics, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, LMU in Munich, Munich, Germany
- Chair of Analytical Food Chemistry, TUM School of Life Sciences Weihenstephan, Technical University of Munich, Freising, Germany
| | - Angelika Miriam Gabler
- Chair of Food Safety and Analytics, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, LMU in Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Florian Kaltner
- Chair of Food Safety and Analytics, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, LMU in Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Claudia Guldimann
- Chair of Food Safety and Analytics, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, LMU in Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Michael Rychlik
- Chair of Analytical Food Chemistry, TUM School of Life Sciences Weihenstephan, Technical University of Munich, Freising, Germany
| | - Christine Schwake-Anduschus
- Department of Safety and Quality of Cereals, Max Rubner-Institut, Federal Research Institute of Nutrition and Food, Detmold, Germany
| | - Karin Knappstein
- Department of Safety and Quality of Milk and Fish Products, Max Rubner-Institut, Federal Research Institute of Nutrition and Food, Kiel, Germany
| | - Christoph Gottschalk
- Chair of Food Safety and Analytics, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, LMU in Munich, Munich, Germany
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4
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Lehmann A, Geburek I, Hessel-Pras S, Enge AM, Mielke H, Müller-Graf C, Kloft C, Hethey C. PBTK model-based analysis of CYP3A4 induction and the toxicokinetics of the pyrrolizidine alkaloid retrorsine in man. Arch Toxicol 2024; 98:1757-1769. [PMID: 38528153 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-024-03698-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2023] [Accepted: 01/31/2024] [Indexed: 03/27/2024]
Abstract
Cytochrome P450 (CYP)3A4 induction by drugs and pesticides plays a critical role in the enhancement of pyrrolizidine alkaloid (PA) toxicity as it leads to increased formation of hepatotoxic dehydro-PA metabolites. Addressing the need for a quantitative analysis of this interaction, we developed a physiologically-based toxicokinetic (PBTK) model. Specifically, the model describes the impact of the well-characterized CYP3A4 inducer rifampicin on the kinetics of retrorsine, which is a prototypic PA and contaminant in herbal teas. Based on consumption data, the kinetics after daily intake of retrorsine were simulated with concomitant rifampicin treatment. Strongest impact on retrorsine kinetics (plasma AUC24 and C max reduced to 67% and 74% compared to the rifampicin-free reference) was predicted directly after withdrawal of rifampicin. At this time point, the competitive inhibitory effect of rifampicin stopped, while CYP3A4 induction was still near its maximum. Due to the impacted metabolism kinetics, the cumulative formation of intestinal retrorsine CYP3A4 metabolites increased to 254% (from 10 to 25 nmol), while the cumulative formation of hepatic CYP3A4 metabolites was not affected (57 nmol). Return to baseline PA toxicokinetics was predicted 14 days after stop of a 14-day rifampicin treatment. In conclusion, the PBTK model showed to be a promising tool to assess the dynamic interplay of enzyme induction and toxification pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anja Lehmann
- German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment (BfR), Max-Dohrn-Str. 8-10, 10589, Berlin, Germany
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy and Biochemistry, Institute of Pharmacy, Freie Universitaet Berlin, 12169, Berlin, Germany
| | - Ina Geburek
- German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment (BfR), Max-Dohrn-Str. 8-10, 10589, Berlin, Germany
| | - Stefanie Hessel-Pras
- German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment (BfR), Max-Dohrn-Str. 8-10, 10589, Berlin, Germany
| | - Anne-Margarethe Enge
- German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment (BfR), Max-Dohrn-Str. 8-10, 10589, Berlin, Germany
| | - Hans Mielke
- German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment (BfR), Max-Dohrn-Str. 8-10, 10589, Berlin, Germany.
| | - Christine Müller-Graf
- German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment (BfR), Max-Dohrn-Str. 8-10, 10589, Berlin, Germany
| | - Charlotte Kloft
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy and Biochemistry, Institute of Pharmacy, Freie Universitaet Berlin, 12169, Berlin, Germany
| | - Christoph Hethey
- German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment (BfR), Max-Dohrn-Str. 8-10, 10589, Berlin, Germany
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5
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Dusemund B, Aquilina G, Bastos MDL, Marcon F, Pizzo F, Woutersen R, Manini P. Risk assessment of feed components of botanical origin - Approaches taken in the European Union. Food Chem Toxicol 2024; 188:114654. [PMID: 38608926 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2024.114654] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2023] [Revised: 03/29/2024] [Accepted: 04/07/2024] [Indexed: 04/14/2024]
Abstract
In view of a continuous trend in replacing synthetic feed additives and especially flavouring compounds by botanical preparations, different aspects of the safety evaluations of plants and plant-derived preparations and components in feed are discussed. This includes risk assessment approaches developed by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) for phytotoxins regarding unintentional exposure of target animals and of consumers to animal derived food via carry-over from feed. Relevant regulatory frameworks for feed additives and feed contaminants in the European Union are summarised and the essentials of existing guidelines used in the safety evaluation of botanicals and their preparations and components in feed are outlined. The examples presented illustrate how the safety of the botanicals, their preparations and components present in feed is assessed. An outlook on possible future developments in risk assessment by applying new in vitro and in silico methodologies is given.
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Affiliation(s)
- Birgit Dusemund
- German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment (BfR), Max-Dohrn-Strasse 10, 10589, Berlin, Germany
| | - Gabriele Aquilina
- National Center for Chemical Substances, Italian Institute of Health, Viale Regina Elena 299, 00161, Rome, Italy
| | - Maria de Lourdes Bastos
- UCIBIO/REQUIMTE Unit - Laboratory of Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Rua Jorge Viterbo Ferreira 228, 4050-313, Porto, Portugal
| | - Francesca Marcon
- Dept. Environment and Health, Italian Institute of Health, Viale Regina Elena 299, 00161, Rome, Italy.
| | - Fabiola Pizzo
- Feed and Contaminants Unit, European Food Safety Authority, via Carlo Mango 1A, 43126, Parma, Italy
| | - Ruud Woutersen
- TNO Quality of Life, Utrecht and Wageningen University & Research, Wageningen, the Netherlands
| | - Paola Manini
- Feed and Contaminants Unit, European Food Safety Authority, via Carlo Mango 1A, 43126, Parma, Italy
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6
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Berzina Z, Pavlenko R, Bartkiene E, Bartkevics V. Mycotoxins and pyrrolizidine alkaloids in herbal dietary supplements. FOOD ADDITIVES & CONTAMINANTS. PART B, SURVEILLANCE 2024; 17:180-192. [PMID: 38629617 DOI: 10.1080/19393210.2024.2332516] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2023] [Accepted: 03/14/2024] [Indexed: 06/09/2024]
Abstract
The market demand for herbal dietary supplements is rapidly growing and such products are becoming more common and accessible to consumers. However, the knowledge about their safety remains incomplete. Herbal dietary supplements are one of the food groups that can contribute significantly to human health concerns arising from chronic exposure to pyrrolizidine alkaloids and mycotoxins. This study aimed to simultaneously determine 79 natural contaminants, including mycotoxins, as well as pyrrolizidine and tropane alkaloids in herbal dietary supplements in one analytical run. Exposure assessment and human health risks were assessed for all compounds included in this study. The total concentration of naturally occurring contaminants in herbal dietary supplements reached 5.3 mg kg-1 and the most frequently detected mycotoxins were tentoxin and alternariol monomethyl ether. The latter was detected with the highest frequency, reaching concentrations up to 2.5 mg kg-1. The obtained results indicate a potential risk to public health related to herbal dietary supplement consumption.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zane Berzina
- Institute of Food Safety, Animal Health and Environment "BIOR", Riga, Latvia
- Faculty of Chemistry, University of Latvia, Riga, Latvia
| | - Romans Pavlenko
- Institute of Food Safety, Animal Health and Environment "BIOR", Riga, Latvia
| | - Elena Bartkiene
- Department of Food Safety and Quality, Lithuanian University of Health Sciences, Kaunas, Lithuania
| | - Vadims Bartkevics
- Institute of Food Safety, Animal Health and Environment "BIOR", Riga, Latvia
- Faculty of Chemistry, University of Latvia, Riga, Latvia
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7
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Casado N, Morante-Zarcero S, Sierra I. Miniaturized Analytical Strategy Based on μ-SPEed for Monitoring the Occurrence of Pyrrolizidine and Tropane Alkaloids in Honey. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2024; 72:819-832. [PMID: 38109357 PMCID: PMC10786043 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.3c04805] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2023] [Revised: 11/18/2023] [Accepted: 12/01/2023] [Indexed: 12/20/2023]
Abstract
Currently, the analysis of trace-level contaminants in food must be addressed following green analytical chemistry principles and with a commitment to the sustainable development goals. Accordingly, a sustainable and ecofriendly microextraction procedure based on μ-SPEed followed by ultrahigh liquid chromatography coupled to ion-trap tandem mass spectrometry analysis was developed to determine the occurrence of pyrrolizidine and tropane alkaloids in honey samples. The μ-SPEed procedure took approximately 3 min per sample, using only 100 μL of organic solvent and 300 μL of diluted sample. The method was properly validated (overall recoveries 72-100% and precision RSD values ≤15%), and its greenness was scored at 0.61 out of 1. The method was applied to different honey samples, showing overall contamination levels from 32 to 177 μg/kg of these alkaloids. Atropine was found in all the samples, whereas retrorsine N-oxide, lasiocarpine, echimidine, and echimidine N-oxide were the main pyrrolizidine alkaloids in the samples analyzed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natalia Casado
- Departamento
de Tecnología Química y Ambiental, E.S.C.E.T, Universidad Rey Juan Carlos, C/Tulipán s/n, 28933 Móstoles, Madrid, Spain
| | - Sonia Morante-Zarcero
- Departamento
de Tecnología Química y Ambiental, E.S.C.E.T, Universidad Rey Juan Carlos, C/Tulipán s/n, 28933 Móstoles, Madrid, Spain
| | - Isabel Sierra
- Departamento
de Tecnología Química y Ambiental, E.S.C.E.T, Universidad Rey Juan Carlos, C/Tulipán s/n, 28933 Móstoles, Madrid, Spain
- Instituto
de Tecnologías para la Sostenibilidad, Universidad Rey Juan
Carlos, C/Tulipán
s/n, 28933 Móstoles, Madrid, Spain
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8
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Lin T, Zhou L, Chen Z, Wang L, Yang J, Wang S, Chen X, Zuo Z, He C, Guo L. Exposure to echimidine impairs the heart development and function of zebrafish larvae. ECOTOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SAFETY 2023; 266:115574. [PMID: 37839186 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2023.115574] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2023] [Revised: 10/04/2023] [Accepted: 10/10/2023] [Indexed: 10/17/2023]
Abstract
Pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PAs) are a class of phytotoxins that are widely distributed and can be consumed by humans through their daily diets. Echimidine is one of the most abundant PAs, but its safety, particularly its effects on development, is not fully understood. In this study, we used a zebrafish model to assess the developmental toxicity of echimidine. Zebrafish embryos were exposed to echimidine at concentrations of 0.02, 0.2, and 2 mg/L for 96 h. Our study revealed that embryonic exposure to echimidine led to developmental toxicity, characterized by delayed hatching and reduced body length. Additionally, echimidine exposure had a notable impact on heart development in larvae, causing tachycardia and reducing stroke volume (SV)and cardiac output (CO). Upon exposing the transgenic zebrafish strain Tg(cmlc2:EGFP) to echimidine, we observed atrial dilation and thinning of the atrial wall in developing embryos. Moreover, our findings indicated abnormal expression of genes associated with cardiac development (including gata4, tbx5, nkx2.5 and myh6) and genes involved in calcium signaling pathways (such as cacna1aa, cacna1sa, ryr2a, ryr2b, atp2a2a, atp2a2b, slc8a1, slc8a3 and slc8a4a). In summary, our findings demonstrate that echimidine may impair cardiac development and function in zebrafish larvae by disrupting calcium transport, leading to developmental toxicity. These findings provide insights regarding the safety of products containing PAs in food and medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tingting Lin
- State Key Laboratory of Cellular Stress Biology, School of Life Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian 361102, China
| | - Li Zhou
- State Key Laboratory Breeding Base of Dao-di Herbs, National Resource Center for Chinese Materia Medica, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing 100700, China; Evaluation and Research Center of Daodi Herbs of Jiangxi Province, Nanchang 330000, China
| | - Zhibin Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Cellular Stress Biology, School of Life Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian 361102, China
| | - Luanjin Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Cellular Stress Biology, School of Life Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian 361102, China
| | - Jian Yang
- State Key Laboratory Breeding Base of Dao-di Herbs, National Resource Center for Chinese Materia Medica, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing 100700, China; Evaluation and Research Center of Daodi Herbs of Jiangxi Province, Nanchang 330000, China
| | - Sheng Wang
- State Key Laboratory Breeding Base of Dao-di Herbs, National Resource Center for Chinese Materia Medica, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing 100700, China
| | - Xintan Chen
- Chest Pain Center, Anxi County Hospital, Quanzhou, Fujian 362400, China
| | - Zhenghong Zuo
- State Key Laboratory of Cellular Stress Biology, School of Life Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian 361102, China
| | - Chengyong He
- State Key Laboratory of Cellular Stress Biology, School of Life Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian 361102, China.
| | - Lanping Guo
- State Key Laboratory Breeding Base of Dao-di Herbs, National Resource Center for Chinese Materia Medica, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing 100700, China.
