Prognostic Outcomes in Acute Myocardial Infarction Patients Without Standard Modifiable Risk Factors: A Multiethnic Study of 8,680 Asian Patients

Clinical outcomes and coronary artery lesion characteristics of young patients with ST elevation myocardial infarction and no standard modifiable risk factors

BACKGROUND

Among ST-elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI) patients, those with no standard modifiable risk factors (SMuRFs: hypertension, diabetes mellitus, hypercholesterolemia, and smoking) have higher 30-day mortality than those with SMuRFs. Differences in coronary lesion characteristics remain unclear.

METHODS

Data from STEMI patients aged ≤60 years from the Asia Pacific Evaluation of Cardiovascular Therapies Network (Australia, Hong Kong, Malaysia, Singapore, and Vietnam) was retrospectively analysed. Exclusion criteria included incomplete SMuRF data, prior myocardial infarction, or prior coronary revascularisation. Lesion type was defined using the American College of Cardiology criteria. Major adverse cardiovascular events (MACE) were defined as peri-procedural myocardial infarction, emergency coronary artery bypass surgery, cerebrovascular event, or mortality. Multiple logistic regressions were used.

RESULTS

Of 4404 patients, 767 (17.4%) were SMuRFless. SMuRFless patients were more frequently younger (median age 51 vs. 53 years; p < 0.001), female (22.6% vs. 15.5%; p < 0.001), thrombolysed (20.1% vs. 12.5%; p < 0.001), and in cardiogenic shock (11.2% vs. 8.6%; p = 0.020). SMuRFless patients had significantly higher in-hospital MACE (7.2% vs. 4.3%; adjusted odds ratio [aOR] 2.25; 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.24-4.08; p = 0.008) but 1-year mortality was not significantly different (3.6% vs. 5.7%, aOR 0.58; 95% CI 0.06-6.12; p = 0.549). Compared with patients with SMuRFs (4918 lesions), the SMuRFless (940 lesions) had fewer type B2/C lesions (60.8% vs. 65.6%; p = 0.020) and fewer lesions ≥20 mm (51.1% vs. 57.1%; p = 0.002) but more procedural complications (5.1% vs. 2.7%; p < 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

Among young STEMI patients, the SMuRFless have shorter and less complex lesions, but worse procedural and short-term MACE outcomes.

Characteristics and in-hospital outcomes of female patients presenting with ST-segment-elevation myocardial infarction without standard modifiable cardiovascular risk factors

BACKGROUND

Standard Modifiable Cardiovascular Risk Factors (SMuRF) such as hypertension, diabetes mellitus, hyperlipidemia, and smoking have long been established in the etiology of atherosclerotic disease. We evaluate in-hospital outcomes of female STEMI patients without these risk factors.

METHODS

The National Inpatient Sample databases (2016 to 2021) were queried to identify STEMI admissions as a principal diagnosis using ICD 10 codes. Patients with a history of coronary artery disease, myocardial infarction, coronary bypass graft, percutaneous coronary intervention, takotsubo cardiomyopathy, cocaine abuse, and spontaneous coronary dissection and males were excluded from our study population. A final study population aged >18 years was divided into cohorts of SMuRF and SMuRF-less based on the presence of ≥1 risk factor. Multivariate logistic regression model adjusting for baseline characteristics and comorbidities. The primary outcome was in-hospital mortality. The secondary outcomes are STEMI-related complications and the use of mechanical circulatory support devices.

