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Piacentino D, Sani G, Kotzalidis GD, Cappelletti S, Longo L, Rizzato S, Fabi F, Frati P, Fineschi V, Leggio L. Anabolic androgenic steroids used as performance and image enhancing drugs in professional and amateur athletes: Toxicological and psychopathological findings. Hum Psychopharmacol 2022; 37:e2815. [PMID: 34528289 PMCID: PMC8727496 DOI: 10.1002/hup.2815] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2021] [Revised: 07/31/2021] [Accepted: 08/24/2021] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The use of anabolic androgenic steroids (AASs) as performance and image enhancing drugs (PIEDs), once restricted to professional athletes, now includes amateurs and regular gym visitors. AAS use is associated with psychopathology, yet this relationship is complex and not fully understood. We aimed to assess the presence of AASs and other misused substances in athletes' biological samples and link toxicological to psychopathological findings. METHODS A multicentre, cross-sectional study in fitness centres in Italy recruited 122 professional and amateur athletes training in several sports (84 men; age range = 18-45 years). Athletes completed questionnaires, interviews, and toxicology testing for AASs, other PIEDs, illicit drugs, and non-prescribed psychotropics. Toxicology was conducted in blood, urine, and hair. RESULTS Self-reported and toxicologically detected use rates of AASs and other misused substances showed slight-to-fair agreement (Fleiss' κ = 0.104-0.375). There was slight-to-moderate agreement among the three biological samples used for AAS testing (κ = 0.112-0.436). Thirty-one athletes (25.4%) tested positive for AASs. More sport hours/week, narcissistic or antisocial personality disorders, and higher nonplanning impulsiveness scores predicted AAS use (pseudo-R2 = 0.665). AAS users did not differ significantly from non-users in major psychopathology, but their Hypomania Checklist-32 score, which also predicted AAS use, was significantly higher (p < 0.001), suggesting increased odds for cyclothymic disorder or subthreshold hypomania. CONCLUSIONS Our results have implications for studying AAS users, as they identify a cluster of variables that may be relevant in future understanding of AAS use risks (e.g., personality disorders). Possible disagreements between AAS assessment methods should be considered when implementing harm reduction interventions, such as needle and syringe distribution, health education, and counselling, as well as surveillance programmes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daria Piacentino
- Clinical Psychoneuroendocrinology and Neuropsychopharmacology Section, Translational Addiction Medicine Branch, National Institute on Drug Abuse Intramural Research Program and National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism Division of Intramural Clinical and Biological Research, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore and Bethesda, MD, USA,Center on Compulsive Behaviors, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA,Neurosciences, Mental Health, and Sensory Organs (NESMOS) Department, School of Medicine and Psychology, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy,Correspondence: Daria Piacentino, M.D., Ph.D., M.S., Clinical Psychoneuroendocrinology and Neuropsychopharmacology Section, Translational Addiction Medicine Branch, NIDA IRP and NIAAA DICBR, National Institutes of Health, 251 Bayview Blvd, Room 02A406, Baltimore, MD 21224, Phone: 443-740-2793,
| | - Gabriele Sani
- Department of Neuroscience, Psychiatry Section, Catholic University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - Georgios D. Kotzalidis
- Neurosciences, Mental Health, and Sensory Organs (NESMOS) Department, School of Medicine and Psychology, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - Simone Cappelletti
- Anatomical, Histological, Forensic Medicine, and Orthopedic Sciences (SAIMLAL) Department, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - Livia Longo
- Neurosciences, Mental Health, and Sensory Organs (NESMOS) Department, School of Medicine and Psychology, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - Salvatore Rizzato
- Neurosciences, Mental Health, and Sensory Organs (NESMOS) Department, School of Medicine and Psychology, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - Francesco Fabi
- Centre for Statistical and Social Studies (CE3S), Rome, Italy
| | - Paola Frati
- Anatomical, Histological, Forensic Medicine, and Orthopedic Sciences (SAIMLAL) Department, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - Vittorio Fineschi
- Anatomical, Histological, Forensic Medicine, and Orthopedic Sciences (SAIMLAL) Department, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - Lorenzo Leggio