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9
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Rizzo S, Celano R, Piccinelli AL, Russo M, Rastrelli L. Target screening method for the quantitative determination of 118 pyrrolizidine alkaloids in food supplements, herbal infusions, honey and teas by liquid chromatography coupled to quadrupole orbitrap mass spectrometry. Food Chem 2023; 423:136306. [PMID: 37167673 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2023.136306] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2023] [Revised: 03/16/2023] [Accepted: 05/01/2023] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
An analytical procedure for the screening of 118 pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PAs) was successfully validated and applied to their quantitative determination in food supplements, herbal infusions, honey, and teas. It provides the reliable analyte identification by high-resolution tandem mass spectrometry (HRMS/MS), the accurate determination of 21 regulated PAs, and broad contamination profiles. 10% of 281 analyzed samples resulted contaminated at levels above the maximum levels (MLs) of European legislation. The contamination of herbal infusions of mixed plants can represent a possible health concern (23%; mean of PA sum above ML). A high number of PAs not included in the regulation was detected in honey and herbal food supplements, but their contribution was only relevant to the overall level in honey. The results indicate the need to continue collecting contamination data in food supplements and infusions of mixed herbs and to expand the PA-pool to be monitored in honey and related products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Serena Rizzo
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Salerno, Via Giovanni Paolo II 132, 84084 Fisciano, Salerno, Italy; Drug Discovery and Development, University of Salerno, Via Giovanni Paolo II 132, Fisciano, SA 84084, Italy
| | - Rita Celano
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Salerno, Via Giovanni Paolo II 132, 84084 Fisciano, Salerno, Italy
| | - Anna Lisa Piccinelli
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Salerno, Via Giovanni Paolo II 132, 84084 Fisciano, Salerno, Italy.
| | - Mariateresa Russo
- Department of Agriculture Science, Food Chemistry, Safety and Sensoromic Laboratory, University of Reggio Calabria, Via Salita Melissari, 89124 Reggio Calabria, Italy
| | - Luca Rastrelli
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Salerno, Via Giovanni Paolo II 132, 84084 Fisciano, Salerno, Italy
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10
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Eckert E, Lepper H, Hintzsche H. Risk assessment of short-term intake of pyrrolizidine alkaloids in food: derivation of an acute reference dose. Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess 2023; 40:588-596. [PMID: 36794362 DOI: 10.1080/19440049.2023.2178828] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/17/2023]
Abstract
Pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PA) are phytochemicals that are known to act as human hepatotoxins and are also considered to be genotoxic carcinogens. Several plant-derived foods are frequently contaminated with PA, like teas and herbal infusions, spices and herbs or certain food supplements. With respect to the chronic toxicity of PA, the carcinogenic potential of PA is generally regarded as the critical toxicological effect. The risk assessment of the short-term toxicity of PA, however, is internationally less consistent. The characteristic pathological syndrome of acute PA toxicity is hepatic veno-occlusive disease. High PA exposure levels may lead to liver failure and even death as documented by several case reports. In the present report, we suggest a risk assessment approach for the derivation of an acute reference dose (ARfD) for PA of 1 µg/kg body weight per day based on a sub-acute animal toxicity study in rats after oral PA administration. The derived ARfD value is further supported by several case reports describing acute human poisoning following accidental PA intake. The here derived ARfD value may be used for PA risk assessment in cases where the short-term toxicity of PA is of interest in addition to the assessment of the long-term risks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elisabeth Eckert
- Department of Risk Assessment, Bavarian Health and Food Safety Authority, Erlangen, Germany.,Institute and Outpatient Clinic of Occupational, Social and Environmental Medicine, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg (FAU), Erlangen, Germany
| | - Hans Lepper
- Department of Risk Assessment, Bavarian Health and Food Safety Authority, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Henning Hintzsche
- Department of Risk Assessment, Bavarian Health and Food Safety Authority, Erlangen, Germany.,Department of Food Safety, Institute of Food and Nutritional Sciences, University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany
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11
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Silva AL, Oliveira JL, do Nascimento RP, Santos LO, de Araújo FM, Dos Santos BL, Santana RC, Moreira ELT, Batatinha MJM, Alves IM, Velozo ES, Victor MM, Assis AM, Almeida RF, de Souza DOG, Silva VDA, Costa SL. Monocrotaline induces acutely cerebrovascular lesions, astrogliosis and neuronal degeneration associated with behavior changes in rats: A model of vascular damage in perspective. Neurotoxicology 2023; 94:59-70. [PMID: 36336098 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuro.2022.10.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2022] [Revised: 08/15/2022] [Accepted: 10/29/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PAs) are secondary plant metabolites playing an important role as phytotoxins in the plant defense mechanisms and can be present as contaminant in the food of humans and animals. The PA monocrotaline (MCT), one of the major plant derived toxin that affect humans and animals, is present in a high concentration in Crotalaria spp. (Leguminosae) seeds and can induce toxicity after consumption, characterized mainly by hepatotoxicity and pneumotoxicity. However, the effects of the ingestion of MCT in the central nervous system (CNS) are still poorly elucidated. Here we investigated the effects of MCT oral acute administration on the behavior and CNS toxicity in rats. Male adult Wistar were treated with MCT (109 mg/Kg, oral gavage) and three days later the Elevated Pluz Maze test demonstrated that MCT induced an anxiolytic-like effect, without changes in novelty habituation and in operational and spatial memory profiles. Histopathology revealed that the brain of MCT-intoxicated animals presented hyperemic vascular structures in the hippocampus, parahippocampal cortex and neocortex, mild perivascular edema in the neocortex, hemorrhagic focal area in the brain stem, hemorrhage and edema in the thalamus. MCT also induced neurotoxicity in the cortex and hippocampus, as revealed by Fluoro Jade-B and Cresyl Violet staining, as well astrocyte reactivity, revealed by immunocytochemistry for glial fibrillary acidic protein. Additionally, it was demonstrated by RT-qPCR that MCT induced up-regulation on mRNA expression of neuroinflammatory mediator, especially IL1β and CCL2 in the hippocampus and cortex, and down-regulation on mRNA expression of neurotrophins HGDF and BDNF in the cortex. Together, these results demonstrate that the ingestion of MCT induces cerebrovascular lesions and toxicity to neurons that are associated to astroglial cell response and neuroinflammation in the cortex and hippocampus of rats, highlighting CNS damages after acute intoxication, also putting in perspective it uses as a model for cerebrovascular damage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adriana L Silva
- Laboratory of Neurochemistry and Cellular Biology, Institute of Health Sciences, Federal University of Bahia, Brazil
| | - Joana L Oliveira
- Laboratory of Neurochemistry and Cellular Biology, Institute of Health Sciences, Federal University of Bahia, Brazil
| | - Ravena P do Nascimento
- Laboratory of Neurochemistry and Cellular Biology, Institute of Health Sciences, Federal University of Bahia, Brazil
| | - Letícia O Santos
- Laboratory of Neurochemistry and Cellular Biology, Institute of Health Sciences, Federal University of Bahia, Brazil
| | - Fillipe M de Araújo
- Laboratory of Neurochemistry and Cellular Biology, Institute of Health Sciences, Federal University of Bahia, Brazil
| | - Balbino L Dos Santos
- Laboratory of Neurochemistry and Cellular Biology, Institute of Health Sciences, Federal University of Bahia, Brazil; Federal University of Vale do São Francisco, Brazil
| | - Rejane C Santana
- Laboratory of Neuroscience, Federal University of Bahia, Institute of Health Sciences, Federal University of Bahia, Brazil
| | - Eduardo Luiz T Moreira
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science, Hospital of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Anatomy, Pathology and Veterinary Clinics, Federal University of Bahia, Brazil
| | - Maria José M Batatinha
- Laboratory of Toxicology, School of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science, Hospital of Veterinary Medicine, Federal University of Bahia, Brazil
| | - Iura M Alves
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Medication, Federal University of Bahia, Brazil
| | - Eudes S Velozo
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Medication, Federal University of Bahia, Brazil
| | - Mauricio M Victor
- Organic Chemistry Department, Chemistry Institute, Federal University of Bahia, Brazil
| | - Adriano M Assis
- Institute of Basic Health Sciences Department of Biochemistry, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil; Catholic University of Pelotas, Brazil
| | - Roberto F Almeida
- Institute of Basic Health Sciences Department of Biochemistry, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil; Federal University of Ouro Preto, Brazil
| | - Diogo O G de Souza
- Institute of Basic Health Sciences Department of Biochemistry, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil; INCT for Excitotoxicity and Neuroprotection - CNPq (INCT-EN, BR), Brazil
| | - Victor Diógenes A Silva
- Laboratory of Neurochemistry and Cellular Biology, Institute of Health Sciences, Federal University of Bahia, Brazil; INCT for Excitotoxicity and Neuroprotection - CNPq (INCT-EN, BR), Brazil.
| | - Silvia L Costa
- Laboratory of Neurochemistry and Cellular Biology, Institute of Health Sciences, Federal University of Bahia, Brazil; INCT for Excitotoxicity and Neuroprotection - CNPq (INCT-EN, BR), Brazil.