RESULTS

200,980 patients were identified. 187,776 (93.4 %) patients were identified as having ≥1 SMuRF, and 13,205 (6.6 %) patients were SMuRF-less. Compared to SMuRF patients, SMuRF-less patients are more likely to be white (75.6 % vs. 73.1 %, p < 0.01) and older median age (69 years [IQR: 58-78] vs 67 years [IQR: 57-81], p < 0.01). In comparing co-morbidities, SMuRF-less patients were less likely to have heart failure (28.0 % vs. 23.4 %, p < 0.01), atrial fibrillation/flutter (16.1 % vs. 14.6 %, p = 0.03), chronic pulmonary disease (18.9 % vs. 9.5 %, p < 0.01), obesity (20.7 % vs. 9.2 %, p < 0.01) and aortic disease (1.1 % vs. 0.6 %, p < 0.01). They were however more likely to have dementia (6.9 % vs. 5.7 %, p < 0.01). In evaluating outcomes, SMuRF-less patients had higher in-hospital mortality (aOR 3.2 [95 % CI, 2.9-3.6]; p < 0.01), acute heart failure (aOR 1.6 [95 % CI, 1.4-1.8]; p < 0.01), acute kidney injury (aOR 1.8 [95 % CI, 1.7-2.1]; p < 0.01), and Intra-aortic balloon pump (aOR 1.7 [95 % CI, 1.5-1.9]; p < 0.01). Predictors of higher mortality in SMuRF-less patients include chronic liver disease (OR 6.8, CI 2.4-19.4, p < 0.01), and Hispanic race (OR 1.62, CI 1.1-2.5, p < 0.01). We also found that SMuRF-less patients were less likely to undergo coronary angiography (aOR 0.5 [95 % CI, 0.4-0.5]; p < 0.01) and percutaneous coronary intervention (aOR 0.7 [95 % CI, 0.6-0.8]; p < 0.01).

CONCLUSION

Female SMuRF-less patients presenting with STEMI have worse in-hospital outcomes when compared to patients with ≥1SMuRF.

Ethnic Disparities in ST-Segment Elevation Myocardial Infarction Outcomes and Processes of Care in Patients With and Without Standard Modifiable Cardiovascular Risk Factors: A Nationwide Cohort Study

Trials suggest patients with ST-elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI) without 'standard modifiable cardiovascular risk factors' (SMuRFs) have poorer outcomes, but the role of ethnicity has not been investigated. We analyzed 118,177 STEMI patients using the Myocardial Ischaemia National Audit Project (MINAP) registry. Clinical characteristics and outcomes were analyzed using hierarchical logistic regression models; patients with ≥1 SMuRF (n = 88,055) were compared with 'SMuRFless' patients (n = 30,122), with subgroup analysis comparing outcomes of White and Ethnic minority patients. SMuRFless patients had higher incidence of major adverse cardiovascular events (MACE) (odds ratio, OR: 1.09, 95% CI 1.02-1.16) and in-hospital mortality (OR: 1.09, 95% CI 1.01-1.18) after adjusting for demographics, Killip classification, cardiac arrest, and comorbidities. When additionally adjusting for invasive coronary angiography (ICA) and revascularisation (percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) or coronary artery bypass grafts surgery (CABG)), results for in-hospital mortality were no longer significant (OR 1.05, 95% CI .97-1.13). There were no significant differences in outcomes according to ethnicity. Ethnic minority patients were more likely to undergo revascularisation with ≥1 SMuRF (88 vs 80%, P < .001) or SMuRFless (87 vs 77%, P < .001. Ethnic minority patients were more likely undergo ICA and revascularisation regardless of SMuRF status.

The prognostic value of metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease in acute myocardial infarction: A propensity score-matched analysis

AIM

Patients with metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease (MASLD) are at increased risk of incident cardiovascular disease. However, the clinical characteristics and prognostic importance of MASLD in patients presenting with acute myocardial infarction (AMI) have yet to be examined.

METHODS

This study compared the characteristics and outcomes of patients with and without MASLD presenting with AMI at a tertiary centre in Singapore. MASLD was defined as hepatic steatosis, with at least one of five metabolic criteria. Hepatic steatosis was determined using the Hepatic Steatosis Index. Propensity score matching was performed to adjust for age and sex. The Kaplan-Meier curve was constructed for long-term all-cause mortality. Cox regression analysis was used to investigate independent predictors of long-term all-cause mortality.