- Clinical Psychoneuroendocrinology and Neuropsychopharmacology Section, Translational Addiction Medicine Branch, National Institute on Drug Abuse Intramural Research Program and National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism Division of Intramural Clinical and Biological Research, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore and Bethesda, MD, USA,Center on Compulsive Behaviors, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA,Medication Development Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse Intramural Research Program, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD, USA,Center for Alcohol and Addiction Studies, Department of Behavioral and Social Sciences, Brown University School of Public Health, Providence, RI, USA,Division of Addiction Medicine, Department of Medicine, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA,Department of Neuroscience, Georgetown University Medical Center, Washington, DC, USA
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Lemma T, de Barros Souza F, Tellez Soto CA, Martin AA. An FT-Raman, FT-IR, and Quantum Chemical Investigation of Stanozolol and Oxandrolone. BIOSENSORS 2017; 8:bios8010002. [PMID: 29278383 PMCID: PMC5872050 DOI: 10.3390/bios8010002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2017] [Revised: 12/01/2017] [Accepted: 12/02/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
We have studied the Fourier Transform Infrared (FT-IR) and the Fourier transform Raman (FT-Raman) spectra of stanozolol and oxandrolone, and we have performed quantum chemical calculations based on the density functional theory (DFT) with a B3LYP/6-31G (d, p) level of theory. The FT-IR and FT-Raman spectra were collected in a solid phase. The consistency between the calculated and experimental FT-IR and FT-Raman data indicates that the B3LYP/6-31G (d, p) can generate reliable geometry and related properties of the title compounds. Selected experimental bands were assigned and characterized on the basis of the scaled theoretical wavenumbers by their total energy distribution. The good agreement between the experimental and theoretical spectra allowed positive assignment of the observed vibrational absorption bands. Finally, the calculation results were applied to simulate the Raman and IR spectra of the title compounds, which show agreement with the observed spectra.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tibebe Lemma
- Faculdade de Ciencias e Technologia (FCT), Universidade Estadual Paulista (UNESP), Presidente Prudente, São Paulo 19060-900, Brazil.
| | - Fabiano de Barros Souza
- Fisiologia e Farmacodinamica, University of Vale do Paraiba (UNIVAP), Shishima Hifumi Ave, 2911, Sao Jose dos Campos, São Paulo 12244-000, Brazil.
| | - Claudio A Tellez Soto
- Biomedical Engineering Innovation Center-Biomedical Vibrational Spectroscopy Group, Universidade Brasil-Rua Carolina Fonseca, Itaquera , São Paulo 235-08230-030, Brazil.
| | - Airton A Martin
- Biomedical Engineering Innovation Center-Biomedical Vibrational Spectroscopy Group, Universidade Brasil-Rua Carolina Fonseca, Itaquera , São Paulo 235-08230-030, Brazil.
- Departamento de Física, CCN, Universidade Federal do Piauí (UFPI), Bairro Ininga, Teresina/PI 64049-550, Brazil.
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Klötz F, Petersson A, Hoffman O, Thiblin I. The significance of anabolic androgenic steroids in a Swedish prison population. Compr Psychiatry 2010; 51:312-8. [PMID: 20399342 DOI: 10.1016/j.comppsych.2009.05.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2008] [Revised: 04/18/2009] [Accepted: 05/19/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Use of anabolic androgenic steroids (AAS) has been associated with adverse psychiatric effect, violent behavior, and criminality. The aim of this study was to further investigate the motives for and consequences of AAS use, with focus on violent and antisocial behavior. Fifty-nine prisoners were interviewed on their use of AAS, and their history was mapped with Addiction Severity Index interviews. Of these prisoners, 56% admitted previous use of AAS, of whom 24% declared to have committed violent crimes in connection with use of AAS. However, the only significant difference between users and nonusers with regard to criminal history when measured with the Addiction Severity Index was that the AAS users more often stated that they had been prosecuted for crimes labeled as "other crimes," which did not include violent crimes. The reported side effects of AAS corresponded well to those previously reported. These results indicate that use of AAS is common among Swedish prisoners and that the motives and consequences of such use are similar to what has been observed in other AAS-using populations. Furthermore, this study supports earlier notions that misuse of AAS might cause violent behavior, but only in certain individuals and mainly in combination with other substances.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fia Klötz
- Department of Surgical Sciences, Forensic Medicine, Uppsala University, SE-75237 Uppsala, Sweden.