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12
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Lewerenz L, Abouzeid S, Yahyazadeh M, Hijazin T, Selmar D. Novel Cognitions in Allelopathy: Implications from the "Horizontal Natural Product Transfer". PLANTS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 11:3264. [PMID: 36501305 PMCID: PMC9741141 DOI: 10.3390/plants11233264] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2022] [Revised: 11/04/2022] [Accepted: 11/22/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Whereas the translocation of allelochemicals between plants is well established, a related general transfer of genuine specialized metabolites has not been considered so far. The elucidation of the so-called "Horizontal Natural Product Transfer" revealed that alkaloids, such as nicotine and pyrrolizidine alkaloids, which are leached out from decomposing alkaloid-containing plants (donor plants), are indeed taken up by the roots of plants growing in the vicinity (acceptor plants). Further studies demonstrated that phenolic compounds, such as coumarins or stilbenes, are also taken up by acceptor plants. Contemporary analyses from co-cultivation experiments outlined that natural products are not exclusively transferred from dead and rotting donor plant materials, but also from vital plants. In analogy to xenobiotics, the imported specialized metabolites might also be modified within the acceptor plants. As known from the uptake of xenobiotics, the import of specialized metabolites is also generally due to a simple diffusion of the substances across the biomembranes and does not require a carrier. The uptake depends in stricto sensu on the physicochemical properties of the certain compound. This article presents a current overview of the phenomenon of "Horizontal Natural Product Transfer" and discusses its relevance for our understanding of allelopathic interactions. The knowledge that specialized metabolites might in general be readily translocated from one plant into others should significantly contribute to our understanding of plant-plant interactions and-in particular-to the evolution of typical allelopathic effects, such as inhibition of growth and germination of potential competitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Lewerenz
- Institut für Pflanzenbiologie, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Mendelssohnstraße 4, D-38106 Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Sara Abouzeid
- Pharmacognosy Department, Faculty of Pharmacy, Mansoura University, Mansoura 35516, Egypt
| | - Mahdi Yahyazadeh
- Research Institute of Forests and Rangelands, Agricultural Research, Education and Extension Organization (AREEO), Tehran P.O. Box 13185-116, Iran
| | - Tahani Hijazin
- Biology Department, Faculty of Science, Mutah University, P.O. Box 7, Mutah 61710, Jordan
| | - Dirk Selmar
- Institut für Pflanzenbiologie, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Mendelssohnstraße 4, D-38106 Braunschweig, Germany
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Risk Assessment of (Herbal) Teas Containing Pyrrolizidine Alkaloids (PAs) Based on Margin of Exposure Approach and Relative Potency (REP) Factors. Foods 2022; 11:foods11192946. [PMID: 36230022 PMCID: PMC9564199 DOI: 10.3390/foods11192946] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2022] [Revised: 09/13/2022] [Accepted: 09/15/2022] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PAs) present distinct toxicity potencies depending on their metabolites and in vivo toxicokinetics. To represent the potency differences of various PAs, the interim relative potency (REP) factors have been derived. However, little is known about the risk assessment for (herbal) teas when taking REP factors into account. In this study, a set of 68 individual 1,2-unsaturated PA in 21 types of (herbal) teas was analyzed using LC-MS/MS. The REP factors for these PAs were applied on the PA levels. The margin of exposure (MOE) approach was employed to assess the risks of the exposure to PAs due to consumption of (herbal) teas. The results show that the total PA levels ranged from 13.4 to 286,682.2 μg/kg d.m., which were decreased by REP correction in most of the teas. The MOE values for tephroseris, borage and lemon balm (melissa) tea based on REP-corrected PA levels were below 10,000, assuming daily consumption of one cup of tea during a lifetime, indicating that consuming these teas may raise a concern. Our study also indicates a priority for risk management for tephroseris tea, as having nephrosis tea for more than 11.2 weeks during a 75-year lifetime would result in an MOE of 10,000.
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Simultaneous Determination of Pyrrolizidine and Tropane Alkaloids in Honey by Liquid Chromatography-mass Spectrometry. J Vet Res 2022; 66:235-243. [PMID: 35892104 PMCID: PMC9281522 DOI: 10.2478/jvetres-2022-0032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2022] [Accepted: 06/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction Pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PAs) and tropane alkaloids (TAs) are natural contaminants of honey and respectively hepatoxic and neurotoxic compounds. Because honey is a popular constituent of the human diet, it is relevant to warrant the safety of the product. For that reason, a method for simultaneous determination of PAs and TAs in honey based on liquid chromatography- mass spectrometry was developed. Material and Methods The analytical protocol used sulphuric acid extraction and solid-phase extraction purification. The developed procedure was subjected to validation in terms of linearity, selectivity, repeatability, reproducibility, limits of quantification and determination, matrix effect and uncertainty. A total of 29 honey samples were analysed for the determination of PAs and TAs. Results All the evaluated validation parameters fulfilled the requirements of European Commission Decision 2002/657/EC. At least one of the monitored alkaloids was determined in 52% of the samples. Among the most abundant alkaloids were echimidine, intermedine and lycopsamine. The total PA concentrations ranged from 2.2 to 147.0 μg kg-1. Contrastingly, none of the monitored TAs was detected in the analysed samples. An assessment of the dietary exposure to PAs from the consumption of the contaminated honeys showed that three of them would pose a risk to consumers, especially if they were children. Conclusion A sensitive method suitable for simultaneous determination of PAs and TAs in honey was developed and validated. The analysis of 29 honey samples for PAs and TAs revealed that honey destined for retail could pose a risk to consumers.
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Bioassay-directed analysis-based identification of relevant pyrrolizidine alkaloids. Arch Toxicol 2022; 96:2299-2317. [PMID: 35610518 PMCID: PMC9217854 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-022-03308-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2022] [Accepted: 04/27/2022] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PAs) are produced by various plant species and have been detected as contaminants in food and feed. Monitoring programmes should include PAs that are present in relevant matrices and that exhibit a high toxic potential. The aim of the present study was to use a bioassay-directed analysis approach to identify relevant PAs not yet included in monitoring programmes. To that end, extracts of Heliotropium europaeum and H. popovii were prepared and analysed with LC–MS/MS for the presence of 35 PAs included in monitoring programmes, as well as for genotoxic activity in the HepaRG/γH2AX assay. Europine, heliotrine and lasiocarpine were found to be the most abundant PAs. The extracts showed a higher γH2AX activity than related artificial mixtures of quantified known PAs, which might point to the presence of unknown toxic PAs. The H. europaeum extract was fractionated and γH2AX activities of individual fractions were determined. Fractions were further analysed applying LC–Orbitrap-MS analysis and Compound Discoverer software, identifying various candidate PAs responsible for the non-explained genotoxic activity. Altogether, the results obtained show that bioassay-directed analysis allows identification of candidate PAs that can be included in monitoring programmes.
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16
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Application of the QuEChERS Strategy as a Useful Sample Preparation Tool for the Multiresidue Determination of Pyrrolizidine Alkaloids in Food and Feed Samples: A Critical Overview. APPLIED SCIENCES-BASEL 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/app12094325] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
The identification of concerning high levels of pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PAs) in a wide variety of food products has raised the occurrence of these natural toxins as one of the main current issues of the food safety field. Consequently, a regulation with maximum concentration levels of these alkaloids has recently been published to monitor their occurrence in several foodstuffs. According to legislation, the analytical methodologies developed for their determination must include multiresidue extractions with high selectivity and sensitivity, as a set of 21 + 14 PAs should be simultaneously monitored. However, the multiresidue extraction of these alkaloids is a difficult task due to the high complexity of food and feed samples. Accordingly, although solid-phase extraction is still the technique most widely used for sample preparation, the QuEChERS method can be a suitable alternative for the simultaneous determination of multiple analytes, providing green extraction and clean-up of samples in a quick and cost-effective way. Hence, this review proposes an overview about the QuEChERS concept and its evolution through different modifications that have broadened its applicability over time, focusing mainly on its application regarding the determination of PAs in food and feed, including the revision of published works within the last 11 years.
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18
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Schreiner T, Sauter D, Friz M, Heil J, Morlock GE. Is Our Natural Food Our Homeostasis? Array of a Thousand Effect-Directed Profiles of 68 Herbs and Spices. Front Pharmacol 2021; 12:755941. [PMID: 34955829 PMCID: PMC8696259 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2021.755941] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2021] [Accepted: 11/03/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The beneficial effects of plant-rich diets and traditional medicines are increasingly recognized in the treatment of civilization diseases due to the abundance and diversity of bioactive substances therein. However, the important active portion of natural food or plant-based medicine is presently not under control. Hence, a paradigm shift from quality control based on marker compounds to effect-directed profiling is postulated. We investigated 68 powdered plant extracts (botanicals) which are added to food products in food industry. Among them are many plants that are used as traditional medicines, herbs and spices. A generic strategy was developed to evaluate the bioactivity profile of each botanical as completely as possible and to straightforwardly assign the most potent bioactive compounds. It is an 8-dimensional hyphenation of normal-phase high-performance thin-layer chromatography with multi-imaging by ultraviolet, visible and fluorescence light detection as well as effect-directed assay and heart-cut of the bioactive zone to orthogonal reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromato-graphy-photodiode array detection-heated electrospray ionization mass spectrometry. In the non-target, effect-directed screening via 16 different on-surface assays, we tentatively assigned more than 60 important bioactive compounds in the studied botanicals. These were antibacterials, estrogens, antiestrogens, androgens, and antiandrogens, as well as acetylcholinesterase, butyrylcholinesterase, α-amylase, α-glucosidase, β-glucosidase, β-glucuronidase, and tyrosinase inhibitors, which were on-surface heart-cut eluted from the bioautogram or enzyme inhibition autogram to the next dimension for further targeted characterization. This biological-physicochemical hyphenation is able to detect and control active mechanisms of traditional medicines or botanicals as well as the essentials of plant-based food. The array of 1,292 profiles (68 samples × 19 detections) showed the versatile bioactivity potential of natural food. It reveals how efficiently and powerful our natural food contributes to our homeostasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tamara Schreiner
- Institute of Nutritional Science, Chair of Food Science, and TransMIT Center for Effect-Directed Analysis, Justus Liebig University Giessen, Giessen, Germany
| | - Dorena Sauter
- Institute of Nutritional Science, Chair of Food Science, and TransMIT Center for Effect-Directed Analysis, Justus Liebig University Giessen, Giessen, Germany
| | - Maren Friz
- Institute of Nutritional Science, Chair of Food Science, and TransMIT Center for Effect-Directed Analysis, Justus Liebig University Giessen, Giessen, Germany
| | - Julia Heil
- Institute of Nutritional Science, Chair of Food Science, and TransMIT Center for Effect-Directed Analysis, Justus Liebig University Giessen, Giessen, Germany
| | - Gertrud Elisabeth Morlock
- Institute of Nutritional Science, Chair of Food Science, and TransMIT Center for Effect-Directed Analysis, Justus Liebig University Giessen, Giessen, Germany
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Determination of Pyrrolizidine Alkaloids in Teas Using Liquid Chromatography-Tandem Mass Spectrometry Combined with Rapid-Easy Extraction. Foods 2021; 10:foods10102250. [PMID: 34681300 PMCID: PMC8534422 DOI: 10.3390/foods10102250] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2021] [Revised: 09/17/2021] [Accepted: 09/17/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
This study developed an analytical method to determine pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PAs) in teas using liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry combined with rapid-easy extraction. PAs were extracted with 40 mL of 0.05 M sulfuric acid in 50% methanol solution and cleaned up using Oasis MCX SPE cartridges. Chromatographic separation of 21 PAs was conducted on an X-Bridge C18 column with gradient elution. According to the AOAC official analysis methods, the developed method was verified to establish linearity, limits of detection, limits of quantification, accuracy, inter-day precision, and intra-day precision for each PA. Overall, the method showed excellent repeatability, sensitivity, and reproducibility. The verified method was applied to tea samples, including maté, lemon balm, fennel, hibiscus, chrysanthemum, lavender, oolong tea, chamomile, rooibos, peppermint, mix tea, black, and green tea. One of the main advantages of the method developed in this study is that it allows complete separation of lycopsamine and intermedine peaks. Therefore, the method could be used to monitor PAs in teas.
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Pyrrolizidine Alkaloids in the Food Chain: Is Horizontal Transfer of Natural Products of Relevance? Foods 2021; 10:foods10081827. [PMID: 34441604 PMCID: PMC8392022 DOI: 10.3390/foods10081827] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2021] [Revised: 08/03/2021] [Accepted: 08/05/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Recent studies have raised the question whether there is a potential threat by a horizontal transfer of toxic plant constituents such as pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PAs) between donor-PA-plants and acceptor non-PA-plants. This topic raised concerns about food and feed safety in the recent years. The purpose of the study described here was to investigate and evaluate horizontal transfer of PAs between donor and acceptor-plants by conducting a series of field trials using the PA-plant Lappula squarrosa as model and realistic agricultural conditions. Additionally, the effect of PA-plant residues recycling in the form of composts or press-cakes were investigated. The PA-transfer and the PA-content of soil, plants, and plant waste products was determined in form of a single sum parameter method using high-performance liquid chromatography mass spectroscopy (HPLC-ESI-MS/MS). PA-transfer from PA-donor to acceptor-plants was frequently observed at low rates during the vegetative growing phase especially in cases of close spatial proximity. However, at the time of harvest no PAs were detected in the relevant field products (grains). For all investigated agricultural scenarios, horizontal transfer of PAs is of no concern with regard to food or feed safety.