RESULTS

In this study of 4446 patients with AMI, 2223 patients with MASLD were matched with patients without MASLD using propensity scores. The mean follow-up duration was 3.4 ± 2.4 years. The MASLD group had higher rates of obesity, diabetes and chronic kidney disease than their counterparts. Patients with MASLD had early excess all-cause mortality (6.8% vs. 3.6%, p < .001) at 30 days, with unfavourable mortality rates sustained in the long-term (18.3% vs. 14.5%, p = .001) compared with those without MASLD. After adjustment, MASLD remained independently associated with higher long-term all-cause mortality (hazard ratio 1.330, 95% confidence interval 1.106-1.598, p = .002).

CONCLUSION

MASLD embodies a higher burden of metabolic dysfunction and is an independent predictor of long-term mortality in the AMI population. Its early identification may be beneficial for risk stratification and provide therapeutic targets for secondary preventive strategies in AMI.

Prognostic significance of triglyceride-glucose index in acute coronary syndrome patients without standard modifiable cardiovascular risk factors

BACKGROUND

A significant percentage of patients with acute coronary syndrome (ACS) without standard modifiable cardiovascular risk factors (SMuRFs) are being identified. Nonetheless, the prognostic influence of the TyG index on adverse events in this type of patient remains unexplored. The aim of this study was to assess the prognostic value of the TyG index among ACS patients without SMuRFs for predicting adverse outcomes.

METHODS

This study involved 1140 consecutive patients who were diagnosed with ACS without SMuRFs at Beijing Anzhen Hospital between May 2018 and December 2020 and underwent coronary angiography. Each patient was followed up for a period of 35 to 66 months after discharge. The objective of this study was to examine major adverse cardiac and cerebrovascular events (MACCE), which included all-cause mortality, non-fatal myocardial infarction, non-fatal ischemic stroke, as well as ischemia-driven revascularization.

RESULTS

During the median follow-up period of 48.3 months, 220 (19.3%) MACCE events occurred. The average age of the participants was 59.55 ± 10.98 years, and the average TyG index was 8.67 ± 0.53. In the fully adjusted model, when considering the TyG index as either a continuous/categorical variable, significant associations with adverse outcomes were observed. Specifically, for each 1 standard deviation increase in the TyG index within the highest TyG index group, there was a hazard ratio (HR) of 1.245 (95% confidence interval CI 1.030, 1.504) for MACCE and 1.303 (95% CI 1.026, 1.653) for ischemia-driven revascularization (both P < 0.05), when the TyG index was analyzed as a continuous variable. Similarly, when the TyG index was examined as a categorical variable, the HR (95% CI) for MACCE in the highest TyG index group was 1.693 (95% CI 1.051, 2.727) (P < 0.05) in the fully adjusted model, while the HR (95% CI) for ischemia-driven revascularization was 1.855 (95% CI 0.998, 3.449) (P = 0.051). Additionally, the TyG index was found to be associated with a poor prognosis among the subgroup.

CONCLUSION

The TyG index is correlated with poor prognosis in patients with ACS without SMuRFs, suggesting that it may be an independent predictive factor of adverse events among these individuals.

Prevalence, predictors, and in-hospital outcomes of ST-elevation myocardial infarction among young adults without traditional cardiovascular risk factors in the United States

Background

Standard Modifiable Cardiovascular Risk Factors (SMuRF) such as hypertension, diabetes mellitus, hypercholesterolemia, and smoking have long been established in the etiology of atherosclerotic disease. Studies suggest that patients without any of these risk factors (SMuRF-less) who present with ST-elevation myocardial infarction have worse outcomes.

Methods

The National Inpatient Sample databases (2016 to 2020) was queried to identify STEMI admissions as a principal diagnosis using ICD 10 codes. The study population aged 18 to 45 years were divided into cohorts of SMuRF and SMuRF-less based on the presence of ≥1 risk factor (hypertension, diabetes mellitus, hyperlipidemia, and smoking), and in-hospital outcomes were compared.