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Kanayama G, Hudson JI, Pope HG. Long-term psychiatric and medical consequences of anabolic-androgenic steroid abuse: a looming public health concern? Drug Alcohol Depend 2008; 98:1-12. [PMID: 18599224 PMCID: PMC2646607 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2008.05.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 215] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2008] [Revised: 05/15/2008] [Accepted: 05/16/2008] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The problem of anabolic-androgenic steroid (AAS) abuse has recently generated widespread public and media attention. Most AAS abusers, however, are not elite athletes like those portrayed in the media, and many are not competitive athletes at all. This larger but less visible population of ordinary AAS users began to emerge in about 1980. The senior members of this population are now entering middle age; they represent the leading wave of a new type of aging former substance abusers, with specific medical and psychiatric risks. METHODS We reviewed the evolving literature on long-term psychiatric and medical consequences of AAS abuse. RESULTS Long-term use of supraphysiologic doses of AAS may cause irreversible cardiovascular toxicity, especially atherosclerotic effects and cardiomyopathy. In other organ systems, evidence of persistent toxicity is more modest, and interestingly, there is little evidence for an increased risk of prostate cancer. High concentrations of AAS, comparable to those likely sustained by many AAS abusers, produce apoptotic effects on various cell types, including neuronal cells--raising the specter of possibly irreversible neuropsychiatric toxicity. Finally, AAS abuse appears to be associated with a range of potentially prolonged psychiatric effects, including dependence syndromes, mood syndromes, and progression to other forms of substance abuse. However, the prevalence and severity of these various effects remains poorly understood. CONCLUSIONS As the first large wave of former AAS users now moves into middle age, it will be important to obtain more systematic data on the long-term psychiatric and medical consequences of this form of substance abuse.
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Wood RI. Anabolic-androgenic steroid dependence? Insights from animals and humans. Front Neuroendocrinol 2008; 29:490-506. [PMID: 18275992 PMCID: PMC2585375 DOI: 10.1016/j.yfrne.2007.12.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2007] [Revised: 12/21/2007] [Accepted: 12/25/2007] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Anabolic-androgenic steroids (AAS) are drugs of abuse. They are taken in large quantities by athletes and others to increase performance, with negative health consequences. As a result, in 1991 testosterone and related AAS were declared controlled substances. However, the relative abuse and dependence liability of AAS have not been fully characterized. In humans, it is difficult to separate the direct psychoactive effects of AAS from reinforcement due to their systemic anabolic effects. However, using conditioned place preference and self-administration, studies in animals have demonstrated that AAS are reinforcing in a context where athletic performance is irrelevant. Furthermore, AAS share brain sites of action and neurotransmitter systems in common with other drugs of abuse. In particular, recent evidence links AAS with opioids. In humans, AAS abuse is associated with prescription opioid use. In animals, AAS overdose produces symptoms resembling opioid overdose, and AAS modify the activity of the endogenous opioid system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruth I Wood
- Department of Cell & Neurobiology, Keck School of Medicine of the University of Southern California, 1333 San Pablo Street, BMT 401, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA.