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Valese AC, Daguer H, Muller CMO, Molognoni L, da Luz CFP, de Barcellos Falkenberg D, Gonzaga LV, Brugnerotto P, Gorniak SL, Barreto F, Fett R, Costa ACO. Quantification of pyrrolizidine alkaloids in Senecio brasiliensis, beehive pollen, and honey by LC-MS/MS. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND HEALTH. PART. B, PESTICIDES, FOOD CONTAMINANTS, AND AGRICULTURAL WASTES 2021; 56:685-694. [PMID: 34264805 DOI: 10.1080/03601234.2021.1943257] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
This article presents the determination of eight pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PAs) by LC-MS/MS in honeys, pollen, and Senecio brasiliensis (Asteraceae) samples, all from Santa Catarina state, Brazil. In addition, the Box-Behnken design was used to perform an optimized sample preparation on pollens and S. brasiliensis parts. Senecionine and its N-oxide, besides retrorsine N-oxide, were determined in six of the seven honeys samples. Pollen from species of the Asteraceae, Fabaceae, and Boraginaceae families were found with greater predominance in three of the seven honeys samples. In these three honeys samples were also found the highest PAs levels. In beehive pollen, flower, and leaf of S. brasiliensis, the total levels of PAs and their N-oxides reached 221, 14.1 × 104, and 14.8 × 104 mg kg-1, respectively. In honeys, these compounds are chemical contaminants and therefore undesirable when the sum exceeds 71 µg kg-1, according to EFSA. On the other hand, although PAs are naturally present in plant and pollen of some species (Senecio, Crotalaria, Bacharis, Ecchium, Mimosa scabrella, Vernonia), it is important to monitor their levels in plants but also in honeys, and other beehive products since these compounds are transferred to the final product.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andressa Camargo Valese
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Federal University of Santa Catarina, Florianopolis, SC, Brazil
- Federal Agricultural Defense Laboratory, Brazilian Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Food Supply, Sao Jose, SC, Brazil
| | - Heitor Daguer
- Federal Agricultural Defense Laboratory, Brazilian Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Food Supply, Sao Jose, SC, Brazil
| | | | - Luciano Molognoni
- Federal Agricultural Defense Laboratory, Brazilian Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Food Supply, Sao Jose, SC, Brazil
| | - Cynthia Fernandes Pinto da Luz
- Center for Research in Palynology, Department of the Environment of São Paulo, Institute of Botany, Sao Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | | | - Luciano Valdemiro Gonzaga
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Federal University of Santa Catarina, Florianopolis, SC, Brazil
| | - Patricia Brugnerotto
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Federal University of Santa Catarina, Florianopolis, SC, Brazil
| | - Silvana Lima Gorniak
- Department of Pathology, School of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science, University of Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Fabiano Barreto
- Federal Agricultural Defense Laboratory, Brazilian Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Food Supply, Sao Jose, SC, Brazil
| | - Roseane Fett
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Federal University of Santa Catarina, Florianopolis, SC, Brazil
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Reinhard H, Zoller O. Pyrrolizidine alkaloids in tea, herbal tea and iced tea beverages- survey and transfer rates. Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess 2021; 38:1914-1933. [PMID: 34237234 DOI: 10.1080/19440049.2021.1941302] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
The transfer rate of 37 pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PA) found in ten naturally contaminated teas and herbal teas to their brews was studied in detail. Mixed herbal, peppermint, red bush, senna, black tea and green tea infusions were prepared according to the ISO guide and vendor's instructions, respectively, and parameters like herb-to-water ratio, steeping time and multiple extractions studied. In general, a transfer rate of 38-100% (median 95%) for brews following vendor's instructions was determined. The total concentration range of PA in these ten samples was 154-2412 ng/g (median 422 ng/g) in the herb and for single analytes 0.1-170 ng/g. Seven of the 37 PA occurred unexpectedly; these were tentatively identified and quantified by liquid chromatography-high resolution mass spectrometry (LC-HR-MS), since their contributions to total PA-content matter. Additionally, 46 iced tea beverages were analysed for their PA-load, determined to be in the range 0-631 ng/L (median 40 ng/L). The applied solid-phase extraction (SPE) clean-up turned out to be capable of separating PA in the free base pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PAFB) and their N-oxides (PANO) in a two-step elution, which was a valuable tool to support identification of unexpected PA. Further, atropine was found in 50% of the ten tea herb samples (range: 1-4 ng/g) and in 13% of the iced tea beverage samples (range: 2-65 ng/L).
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Affiliation(s)
- Hans Reinhard
- Risk Assessment Division, Swiss Federal Food Safety and Veterinary Office (FSVO), Bern, Switzerland
| | - Otmar Zoller
- Risk Assessment Division, Swiss Federal Food Safety and Veterinary Office (FSVO), Bern, Switzerland
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23
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Rivera-Pérez A, Romero-González R, Garrido Frenich A. Determination and Occurrence of Alkenylbenzenes, Pyrrolizidine and Tropane Alkaloids in Spices, Herbs, Teas, and Other Plant-derived Food Products Using Chromatographic Methods: Review from 2010–2020. FOOD REVIEWS INTERNATIONAL 2021. [DOI: 10.1080/87559129.2021.1929300] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Araceli Rivera-Pérez
- Research Group “Analytical Chemistry of Contaminants”, Department of Chemistry and Physics, Research Centre for Mediterranean Intensive Agrosystems and Agrifood Biotechnology (CIAIMBITAL), Agrifood Campus of International Excellence (Ceia3), University of Almeria, Almeria, Spain
| | - Roberto Romero-González
- Research Group “Analytical Chemistry of Contaminants”, Department of Chemistry and Physics, Research Centre for Mediterranean Intensive Agrosystems and Agrifood Biotechnology (CIAIMBITAL), Agrifood Campus of International Excellence (Ceia3), University of Almeria, Almeria, Spain
| | - Antonia Garrido Frenich
- Research Group “Analytical Chemistry of Contaminants”, Department of Chemistry and Physics, Research Centre for Mediterranean Intensive Agrosystems and Agrifood Biotechnology (CIAIMBITAL), Agrifood Campus of International Excellence (Ceia3), University of Almeria, Almeria, Spain
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Lin F, Ma Y, Pan A, Ye Y, Liu J. Quantification of Usaramine and Its N-oxide Metabolite in Rat Plasma Using Liquid Chromatography-Tandem Mass Spectrometry. J Anal Toxicol 2021; 46:512-518. [PMID: 34086913 PMCID: PMC9122504 DOI: 10.1093/jat/bkab060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2021] [Revised: 04/29/2021] [Accepted: 06/03/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
A sensitive, fast and robust liquid chromatography--tandem mass spectrometry (LC–MS-MS) method was developed and validated for the determination of usaramine (URM) and usaramine N-oxide (UNO) in rat plasma. The separation was conducted on an ACQUITY UPLC BEH C18 Column (50 × 2.1 mm, 1.7 μm) and gradient eluted with mobile phase A (0.1% formic acid with 5 mM ammonium acetate in water) and B (0.1% formic acid in acetonitrile/methanol, 9/1, v/v). The method was linear over the range of 1–2,000 ng/mL for both analytes. The validated method was applied to investigate the pharmacokinetic behaviors and sex differences of URM and its N-oxide metabolite in rats. After intravenous administration of URM at 1 mg/kg, the AUC0-t values for URM and UNO were 363 ± 65 and 172 ± 32 ng/mL*h in male rats, while 744 ± 122 and 30.7 ± 7.4 ng/mL*h in females, respectively. The clearance of URM was significantly higher in male rats than in females (2.77 ± 0.50 vs 1.35 ± 0.19 L/h/kg, P < 0.05). After oral administration of URM at 10 mg/kg, the AUC0-t values of URM and UNO were 1,960 ± 208 and 1,637 ± 246 ng/mL*h in male rats, while 6,073 ± 488 and 300 ± 62 ng/mL*h in females, respectively. The oral bioavailability of URM in female rats (81.7%) was much higher than in males (54.0%). In conclusion, sex-based differences were observed in the pharmacokinetics, N-oxide metabolism and oral bioavailability of URM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Feifei Lin
- School of Chinese Materia Medica, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, 138 Xianlin Avenue, Qixia District, Nanjing 210023, China.,Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, 555 Zuchongzhi Road, Shanghai 201203, China
| | - Yan Ma
- Shanghai First Maternity and Infant Hospital, Tongji University School of Medicine, 536 Changle Road, Shanghai 200126, China
| | - Anni Pan
- Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, 555 Zuchongzhi Road, Shanghai 201203, China
| | - Yang Ye
- School of Chinese Materia Medica, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, 138 Xianlin Avenue, Qixia District, Nanjing 210023, China.,Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, 555 Zuchongzhi Road, Shanghai 201203, China
| | - Jia Liu
- Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, 555 Zuchongzhi Road, Shanghai 201203, China
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De Jesus Inacio L, Merlanti R, Lucatello L, Bisutti V, Carraro L, Larini I, Vitulo N, Cardazzo B, Capolongo F. Natural contaminants in bee pollen: DNA metabarcoding as a tool to identify floral sources of pyrrolizidine alkaloids and fungal diversity. Food Res Int 2021; 146:110438. [PMID: 34119245 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodres.2021.110438] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2020] [Revised: 05/03/2021] [Accepted: 05/21/2021] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
The use of bee pollen as a food supplement has increased in recent years as it contains several nutrients and phytochemicals. However, depending on floral composition, bee pollen can be contaminated by pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PAs), PA N-oxides (PANOs) and toxigenic fungi found in plants, which may pose a potential health risk for consumers. Thus, a DNA metabarcoding approach based on internal transcribed spacer 2 (ITS2) region was used to identify the plant sources of 17 PAs/PANOs detected by a validated method in liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS), as well as floral and fungal diversity in 61 bee pollen samples. According to LC-MS/MS analysis, 67% of the samples contained PAs/PANOs with mean concentration of 339 µg/kg. The contamination pattern was characterised by lycopsamine- and senecionine-type PAs/PANOs. PA/PANO-producing plants were identified in 54% of the PA/PANO-contaminated samples analysed by DNA metabarcoding, which also allowed identifying the overall floral and fungal composition of 56 samples. To evaluate the performance of the molecular approach, a subset of 25 samples was analysed by classical palynology. Palynological analysis partially confirmed the results of DNA metabarcoding, which had a better performance in distinguishing pollens of different genera from Asteraceae (76%) and Brassicaceae (88%). However, the molecular analysis did not identify pollens from Castanea, Eucalyptus, Hedera and Salix, which were abundant in 11 samples according to palynology. On the other hand, the molecular analysis allowed identifying several fungal genera in 33 samples, including the toxigenic fungi Alternaria and Aspergillus, which were positively correlated to the plant genus Hypericum. Despite limitations in identifying some pollen types, these preliminary results suggest that the DNA metabarcoding could be applied in a multidisciplinary approach to give a picture of floral and fungal diversity, which can be sources of natural contaminants in bee pollen and would help to control its safety.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luciana De Jesus Inacio
- Department of Comparative Biomedicine and Food Science, University of Padova, Legnaro, PD, Italy
| | - Roberta Merlanti
- Department of Comparative Biomedicine and Food Science, University of Padova, Legnaro, PD, Italy
| | - Lorena Lucatello
- Department of Comparative Biomedicine and Food Science, University of Padova, Legnaro, PD, Italy
| | - Vittoria Bisutti
- Department of Comparative Biomedicine and Food Science, University of Padova, Legnaro, PD, Italy
| | - Lisa Carraro
- Department of Comparative Biomedicine and Food Science, University of Padova, Legnaro, PD, Italy
| | - Ilaria Larini
- Department of Biotechnology, University of Verona, Verona, Italy
| | - Nicola Vitulo
- Department of Biotechnology, University of Verona, Verona, Italy
| | - Barbara Cardazzo
- Department of Comparative Biomedicine and Food Science, University of Padova, Legnaro, PD, Italy.
| | - Francesca Capolongo
- Department of Comparative Biomedicine and Food Science, University of Padova, Legnaro, PD, Italy
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Pyrrolizidine alkaloids cause cell cycle and DNA damage repair defects as analyzed by transcriptomics in cytochrome P450 3A4-overexpressing HepG2 clone 9 cells. Cell Biol Toxicol 2021; 38:325-345. [PMID: 33884520 PMCID: PMC8986750 DOI: 10.1007/s10565-021-09599-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2021] [Accepted: 03/02/2021] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PAs) are a large group of highly toxic chemical compounds, which are found as cross-contaminants in numerous food products (e.g., honey), dietary supplements, herbal teas, and pharmaceutical herbal medicines. PA contaminations are responsible for serious hepatotoxicity and hepatocarcinogenesis. Health authorities have to set legal limit values to guarantee the safe consumption of plant-based nutritional and medical products without harmful health. Toxicological and chemical analytical methods are conventionally applied to determine legally permitted limit values for PAs. In the present investigation, we applied a highly sensitive transcriptomic approach to investigate the effect of low concentrations of five PAs (lasiocarpine, riddelliine, lycopsamine, echimidine, and monocrotaline) on human cytochrome P450 3A4-overexpressing HepG2 clone 9 hepatocytes. The transcriptomic profiling of deregulated gene expression indicated that the PAs disrupted important signaling pathways related to cell cycle regulation and DNA damage repair in the transfected hepatocytes, which may explain the carcinogenic PA effects. As PAs affected the expression of genes that involved in cell cycle regulation, we applied flow cytometric cell cycle analyses to verify the transcriptomic data. Interestingly, PA treatment led to an arrest in the S phase of the cell cycle, and this effect was more pronounced with more toxic PAs (i.e., lasiocarpine and riddelliine) than with the less toxic monocrotaline. Using immunofluorescence, high fractions of cells were detected with chromosome congression defects upon PA treatment, indicating mitotic failure. In conclusion, the tested PAs revealed threshold concentrations, above which crucial signaling pathways were deregulated resulting in cell damage and carcinogenesis. Cell cycle arrest and DNA damage repair point to the mutagenicity of PAs. The disturbance of chromosome congression is a novel mechanism of Pas, which may also contribute to PA-mediated carcinogenesis. Transcriptomic, cell cycle, and immunofluorescence analyses should supplement the standard techniques in toxicology to unravel the biological effects of PA exposure in liver cells as the primary target during metabolization of PAs.
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Current Knowledge and Perspectives of Pyrrolizidine Alkaloids in Pharmacological Applications: A Mini-Review. Molecules 2021; 26:molecules26071970. [PMID: 33807368 PMCID: PMC8037423 DOI: 10.3390/molecules26071970] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2021] [Revised: 03/21/2021] [Accepted: 03/27/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PAs) are a widespread group of secondary metabolites in plants. PAs are notorious for their acute hepatotoxicity, genotoxicity and neurological damage to humans and animals. In recent decades, the application of PAs for beneficial biological activities to cure disease has drawn greater attention. Here, we review the current knowledge regarding the pharmacological properties of PAs and discuss PAs as promising prototypes for the development of new drugs.
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Geburek I, Rutz L, Gao L, Küpper JH, These A, Schrenk D. Metabolic Pattern of Hepatotoxic Pyrrolizidine Alkaloids in Liver Cells. Chem Res Toxicol 2021; 34:1101-1113. [PMID: 33719395 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrestox.0c00507] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Contamination with 1,2-unsaturated pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PAs) is a serious problem for certain phytomedicines, foods, and animal feeds. Several of these PAs are genotoxic and carcinogenic, primarily in the liver, upon cytochrome P450 (CYP)-catalyzed activation into reactive (pyrrolic and pyrrole-like) metabolites. Here we investigated the metabolism of selected PAs (echimidine, europine, lasiocarpine, lycopsamine, retrorsine, and senecionine) in rat hepatocytes in primary culture and in human CYP3A4-transfected HepG2 cells. The open-chained diesters echimidine and lasiocarpine and the cyclic diester senecionine were extensively metabolized in rat hepatocytes into a broad spectrum of products released into the medium. A large portion of unidentified, possibly irreversibly bound, products remained in the cells while detectable amounts of reactive and other metabolites were found in the incubation media. In HepG2-CYP3A4 cells, lasiocarpine was more extensively metabolized than echimidine and senecionine which also gave rise to the release of pyrrolic metabolites. In human cells, no pyrrolic metabolites were detected in retrorsine or lycopsamine incubations, while no such metabolites were detected from europine in both cell types. Other types of metabolic changes comprised modifications such as side chain demethylation or oxygenation reactions like the formation of N-oxides. The latter, considered as a detoxification step, was a major pathway with cyclic diesters, was less distinctive for echimidine and lycopsamine and almost negligible for lasiocarpine and europine. Our data are in agreement with previously published cyto- and genotoxicity findings and suggests that the metabolic pattern may contribute substantially to the specific toxic potency of a certain congener. In addition, marked differences were found for certain congeners between rat hepatocytes and transfected human HepG2 cells, whereby a high level of bioactivation was found for lasiocarpine, whereas a very low level of bioactivation was observed for monoesters, in particular in human cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ina Geburek
- German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, Department of Safety in the Food Chain, Max-Dohrn-Straße 8-10, 10589 Berlin, Germany
| | - Lukas Rutz
- University of Kaiserslautern, Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Erwin-Schrödinger-Straße 52, 67663 Kaiserslautern, Germany
| | - Lan Gao
- University of Kaiserslautern, Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Erwin-Schrödinger-Straße 52, 67663 Kaiserslautern, Germany
| | - Jan-Heiner Küpper
- Molecular Cell Biology, Brandenburg University of Technology, Senftenberg 03046, Germany
| | - Anja These
- German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, Department of Safety in the Food Chain, Max-Dohrn-Straße 8-10, 10589 Berlin, Germany
| | - Dieter Schrenk
- University of Kaiserslautern, Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Erwin-Schrödinger-Straße 52, 67663 Kaiserslautern, Germany
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Günthardt BF, Wettstein FE, Hollender J, Singer H, Härri J, Scheringer M, Hungerbühler K, Bucheli TD. Retrospective HRMS Screening and Dedicated Target Analysis Reveal a Wide Exposure to Pyrrolizidine Alkaloids in Small Streams. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2021; 55:1036-1044. [PMID: 33372520 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.0c06411] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PAs) are found to be toxic pollutants emitted into the environment by numerous plant species, resulting in contamination. In this article, we investigate the occurrence of PAs in the aquatic environment of small Swiss streams combining two different approaches. Pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PAs) are toxic secondary metabolites produced by numerous plant species. Although they were classified as persistent and mobile and found to be emitted into the environment, their occurrence in surface waters is largely unknown. Therefore, we performed a retrospective data analysis of two extensive HRMS campaigns each covering five small streams in Switzerland over the growing season. All sites were contaminated with up to 12 individual PAs and temporal detection frequencies between 36 and 87%. Individual PAs were in the low ng/L range, but rain-induced maximal total PA concentrations reached almost 100 ng/L in late spring and summer. Through PA patterns in water and plants, several species were tentatively identified as the source of contamination, with Senecio spp. and Echium vulgare being the most important. Additionally, two streams were monitored, and PAs were quantified with a newly developed, faster, and more sensitive LC-MS/MS method to distinguish different plant-based and indirect human PA sources. A distinctly different PA fingerprint in aqueous plant extracts pointed to invasive Senecio inaequidens as the main source of the surface water contamination at these sites. Results indicate that PA loads may increase if invasive species are sufficiently abundant.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barbara F Günthardt
- Environmental Analytics, Agroscope, Reckenholzstrasse 191, Zürich 8046, Switzerland
- Institute of Biogeochemistry and Pollutant Dynamics, ETH Zürich, Universitätsstrasse 16, Zürich 8092, Switzerland
| | - Felix E Wettstein
- Environmental Analytics, Agroscope, Reckenholzstrasse 191, Zürich 8046, Switzerland
| | - Juliane Hollender
- Institute of Biogeochemistry and Pollutant Dynamics, ETH Zürich, Universitätsstrasse 16, Zürich 8092, Switzerland
- Eawag, Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology, Überlandstrasse 133, Dübendorf 8600, Switzerland
| | - Heinz Singer
- Eawag, Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology, Überlandstrasse 133, Dübendorf 8600, Switzerland
| | - Jana Härri
- Environmental Analytics, Agroscope, Reckenholzstrasse 191, Zürich 8046, Switzerland
- Institute of Biogeochemistry and Pollutant Dynamics, ETH Zürich, Universitätsstrasse 16, Zürich 8092, Switzerland
| | - Martin Scheringer
- Institute for Chemical and Bioengineering, ETH Zurich, Wolfgang-Pauli-Strasse 10, Zürich 8093, Switzerland
- RECETOX, Masaryk University, Kamenice 753/5, Brno 625 00, Czech Republic
| | - Konrad Hungerbühler
- Institute for Chemical and Bioengineering, ETH Zurich, Wolfgang-Pauli-Strasse 10, Zürich 8093, Switzerland
| | - Thomas D Bucheli
- Environmental Analytics, Agroscope, Reckenholzstrasse 191, Zürich 8046, Switzerland
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Brugnerotto P, Seraglio SKT, Schulz M, Gonzaga LV, Fett R, Costa ACO. Pyrrolizidine alkaloids and beehive products: A review. Food Chem 2020; 342:128384. [PMID: 33214040 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2020.128384] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2020] [Revised: 09/25/2020] [Accepted: 10/10/2020] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PA) are secondary metabolites of plants, which are mostly found in the genus Senecio, Echium, Crotalaria, and Eupatorium. The presence of 1,2-unsaturated PA in foods is a concern to food regulators around the world because these compounds have been associated to acute and chronic toxicity, mainly in the liver. The intake foods with PA/PANO usually occur through accidental ingestion of plants and their derivatives, besides to products of vegetal-animal origin, such as honey. PA/PANO are transferred to honey by their presence in nectar, honeydew, and pollen, which are collected from the flora by bees. In addition to honey, other beekeeping products, such as pollen, royal jelly, propolis, and beeswax, are also vulnerable to PA contamination. In this context, this review provides information about chemical characteristics, regulation, and toxicity, as well as summarizes and critically discusses scientific publications that evaluated PA in honeys, pollens, royal jelly, and propolis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patricia Brugnerotto
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Federal University of Santa Catarina, Florianopolis, SC, Brazil.
| | | | - Mayara Schulz
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Federal University of Santa Catarina, Florianopolis, SC, Brazil
| | - Luciano Valdemiro Gonzaga
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Federal University of Santa Catarina, Florianopolis, SC, Brazil
| | - Roseane Fett
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Federal University of Santa Catarina, Florianopolis, SC, Brazil
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Izcara S, Casado N, Morante-Zarcero S, Sierra I. A Miniaturized QuEChERS Method Combined with Ultrahigh Liquid Chromatography Coupled to Tandem Mass Spectrometry for the Analysis of Pyrrolizidine Alkaloids in Oregano Samples. Foods 2020; 9:foods9091319. [PMID: 32962136 PMCID: PMC7554850 DOI: 10.3390/foods9091319] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2020] [Revised: 09/02/2020] [Accepted: 09/04/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Recent and unexpected food alerts about relatively high amounts of pyrrolizidine alkaloids in oregano samples have stressed the need to develop analytical strategies to ensure food safety in this type of foodstuff. Accordingly, this work presents the development of a miniaturized strategy based on the QuEChERS (quick, easy, cheap, effective, rugged and safe) method combined with ultrahigh liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS) for the determination of 21 pyrrolizidine alkaloids suggested by the European Food Safety Authority to be monitored in food. The analytical method was properly validated, with overall average recoveries from 77 to 96% and relative standard deviations <13% (n = 9). The method proved to be a sustainable analytical strategy which meets green analytical chemistry principles as it showed good performance by using small amounts of sample (0.2 g), organic solvents (1000 µL), clean-up sorbents (175 mg) and partitioning salts (0.65 g). Its feasibility was verified through the analysis of 23 oregano samples. Of the samples analyzed, 100% were contaminated, with an average concentration of 1254 µg/kg. Lasiocarpine, lasiocarpine N-oxide, europine, europine N-oxide, senecivernine, senecionine, echimidine N-oxide, lycopsamine N-oxide and intermedine N-oxide were the alkaloids which significantly contributed to the contamination of the samples.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Isabel Sierra
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +34-91-488-7018; Fax: +34-91-488-8143
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Horizontal Natural Product Transfer: A Novel Attribution in Allelopathy. REFERENCE SERIES IN PHYTOCHEMISTRY 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-96397-6_10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
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Hessel-Pras S, Braeuning A, Guenther G, Adawy A, Enge AM, Ebmeyer J, Henderson CJ, Hengstler JG, Lampen A, Reif R. The pyrrolizidine alkaloid senecionine induces CYP-dependent destruction of sinusoidal endothelial cells and cholestasis in mice. Arch Toxicol 2020; 94:219-229. [PMID: 31606820 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-019-02582-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2019] [Accepted: 09/18/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PAs) are widely occurring phytotoxins which can induce severe liver damage in humans and other mammalian species by mechanisms that are not fully understood. Therefore, we investigated the development of PA hepatotoxicity in vivo, using an acutely toxic dose of the PA senecionine in mice, in combination with intravital two-photon microscopy, histology, clinical chemistry, and in vitro experiments with primary mouse hepatocytes and liver sinusoidal endothelial cells (LSECs). We observed pericentral LSEC necrosis together with elevated sinusoidal marker proteins in the serum of senecionine-treated mice and increased sinusoidal platelet aggregation in the damaged tissue regions. In vitro experiments showed no cytotoxicity to freshly isolated LSECs up to 500 µM senecionine. However, metabolic activation of senecionine by preincubation with primary mouse hepatocytes increased the cytotoxicity to cultivated LSECs with an EC50 of approximately 22 µM. The cytochrome P450 (CYP)-dependency of senecionine bioactivation was confirmed in CYP reductase-deficient mice where no PA-induced hepatotoxicity was observed. Therefore, toxic metabolites of senecionine are generated by hepatic CYPs, and may be partially released from hepatocytes leading to destruction of LSECs in the pericentral region of the liver lobules. Analysis of hepatic bile salt transport by intravital two-photon imaging revealed a delayed uptake of a fluorescent bile salt analogue from the hepatic sinusoids into hepatocytes and delayed elimination. This was accompanied by transcriptional deregulation of hepatic bile salt transporters like Abcb11 or Abcc1. In conclusion, senecionine destroys LSECs although the toxic metabolite is formed in a CYP-dependent manner in the adjacent pericentral hepatocytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefanie Hessel-Pras
- Department Food Safety, German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, Max-Dohrn-Str. 8-10, Berlin, Germany.