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Sato SM, Schulz KM, Sisk CL, Wood RI. Adolescents and androgens, receptors and rewards. Horm Behav 2008; 53:647-58. [PMID: 18343381 PMCID: PMC2435368 DOI: 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2008.01.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 98] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2007] [Revised: 01/24/2008] [Accepted: 01/25/2008] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Adolescence is associated with increases in pleasure-seeking behaviors, which, in turn, are shaped by the pubertal activation of the hypothalamo-pituitary-gonadal axis. In animal models of naturally rewarding behaviors, such as sex, testicular androgens contribute to the development and expression of the behavior in males. To effect behavioral maturation, the brain undergoes significant remodeling during adolescence, and many of the changes are likewise sensitive to androgens, presumably acting through androgen receptors (AR). Given the delicate interaction of gonadal hormones and brain development, it is no surprise that disruption of hormone levels during this sensitive period significantly alters adolescent and adult behaviors. In male hamsters, exposure to testosterone during adolescence is required for normal expression of adult sexual behavior. Males deprived of androgens during puberty display sustained deficits in mating. Conversely, androgens alone are not sufficient to induce mating in prepubertal males, even though brain AR are present before puberty. In this context, wide-spread use of anabolic-androgenic steroids (AAS) during adolescence is a significant concern. AAS abuse has the potential to alter both the timing and the levels of androgens in adolescent males. In hamsters, adolescent AAS exposure increases aggression, and causes lasting changes in neurotransmitter systems. In addition, AAS are themselves reinforcing, as demonstrated by self-administration of testosterone and other AAS. However, recent evidence suggests that the reinforcing effects of androgens may not require classical AR. Therefore, further examination of interactions between androgens and rewarding behaviors in the adolescent brain is required for a better understanding of AAS abuse.
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Affiliation(s)
- Satoru M. Sato
- Department of Cell and Neurobiology, Keck School of Medicine at the University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033
| | - Kalynn M. Schulz
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience Program, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824
| | - Cheryl L. Sisk
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience Program, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824
| | - Ruth I. Wood
- Department of Cell and Neurobiology, Keck School of Medicine at the University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033
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Peters KD, Wood RI. Androgen dependence in hamsters: overdose, tolerance, and potential opioidergic mechanisms. Neuroscience 2005; 130:971-81. [PMID: 15652994 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2004.09.063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/17/2004] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Anabolic steroids are drugs of abuse. However, the potential for steroid reward and addiction remains largely unexplored. This study used i.c.v. testosterone self-administration and controlled infusions of testosterone or vehicle in hamsters to explore central mechanisms of androgen overdose. Forty-two hamsters used nose-pokes to self-administer 1 microg/microl testosterone i.c.v. 4 h/day in an operant chamber. During 1-56 days of androgen self-administration, 10 (24%) hamsters died. Deaths correlated with peak daily intake of testosterone. Of the hamsters that self-administered a peak intake of <20 microg/day, there was 100% survival (10/10). Survival decreased to 86% (19/22) when daily testosterone intake peaked at 20-60 microg/day. Only 30% (three of 10) survived when daily testosterone intake exceeded 60 microg/day. Deaths are not due to volume or vehicle because i.c.v. infusions of 80 mul vehicle had no effect. Testosterone overdose resembles opiate intoxication. When male hamsters received infusions of 40 microg testosterone, locomotion (25.1+/-18.8 grid-crossings/10 min), respiration (72.7+/-5.4 breaths/min) and body temperature (33.5+/-0.4 degrees C) were significantly reduced, compared with males receiving vehicle infusions (186.1+/-8.1 crossings/10 min, 117.6+/-1.0 breaths/min, 35.9+/-0.1 degrees C, P<0.05). However, males developed tolerance to continued daily testosterone infusion. After 15 days, locomotion (170.2+/-6.3 crossings), respiration (118.4+/-1.3 breaths/min), and body temperature (35.3+/-0.3 degrees C) in testosterone-infused males were equivalent to that in vehicle controls (P>0.05). The depressive effects of testosterone infusion are blocked by the opioid antagonist, naltrexone. With naltrexone pre-treatment (10 mg/kg s.c.), locomotion (183.7+/-1.8 crossings/10 min), respiration (116.9+/-0.3 breaths/min), and body temperature (36.1+/-0.4 degrees C) during testosterone infusion were equivalent to vehicle controls. Likewise, naltrexone prevents the reinforcing effects of i.c.v. testosterone self-administration. These results indicate that testosterone at high doses causes central autonomic depression, which may be a factor in deaths during self-administration. As well, the depressive effects of large quantities of testosterone may be mediated, at least in part, by an opioidergic mechanism.