| | - Albert Braeuning
- Department Food Safety, German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, Max-Dohrn-Str. 8-10, Berlin, Germany
| | - Georgia Guenther
- Leibniz Research Centre for Working Environment and Human Factors, Technical University Dortmund, Ardeystraße 67, Dortmund, Germany
| | - Alshaimaa Adawy
- Leibniz Research Centre for Working Environment and Human Factors, Technical University Dortmund, Ardeystraße 67, Dortmund, Germany
| | - Anne-Margarethe Enge
- Department Food Safety, German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, Max-Dohrn-Str. 8-10, Berlin, Germany
| | - Johanna Ebmeyer
- Department Food Safety, German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, Max-Dohrn-Str. 8-10, Berlin, Germany
| | - Colin J Henderson
- Systems Medicine, Jacqui Wood Cancer Centre, University of Dundee, School of Medicine, James Arrott Drive, Ninewells Hospital, Dundee, UK
| | - Jan G Hengstler
- Leibniz Research Centre for Working Environment and Human Factors, Technical University Dortmund, Ardeystraße 67, Dortmund, Germany
| | - Alfonso Lampen
- Department Food Safety, German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, Max-Dohrn-Str. 8-10, Berlin, Germany
| | - Raymond Reif
- Leibniz Research Centre for Working Environment and Human Factors, Technical University Dortmund, Ardeystraße 67, Dortmund, Germany
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Prinsloo G, Steffens F, Vervoort J, Rietjens IM. Risk assessment of herbal supplements containing ingredients that are genotoxic and carcinogenic. Crit Rev Toxicol 2019; 49:567-579. [DOI: 10.1080/10408444.2019.1686456] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Gerhard Prinsloo
- Division of Toxicology, Wageningen University, Wageningen, Netherlands
- Department of Agriculture and Animal Health, College of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences, University of South Africa, Florida, Johannesburg, South Africa
| | - Francois Steffens
- Department of Consumer Science, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, Gauteng, South Africa
| | - Jacques Vervoort
- Department of Agriculture and Animal Health, College of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences, University of South Africa, Florida, Johannesburg, South Africa
- Laboratory of Biochemistry, Wageningen University, Wageningen, Netherlands
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Hungerford NL, Carter SJ, Anuj SR, Tan BLL, Hnatko D, Martin CL, Sharma E, Yin M, Nguyen TTP, Melksham KJ, Fletcher MT. Analysis of Pyrrolizidine Alkaloids in Queensland Honey: Using Low Temperature Chromatography to Resolve Stereoisomers and Identify Botanical Sources by UHPLC-MS/MS. Toxins (Basel) 2019; 11:E726. [PMID: 31835836 PMCID: PMC6950414 DOI: 10.3390/toxins11120726] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2019] [Revised: 11/22/2019] [Accepted: 11/26/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PAs) are a diverse group of plant secondary metabolites with known varied toxicity. Consumption of 1,2-unsaturated PAs has been linked to acute and chronic liver damage, carcinogenicity and death, in livestock and humans, making their presence in food of concern to food regulators in Australia and internationally. In this survey, honey samples sourced from markets and shops in Queensland (Australia), were analysed by high-resolution Orbitrap UHPLC-MS/MS for 30 common PAs. Relationships between the occurrence of pyrrolizidine alkaloids and the botanical origin of the honey are essential as pyrrolizidine alkaloid contamination at up to 3300 ng/g were detected. In this study, the predominant alkaloids detected were isomeric PAs, lycopsamine, indicine and intermedine, exhibiting identical MS/MS spectra, along with lesser amounts of each of their N-oxides. Crucially, chromatographic UHPLC conditions were optimised by operation at low temperature (5 °C) to resolve these key isomeric PAs. Such separation of these isomers by UHPLC, enabled the relative proportions of these PAs present in honey to be compared to alkaloid levels in suspect source plants. Overall plant pyrrolizidine alkaloid profiles were compared to those found in honey samples to help identify the most important plants responsible for honey contamination. The native Australian vines of Parsonsia spp. are proposed as a likely contributor to high levels of lycopsamine in many of the honeys surveyed. Botanical origin information such as this, gained via low temperature chromatographic resolution of isomeric PAs, will be very valuable in identifying region of origin for honey samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natasha L. Hungerford
- Queensland Alliance for Agriculture and Food Innovation (QAAFI), The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia; (C.L.M.); (E.S.); (M.Y.); (T.T.P.N.)
| | - Steve J. Carter
- Forensic and Scientific Services, Queensland Health, Brisbane, QLD 4108, Australia; (S.J.C.); (S.R.A.); (B.L.L.T.); (D.H.); (K.J.M.)
| | - Shalona R. Anuj
- Forensic and Scientific Services, Queensland Health, Brisbane, QLD 4108, Australia; (S.J.C.); (S.R.A.); (B.L.L.T.); (D.H.); (K.J.M.)
| | - Benjamin L. L. Tan
- Forensic and Scientific Services, Queensland Health, Brisbane, QLD 4108, Australia; (S.J.C.); (S.R.A.); (B.L.L.T.); (D.H.); (K.J.M.)
| | - Darina Hnatko
- Forensic and Scientific Services, Queensland Health, Brisbane, QLD 4108, Australia; (S.J.C.); (S.R.A.); (B.L.L.T.); (D.H.); (K.J.M.)
| | - Christopher L. Martin
- Queensland Alliance for Agriculture and Food Innovation (QAAFI), The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia; (C.L.M.); (E.S.); (M.Y.); (T.T.P.N.)
| | - Elipsha Sharma
- Queensland Alliance for Agriculture and Food Innovation (QAAFI), The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia; (C.L.M.); (E.S.); (M.Y.); (T.T.P.N.)
| | - Mukan Yin
- Queensland Alliance for Agriculture and Food Innovation (QAAFI), The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia; (C.L.M.); (E.S.); (M.Y.); (T.T.P.N.)
| | - Thao T. P. Nguyen
- Queensland Alliance for Agriculture and Food Innovation (QAAFI), The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia; (C.L.M.); (E.S.); (M.Y.); (T.T.P.N.)
| | - Kevin J. Melksham
- Forensic and Scientific Services, Queensland Health, Brisbane, QLD 4108, Australia; (S.J.C.); (S.R.A.); (B.L.L.T.); (D.H.); (K.J.M.)
| | - Mary T. Fletcher
- Queensland Alliance for Agriculture and Food Innovation (QAAFI), The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia; (C.L.M.); (E.S.); (M.Y.); (T.T.P.N.)
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Development of a sensitive analytical method for determining 44 pyrrolizidine alkaloids in teas and herbal teas via LC-ESI-MS/MS. Anal Bioanal Chem 2019; 411:7233-7249. [PMID: 31511948 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-019-02117-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2019] [Revised: 08/13/2019] [Accepted: 08/26/2019] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PA) and PA-N-oxides (PANO) are a large group of secondary plant metabolites comprising more than 660 compounds. Exhibiting geno- and hepatotoxic properties, they are responsible for multiple cases of food and feed poisoning over the last 100 years. For food and feed safety reasons, relevant PA/PANO should be monitored extensively in the main sources of PA/PANO intake. In this study, a sensitive analytical method was developed for detecting a broad range of 44 commercially available PA/PANO compounds, and in-house validation procedures were performed for several (herbal) teas. Various extraction solvents and procedures, as well as solid phase extraction materials for sample clean-up and analyte concentration, were tested to establish the methods' efficiency and effectiveness. Chromatographic conditions were optimised to obtain the best possible separation of isomers for the 44 PA/PANO analytes. The final method was proven very sensitive and accurate, with detection limits ranging from 0.1 to 7.0 μg/kg and precisions between 0.7 and 16.1%. For 40 of the analytes, the recovery rates ranged from 60.7 to 128.8%. The applicability and trueness of the method were examined by analysing tea samples from a local supermarket and comparing them to a reference material. At least one PA/PANO analyte was detected in 17 of the 18 samples under investigation, and the sum contents of the samples ranged from 0.1 to 47.9 μg/kg. Knowledge of the PA/PANO composition in a sample can be used to indicate the botanical origin of the impurity and, thus, the geographical region of cultivation.
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Selmar D, Radwan A, Hijazin T, Abouzeid S, Yahyazadeh M, Lewerenz L, Kleinwächter M, Nowak M. Horizontal Natural Product Transfer: Intriguing Insights into a Newly Discovered Phenomenon. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2019; 67:8740-8745. [PMID: 31334643 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.9b03619] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
Just recently, the "horizontal natural product transfer" was unveiled: alkaloids, which have been leached out from decomposing alkaloidal donor plants, are taken up by the roots of acceptor plants. In the same manner, many other natural products, such as coumarins or stilbenes, are also taken up from the soil. Recent research outlined that alkaloids are transferred also from a living donor plant to plants growing in their vicinity. In the acceptor plants, the imported natural products might be modified by hydroxylation and glucosylation. These insights will strongly impact our understanding of contamination of plant-derived commodities as well as plant-plant interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dirk Selmar
- Institute for Plant Biology , Technical University of Braunschweig , Mendelssohnstraße 4 , 38106 Braunschweig , Germany
| | - Alzahraa Radwan
- Institute for Plant Biology , Technical University of Braunschweig , Mendelssohnstraße 4 , 38106 Braunschweig , Germany
| | - Tahani Hijazin
- Institute for Plant Biology , Technical University of Braunschweig , Mendelssohnstraße 4 , 38106 Braunschweig , Germany
| | - Sara Abouzeid
- Institute for Plant Biology , Technical University of Braunschweig , Mendelssohnstraße 4 , 38106 Braunschweig , Germany
| | - Mahdi Yahyazadeh
- Institute for Plant Biology , Technical University of Braunschweig , Mendelssohnstraße 4 , 38106 Braunschweig , Germany
| | - Laura Lewerenz
- Institute for Plant Biology , Technical University of Braunschweig , Mendelssohnstraße 4 , 38106 Braunschweig , Germany
| | - Maik Kleinwächter
- Institute for Plant Biology , Technical University of Braunschweig , Mendelssohnstraße 4 , 38106 Braunschweig , Germany
| | - Melanie Nowak
- Institute for Plant Biology , Technical University of Braunschweig , Mendelssohnstraße 4 , 38106 Braunschweig , Germany
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Celano R, Piccinelli AL, Campone L, Russo M, Rastrelli L. Determination of Selected Pyrrolizidine Alkaloids in Honey by Dispersive Liquid-Liquid Microextraction and Ultrahigh-Performance Liquid Chromatography-Tandem Mass Spectrometry. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2019; 67:8689-8699. [PMID: 31298525 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.9b02392] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
The contamination of honey with hepatotoxic pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PAs) is an actual concern for food safety. This study reports the first application of dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction (DLLME) in the determination of five relevant PAs, and the relative N-oxide derivatives (PANOs), in honey. The effects of different experimental parameters (pH, ionic strength, type and volume of DLLME solvents) affecting the extraction efficiency were carefully investigated and optimized. PAs were extracted from honey (diluted solution 10% w/v at pH 9.5) by injecting a mixture of chloroform and isopropyl alcohol. A reduction step (zinc powder in acidic aqueous solution) before DLLME was performed to convert PANOs in PAs and to obtain the total PA levels. Both sample preparation protocols (DLLME and Zn-DLLME) showed negligible matrix effects on PA signal intensity in honeys of different botanical origins. The overall recoveries of DLLME and Zn-DLLME ranged from 71 to 102% and from 63 to 103%, respectively, with a good precision (standard deviations in the range from 1 to 12%). The attained method quantification limits stayed between 0.03 and 0.06 μg kg-1, and the linear response range extended to 25 μg kg-1. Additionally, the proposed method provides results comparable to those of the SPE protocol in the analysis of real samples. An analysis of retail honeys revealed PA residues in all analyzed samples, with a maximum level of 17.5 μg kg-1 (total PAs). Globally, the proposed method provides a sensitive and accurate determination of analytes and offers numerous advantages, such as simplicity, low cost, and a high sample throughput, which make it suitable for screening and quality control programs in food chain and occurrence studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rita Celano
- Department of Pharmacy , University of Salerno , Via Giovanni Paolo II 132 , 84084 Fisciano , Salerno , Italy
| | - Anna Lisa Piccinelli
- Department of Pharmacy , University of Salerno , Via Giovanni Paolo II 132 , 84084 Fisciano , Salerno , Italy
| | - Luca Campone
- Department of Agriculture Science, Food Chemistry, Safety and Sensoromic Laboratory (FoCuSS Lab) , University of Reggio Calabria , Via Salita Melissari , 89124 Reggio Calabria , Italy
| | - Mariateresa Russo
- Department of Agriculture Science, Food Chemistry, Safety and Sensoromic Laboratory (FoCuSS Lab) , University of Reggio Calabria , Via Salita Melissari , 89124 Reggio Calabria , Italy
| | - Luca Rastrelli
- Department of Pharmacy , University of Salerno , Via Giovanni Paolo II 132 , 84084 Fisciano , Salerno , Italy
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Chen LH, Wang JC, Guo QL, Qiao Y, Wang HJ, Liao YH, Sun DA, Si JY. Simultaneous Determination and Risk Assessment of Pyrrolizidine Alkaloids in Artemisia capillaris Thunb. by UPLC-MS/MS Together with Chemometrics. Molecules 2019; 24:E1077. [PMID: 30893797 PMCID: PMC6471392 DOI: 10.3390/molecules24061077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2019] [Revised: 03/13/2019] [Accepted: 03/15/2019] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PAs) are natural toxins found in some genera of the family Asteraceae. However, it has not been reported whether PAs are present in the widely used Asteraceae plant Artemisia capillaris Thunb. (A. capillaris). The purpose of this study was to establish a sensitive and rapid UPLC-MS/MS method together with chemometrics analysis for simultaneous determination and risk assessment of PAs in A. capillaris. The developed UPLC-MS/MS method was validated and was confirmed to display desirable high selectivity, precision and accuracy. Risk assessment was conducted according to the European Medicines Agency (EMA) guideline. Chemometrics analysis was performed with hierarchical clustering analysis and principal component analysis to characterize the differences between PAs of A. capillaris. Finally, PAs were found in 29 out of 30 samples and at least two were detected in each sample, besides, more than half of the samples exceeded the EMA baseline. Nevertheless, the chemometrics results suggested that the PAs contents of A. capillaris from different sources varied significantly. The method was successfully applied to the detection and risk evaluation of PAs-containing A. capillaris for the first time. This study should provide a meaningful reference for the rational and safe use of A. capillaris.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li-Hua Chen
- The Key Laboratory of Bioactive Substances and Resources Utilization of Chinese Herbal Medicine, Ministry of Education, Institute of Medicinal Plant Development, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100193, China.
| | - Jun-Chi Wang
- The Key Laboratory of Bioactive Substances and Resources Utilization of Chinese Herbal Medicine, Ministry of Education, Institute of Medicinal Plant Development, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100193, China.
| | - Qi-Lei Guo
- Agilent Technologies Co. Ltd. (China), No.3, Wang Jing Bei Road, Chao Yang District, Beijing 100102, China.
| | - Yue Qiao
- The Key Laboratory of Bioactive Substances and Resources Utilization of Chinese Herbal Medicine, Ministry of Education, Institute of Medicinal Plant Development, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100193, China.
| | - Hui-Juan Wang
- The Key Laboratory of Bioactive Substances and Resources Utilization of Chinese Herbal Medicine, Ministry of Education, Institute of Medicinal Plant Development, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100193, China.
| | - Yong-Hong Liao
- The Key Laboratory of Bioactive Substances and Resources Utilization of Chinese Herbal Medicine, Ministry of Education, Institute of Medicinal Plant Development, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100193, China.
| | - Di-An Sun
- The Key Laboratory of Bioactive Substances and Resources Utilization of Chinese Herbal Medicine, Ministry of Education, Institute of Medicinal Plant Development, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100193, China.
| | - Jian-Yong Si
- The Key Laboratory of Bioactive Substances and Resources Utilization of Chinese Herbal Medicine, Ministry of Education, Institute of Medicinal Plant Development, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100193, China.
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Flade J, Beschow H, Wensch-Dorendorf M, Plescher A, Wätjen W. Occurrence of Nine Pyrrolizidine Alkaloids in Senecio vulgaris L. Depending on Developmental Stage and Season. PLANTS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2019; 8:E54. [PMID: 30841617 PMCID: PMC6473320 DOI: 10.3390/plants8030054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2019] [Revised: 02/18/2019] [Accepted: 02/19/2019] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
The contamination of phytopharmaceuticals and herbal teas with toxic plants is an increasing problem. Senecio vulgaris L. is a particularly noxious weed in agricultural and horticultural crops due to its content of toxic pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PAs). Since some of these compounds are carcinogenic, the distribution of this plant should be monitored. The amount of PAs in S. vulgaris is affected by various factors. Therefore, we investigated the occurrence of PAs depending on the developmental stage and season. A systematic study using field-plot experiments (four seasons, five developmental stages of the plants: S1 to S5) was performed and the PA concentration was determined via LC-MS/MS analysis. The total amount of PAs in the plant increased with the plant development, however, the total PA concentrations in µg/g dry matter remained nearly unchanged, whilst trends for specific PAs were observed. The concentrations of PA-N-oxides (PANOs) were much higher than that of tertiary PAs. Maximal amounts of the PA total were 54.16 ± 4.38 mg/plant (spring, S5). The total amount of PAs increased strongly until later developmental stages. Therefore, even small numbers of S. vulgaris may become sufficient for relevant contaminations set out by the maximal permitted daily intake levels recommended by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA).
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Affiliation(s)
- Jens Flade
- Plant Nutrition, Institute of Agricultural and Nutritional Sciences, Martin-Luther-University Halle-Wittenberg, Betty-Heimann-Strasse 3, 06120 Halle/Saale, Germany.
- PHARMAPLANT Arznei- und Gewürzpflanzen Forschungs- und Saatzucht GmbH, Am Westbahnhof 4, 06556 Artern, Germany.
- Biofunctionality of Secondary Plant Compounds, Institute of Agricultural and Nutritional Sciences, Martin-Luther-University Halle-Wittenberg, Weinbergweg 22, 06120 Halle/Saale, Germany.
| | - Heidrun Beschow
- Plant Nutrition, Institute of Agricultural and Nutritional Sciences, Martin-Luther-University Halle-Wittenberg, Betty-Heimann-Strasse 3, 06120 Halle/Saale, Germany.
| | - Monika Wensch-Dorendorf
- AG Biometrie und Agrarinformatik, Institute of Agricultural and Nutritional Sciences, Martin-Luther-University Halle-Wittenberg, Karl-Freiherr-von-Fritsch-Strasse 4, 06120 Halle/Saale, Germany.
| | - Andreas Plescher
- PHARMAPLANT Arznei- und Gewürzpflanzen Forschungs- und Saatzucht GmbH, Am Westbahnhof 4, 06556 Artern, Germany.
| | - Wim Wätjen
- Biofunctionality of Secondary Plant Compounds, Institute of Agricultural and Nutritional Sciences, Martin-Luther-University Halle-Wittenberg, Weinbergweg 22, 06120 Halle/Saale, Germany.
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Drobac M, Arsenijević J, Marčetić M. Safety aspects of herbal products containing compounds with a potential risk. ARHIV ZA FARMACIJU 2019. [DOI: 10.5937/arhfarm1904307d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022] Open
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Yang X, Li W, Li H, Wang X, Chen Y, Guo X, Peng Y, Zheng J. A Difference in Internal Exposure Makes Newly Weaned Mice More Susceptible to the Hepatotoxicity of Retrorsine Than Adult Mice. Chem Res Toxicol 2018; 31:1348-1355. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrestox.8b00220] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Xiaojing Yang
- Wuya College of Innovation, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Shenyang, Liaoning 110016, P. R. China
| | - Weiwei Li
- State Key Laboratory of Functions and Applications of Medicinal Plants, Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutics of Guizhou Province, Guizhou Medical University, Guiyang, Guizhou 550004, P. R. China
| | - Hui Li
- Wuya College of Innovation, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Shenyang, Liaoning 110016, P. R. China
| | - Xu Wang
- Wuya College of Innovation, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Shenyang, Liaoning 110016, P. R. China
| | - Yan Chen
- Wuya College of Innovation, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Shenyang, Liaoning 110016, P. R. China
| | - Xiucai Guo
- Wuya College of Innovation, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Shenyang, Liaoning 110016, P. R. China
| | - Ying Peng
- Wuya College of Innovation, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Shenyang, Liaoning 110016, P. R. China
| | - Jiang Zheng
- Wuya College of Innovation, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Shenyang, Liaoning 110016, P. R. China
- State Key Laboratory of Functions and Applications of Medicinal Plants, Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutics of Guizhou Province, Guizhou Medical University, Guiyang, Guizhou 550004, P. R. China
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Habs M, Binder K, Krauss S, Müller K, Ernst B, Valentini L, Koller M. A Balanced Risk-Benefit Analysis to Determine Human Risks Associated with Pyrrolizidine Alkaloids (PA)-The Case of Herbal Medicinal Products Containing St. John's Wort Extracts (SJW). Nutrients 2018; 10:E804. [PMID: 29932143 PMCID: PMC6073194 DOI: 10.3390/nu10070804] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2018] [Revised: 06/08/2018] [Accepted: 06/19/2018] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PA) exist ubiquitously in our environment. More than 6000 plants, about 3% of the world’s flowering plants, are known to synthesize PA. As a consequence, many herbal ingredients, including St. John’s wort (SJW), are contaminated with PA that can possess acute and subchronic toxic effects as well as mutagenic and genotoxic properties. Therefore, the possible benefits of SJW as an herbal remedy against depression need to be weighed against the possible risks of unwanted PA intake. METHODS We searched the literature regarding the current knowledge on PA and evaluated the evidence on the antidepressant effects of quantified SJW extract based on a Cochrane Review and the current practice guidelines on depression. Risks are depicted in form of a risk ladder and benefits in form of an icon array. RESULTS Evidence from clinical studies indicates that quantified SJW extract is an effective treatment option for mild to moderate depression with fewer side effects than conventional antidepressants. Health statistics from different countries do not quantify cases of death caused by PA intake. However, deaths due to suicide, often triggered by depression, are common (11 in 1000 in Germany in 2015) and rank between fatalities due to liver diseases (16 in 1000) and household accidents (10 in 1000). CONCLUSIONS Quantified SJW extract is a safe and effective treatment option, and its potential of treating depression outweighs the (hypothetical) risk of unwanted PA intake.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Habs
- Faculty of Medicine, LMU-University of Munich, 80336 Munich, Germany.
| | - Karin Binder
- Didactics of Mathematics, University of Regensburg, 93053 Regensburg, Germany.
| | - Stefan Krauss
- Didactics of Mathematics, University of Regensburg, 93053 Regensburg, Germany.
| | - Karolina Müller
- Center for Clinical Studies, University Hospital Regensburg, 93053 Regensburg, Germany.
| | - Brigitte Ernst
- General Medicine Unit, University Hospital Regensburg, 93053 Regensburg, Germany.
| | - Luzia Valentini
- Institute of Evidence-Based Dietetics, University of Applied Sciences Neubrandenburg, 17033 Neubrandenburg, Germany.
| | - Michael Koller
- Center for Clinical Studies, University Hospital Regensburg, 93053 Regensburg, Germany.