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Affiliation(s)
- K D Peters
- Department of Cell and Neurobiology, Keck School of Medicine at the University of Southern California, 1333 San Pablo Street, BMT 401, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA
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Kurling S, Kankaanpää A, Ellermaa S, Karila T, Seppälä T. The effect of sub-chronic nandrolone decanoate treatment on dopaminergic and serotonergic neuronal systems in the brains of rats. Brain Res 2005; 1044:67-75. [PMID: 15862791 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2005.02.071] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2004] [Revised: 02/21/2005] [Accepted: 02/24/2005] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Anabolic-androgenic steroids (AASs) are widely abused by adolescents, although persistent AAS use can cause several adverse physical and mental effects, including drug dependence. The first aim of the present study was to study the action of nandrolone decanoate on dopaminergic and serotonergic activities in the brains of rats. In order to evaluate the anabolic or toxic effects of the dosing regimens used, selected peripheral effects were monitored as well. Male Wistar rats were treated for 2 weeks. Injections containing nandrolone (5 and 20 mg/kg, i.m.) or vehicle were given once daily, 5 days a week. The levels of dopamine (DA), 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) and their metabolites were assayed from dissected brain regions 3 days after the last injection. Blood was collected for chemical assays before, after 1 week treatment and at decapitation. Both doses of nandrolone significantly increased the levels of 3,4-dihydroxyphenylacetic acid (DOPAC), a metabolite of DA in the cerebral cortex, and the higher dose of nandrolone increased the concentrations of 5-HT in the cerebral cortex compared with the vehicle. In addition, after nandrolone treatment, the levels of hemoglobin and erythrocytes increased, and reticulocyte levels decreased. The results suggest that nandrolone at supraphysiological doses, high enough to induce erythropoiesis, induces changes in the dopaminergic and serotonergic neuronal system in the brains of rats. These phenomena may account to some of the observed central stimulatory properties that have been reported following AAS abuse.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sanna Kurling
- Department of Mental Health and Alcohol Research, National Public Health Institute, Mannerheimintie 166, FIN-00300 Helsinki, Finland.
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Abstract
Are androgens reinforcing? Androgenic-anabolic steroids (AAS) are drugs of abuse. They are taken in large quantities by athletes and others to increase performance, often with negative long-term health consequences. As a result, in 1991, testosterone was declared a controlled substance. Recently, Brower [K.J. Brower, Anabolic steroid abuse and dependence. Curr. Psychiatry Rep. 4 (2002) 377-387.] proposed a two-stage model of AAS dependence. Users initiate steroid use for their anabolic effects on muscle growth. With continued exposure, dependence on the psychoactive effects of AAS develops. However, it is difficult in humans to separate direct psychoactive effects of AAS from the user's psychological dependence on the anabolic effects of AAS. Thus, studies in laboratory animals are useful to explore androgen reinforcement. Testosterone induces a conditioned place preference in rats and mice, and is voluntarily consumed through oral, intravenous, and intracerebroventricular self-administration in hamsters. Active, gonad-intact male and female hamsters will deliver 1 microg/microl testosterone into the lateral ventricles. Indeed, some individuals self-administer testosterone intracerebroventricularly to the point of death. Male rats develop a conditioned place preference to testosterone injections into the nucleus accumbens, an effect blocked by dopamine receptor antagonists. These data suggest that androgen reinforcement is mediated by the brain. Moreover, testosterone appears to act through the mesolimbic dopamine system, a common substrate for drugs of abuse. Nonetheless, androgen reinforcement is not comparable to that of cocaine or heroin. Instead, testosterone resembles other mild reinforcers, such as caffeine, nicotine, or benzodiazepines. The potential for androgen addiction remains to be determined.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruth I Wood
- Department of Cell and Neurobiology, Keck School of Medicine at the University of Southern California, 1333 San Pablo Street, BMT 401, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA.
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Riem KE, Hursey KG. Using anabolic-androgenic steroids to enhance physique and performance: Effects on moods and behavior. Clin Psychol Rev 1995. [DOI: 10.1016/0272-7358(95)00013-f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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Brower KJ. Anabolic Steroids. Am J Addict 1992. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1521-0391.1992.tb00015.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
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