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Moreira R, Pereira DM, Valentão P, Andrade PB. Pyrrolizidine Alkaloids: Chemistry, Pharmacology, Toxicology and Food Safety. Int J Mol Sci 2018; 19:E1668. [PMID: 29874826 PMCID: PMC6032134 DOI: 10.3390/ijms19061668] [Citation(s) in RCA: 142] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2018] [Revised: 05/23/2018] [Accepted: 05/23/2018] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PA) are widely distributed in plants throughout the world, frequently in species relevant for human consumption. Apart from the toxicity that these molecules can cause in humans and livestock, PA are also known for their wide range of pharmacological properties, which can be exploited in drug discovery programs. In this work we review the current body of knowledge regarding the chemistry, toxicology, pharmacology and food safety of PA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rute Moreira
- REQUIMTE/LAQV, Laboratório de Farmacognosia, Departamento de Química, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade do Porto, R. Jorge Viterbo Ferreira, nº 228, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal.
| | - David M Pereira
- REQUIMTE/LAQV, Laboratório de Farmacognosia, Departamento de Química, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade do Porto, R. Jorge Viterbo Ferreira, nº 228, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal.
| | - Patrícia Valentão
- REQUIMTE/LAQV, Laboratório de Farmacognosia, Departamento de Química, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade do Porto, R. Jorge Viterbo Ferreira, nº 228, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal.
| | - Paula B Andrade
- REQUIMTE/LAQV, Laboratório de Farmacognosia, Departamento de Química, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade do Porto, R. Jorge Viterbo Ferreira, nº 228, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal.
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Kowalczyk E, Kwiatek K. Use of a New LC-MS Method for The Determination of Pyrrolizidine Alkaloids in Feeds. J Vet Res 2018; 62:183-191. [PMID: 30364865 PMCID: PMC6200292 DOI: 10.2478/jvetres-2018-0028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2018] [Accepted: 06/08/2018] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PAs) are secondary metabolites produced by many plant species. Due to their toxicity PAs can pose a risk to human and animal health. To detect the toxic compounds in feed materials a sensitive method based on liquid chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry has been developed. MATERIAL AND METHODS PAs were extracted with sulphuric acid and purified with cation exchange cartridges. A newly developed solvent mixture consisting of ethyl acetate, methanol, acetonitrile, ammonia, and triethylamine was used to wash alkaloids from the cartridges. After evaporation the residues were reconstituted in water and methanol mixture and subjected to LC-MS analysis. RESULTS The developed method was validated according to SANTE/11945/2015 guidelines. The recovery was from 84.1% to 112.9%, the repeatability ranged from 3.0% to 13.6%, and the reproducibility was from 4.8% to 18.9%. CONCLUSIONS A sensitive and selective method for determination of PAs in feed materials has been developed and validated. All evaluated validation parameters were in accordance with EU Reference Laboratories document no. SANTE/11945/2015. Almost 41% of the analysed feed samples were positive for the presence of at least one PA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ewelina Kowalczyk
- Department of Hygiene of Animal Feedingstuffs, National Veterinary Research Institute, 24-100Pulawy, Poland
| | - Krzysztof Kwiatek
- Department of Hygiene of Animal Feedingstuffs, National Veterinary Research Institute, 24-100Pulawy, Poland
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Kowalczyk E, Kwiatek K. Pyrrolizidine Alkaloids in Honey: Determination with Liquid Chromatography-mass Spectrometry Method. J Vet Res 2018; 62:173-181. [PMID: 30364911 PMCID: PMC6200291 DOI: 10.2478/jvetres-2018-0027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2018] [Accepted: 06/20/2018] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PAs) are probably the most widespread toxins of natural origin. More than 6,000 plant species produce these toxic compounds. Bees can forage on flowers of plants producing PAs, which leads to contamination of honey with the toxic compounds. To determine the contamination of honey with PAs, a sensitive method based on liquid chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry has been developed. MATERIAL AND METHODS PAs were extracted with 0.05 M sulphuric acid and purified with MCX cartridges. A solvent mixture consisting of ethyl acetate, methanol, acetonitrile, ammonia, and triethylamine (8:1:1:0.1:0.1, v/v) was used to wash alkaloids from the cartridges. After evaporation the residues were reconstituted in water and methanol mixture and subjected to LC-MS analysis. RESULTS The developed method was validated according to SANTE/11945/2015 requirements. The recovery was from 80.6% to 114.5%. The repeatability ranged from 2.3% to 14.6%, and the reproducibility was from 4.9% to 17.7%. CONCLUSIONS A new method for the determination of PAs in honey has been developed and validated. All evaluated parameters were in accordance with the SANTE/11945/2015 guidance document. Out of 50 analysed honey samples, 16 (32%) were positive for the content of at least one PA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ewelina Kowalczyk
- Department of Hygiene of Animal Feedingstuffs, National Veterinary Research Institute, 24-100Pulawy, Poland
| | - Krzysztof Kwiatek
- Department of Hygiene of Animal Feedingstuffs, National Veterinary Research Institute, 24-100Pulawy, Poland
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Kaltner F, Rychlik M, Gareis M, Gottschalk C. Influence of Storage on the Stability of Toxic Pyrrolizidine Alkaloids and Their N-Oxides in Peppermint Tea, Hay, and Honey. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2018; 66:5221-5228. [PMID: 29709169 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.7b06036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
1,2-Dehydropyrrolizidine alkaloids (PA) and PA- N-oxides (PANO) are phytotoxins, which presumably occur in more than 6,000 plant species worldwide. Plants containing PA/PANO are responsible for various food and feed poisonings recorded for decades. Main reasons of exposition of consumers and livestock are contaminations of food and animal feed with parts, seeds, pollen, or nectar of PA-containing plants. Concerning stability, effects of processing on PA were mainly investigated in the past. The current study examined the behavior of PA/PANO in unprocessed matrices peppermint tea, hay, and honey during storage. Blank samples were fortified with PA/PANO or contaminated with blueweed ( Echium vulgare) and ragwort ( Senecio jacobaea) and stored for 182 d. The time-series analysis using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) confirmed that all 25 analyzed PA/PANO compounds remained stable in herbal samples. However, the results showed a very fast decrease of PANO in honey samples within hours. These results were discussed with respect to potential consequences for health risk assessment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Florian Kaltner
- Chair of Food Safety, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine , Ludwig-Maximilian University of Munich , Schoenleutnerstr. 8 , 85764 Oberschleissheim , Germany
- Chair of Analytical Food Chemistry , Technical University of Munich, Maximus-von-Imhof-Forum 2 , 85354 Freising-Weihenstephan , Germany
| | - Michael Rychlik
- Chair of Analytical Food Chemistry , Technical University of Munich, Maximus-von-Imhof-Forum 2 , 85354 Freising-Weihenstephan , Germany
| | - Manfred Gareis
- Chair of Food Safety, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine , Ludwig-Maximilian University of Munich , Schoenleutnerstr. 8 , 85764 Oberschleissheim , Germany
| | - Christoph Gottschalk
- Chair of Food Safety, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine , Ludwig-Maximilian University of Munich , Schoenleutnerstr. 8 , 85764 Oberschleissheim , Germany
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Younes M, Aggett P, Aguilar F, Crebelli R, Dusemund B, Filipič M, Frutos MJ, Galtier P, Gott D, Gundert-Remy U, Lambré C, Leblanc JC, Lillegaard IT, Moldeus P, Mortensen A, Oskarsson A, Stankovic I, Waalkens-Berendsen I, Woutersen RA, Andrade RJ, Fortes C, Mosesso P, Restani P, Arcella D, Pizzo F, Smeraldi C, Wright M. Scientific opinion on the safety of green tea catechins. EFSA J 2018; 16:e05239. [PMID: 32625874 PMCID: PMC7009618 DOI: 10.2903/j.efsa.2018.5239] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The EFSA ANS Panel was asked to provide a scientific opinion on the safety of green tea catechins from dietary sources including preparations such as food supplements and infusions. Green tea is produced from the leaves of Camellia sinensis (L.) Kuntze, without fermentation, which prevents the oxidation of polyphenolic components. Most of the polyphenols in green tea are catechins. The Panel considered the possible association between the consumption of (-)-epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG), the most relevant catechin in green tea, and hepatotoxicity. This scientific opinion is based on published scientific literature, including interventional studies, monographs and reports by national and international authorities and data received following a public 'Call for data'. The mean daily intake of EGCG resulting from the consumption of green tea infusions ranges from 90 to 300 mg/day while exposure by high-level consumers is estimated to be up to 866 mg EGCG/day, in the adult population in the EU. Food supplements containing green tea catechins provide a daily dose of EGCG in the range of 5-1,000 mg/day, for adult population. The Panel concluded that catechins from green tea infusion, prepared in a traditional way, and reconstituted drinks with an equivalent composition to traditional green tea infusions, are in general considered to be safe according to the presumption of safety approach provided the intake corresponds to reported intakes in European Member States. However, rare cases of liver injury have been reported after consumption of green tea infusions, most probably due to an idiosyncratic reaction. Based on the available data on the potential adverse effects of green tea catechins on the liver, the Panel concluded that there is evidence from interventional clinical trials that intake of doses equal or above 800 mg EGCG/day taken as a food supplement has been shown to induce a statistically significant increase of serum transaminases in treated subjects compared to control.
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Chung SWC, Lam CH. Development of an Analytical Method for Analyzing Pyrrolizidine Alkaloids in Different Groups of Food by UPLC-MS/MS. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2018; 66:3009-3018. [PMID: 29485280 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.7b06118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Suspected nontargeted pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PAs), without analytical reference standard, were observed and interfered with the determination of targeted PAs in complex food matrices, especially for spices samples. Selectivity and applicability of multiple reaction monitoring (MRM) transitions, multistage fragmentation (MS3), and MRM with differential ion mobility spectrometry (DMS) for eliminating false positive identifications were evaluated. Afterward, a selective and sensitive LC-MS/MS method for the determination of 15 PAs and 13 PA N-oxides in foodstuffs was developed. The sample preparation and cleanup are applicable to a wide range of foodstuffs, including cereal products, dairy products, meat, eggs, honey, tea infusion, and spices. Freezing-out of the raw extract and the water/acetonitrile washing steps in a solid phase extraction was found to efficiently remove complex matrices. The method was validated at 0.05 μg kg-1 for general food and 0.5 μg kg-1 for spices, with reference to the Eurachem Guide. The estimated limit of quantifications of different PAs was in the range of 0.010-0.087 μg kg-1 for general food and 0.04-0.76 μg kg-1 for spices. Isotopically labeled PAs were used as internal standards to correct the variation of PAs/PANs performance in different food commodities. Matrix effects observed in complex food matrices could be reduced by solvent dilution. Recoveries of PAs and PA N-oxides were all seen within 50-120%.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen W C Chung
- Food Research Laboratory , Centre for Food Safety, Food and Environmental Hygiene Department , 4/F Public Health Laboratory Centre, 382 Nam Cheong Street , Hong Kong
| | - Chi-Ho Lam
- Food Research Laboratory , Centre for Food Safety, Food and Environmental Hygiene Department , 4/F Public Health Laboratory Centre, 382 Nam Cheong Street , Hong Kong
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