Results

41,990 patients were identified as the final study population. 38,495 patients were identified as SMuRF, and 3495 patients were SMuRF-less. Compared to SMuRF patients, SMuRF-less patients are more likely to be females (23.2 % vs. 21.2 %), have congestive heart failure (16.6 % vs. 13.7 %, p < 0.01) but less likely to have obesity (13.7 % vs 28.0 %, p < 0.01) In evaluating outcomes, SMuRF-less patients had higher adjusted in-hospital mortality (aOR 2.6, CI 1.5-4.2, p < 0.01), Cardiogenic shock (aOR 1.8, CI 1.3-2.5, p < 0.01), acute kidney injury (aOR 1.4, CI 1.0-1.9, p = 0.02), and Extramembrane Corporeal Oxygenation (aOR 4.1, CI 1.1-15.1, p = 0.03). Fluid and electrolyte abnormalities was an independent predictor of mortality among SMuRF-less patients (aOR 3.82, CI 1.3-11.2, p < 0.01).

Conclusion

Young patients who present with STEMI and have no traditional cardiovascular risk factors have worse in-hospital outcomes. Further research is needed to evaluate the impact of non-traditional risk factors on acute myocardial infarction.

Prevalence and outcomes of patients with SMuRF-less acute coronary syndrome undergoing percutaneous coronary intervention

BACKGROUND

There is increasing awareness that patients without standard modifiable risk factors (SMuRFs; diabetes, hypercholesterolaemia, hypertension and smoking) may represent a unique subset of patients with acute coronary syndrome (ACS). We aimed to investigate the prevalence and outcomes of patients with SMuRF-less ACS undergoing percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) compared with those with SMuRFs.

METHODS

We analysed data from the Melbourne Interventional Group PCI Registry. Patients with coronary artery disease were excluded. The primary outcome was 30-day mortality. Secondary outcomes included in-hospital and 30-day events. Long-term mortality was investigated using Cox-proportional hazards regression.

RESULTS

From 1 January 2005 to 31 December 2020, 2727/18 988 (14.4%) patients were SMuRF less, with the proportion increasing over time. Mean age was similar for patients with and without SMuRFs (63 years), and fewer females were SMuRF-less (19.8% vs 25.4%, p<0.001). SMuRF-less patients were more likely to present with cardiac arrest (6.6% vs 3.9%, p<0.001) and ST-elevation myocardial infarction (59.1% vs 50.8%, p<0.001) and were more likely to experience postprocedural cardiogenic shock (4.5% vs 3.6%, p=0.019) and arrhythmia (11.2% vs 9.9%, p=0.029). At 30 days, mortality, myocardial infarction, revascularisation and major adverse cardiac and cerebrovascular events did not differ between the groups. During median follow-up of 7 years, SMuRF-less patients had an adjusted 13% decreased rate of mortality (HR 0.87 (95% CI 0.78 to 0.97)).

CONCLUSIONS

The proportion of SMuRF-less patients increased over time. Presentation was more often a devastating cardiac event compared with those with SMuRFs. No difference in 30-day outcomes was observed and SMuRF-less patients had lower hazard for long-term mortality.

Mortality of patients presented with acute ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction according to the status of standard modifiable cardiovascular risk factors

BACKGROUND

Standard modifiable cardiovascular risk factors (SMuRFs) remain well-established elements of assessing cardiovascular risk scores. However, there is growing evidence that patients presented without known SMuRFs at admission demonstrate worse post-myocardial outcomes. The aim of the study was to assess the influence of the SMuRF status on short- and long-term mortality rates in patients with first-time ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI).

METHODS

This observational, cross-sectional study covered 182,726 patients admitted between 2003-2020 to the CathLabs, according to data from the Polish Registry of Acute Coronary Syndrome. Both baseline characteristics and mortality (in-hospital, 30-day, and 12-month) were examined and stratified by SMuRF status. The predictors of mortality were assessed at selected time points by multivariable analysis.

RESULTS

The majority of STEMI patients had at least one SMuRF (88.7%), however, mortality rates of SMuRF-less individuals were greater at selected time points of the follow-up (p < 0.001), and persisted at a higher level during each year of the follow-up period compared to the SMuRF group and general population. Furthermore, the SMuRFs status constituted an independent predictor of mortality at the 30-day (OR: 1.345; 95% CI: 1.142-1.585, p < 0.001) and 12-month (OR: 1.174; 95% CI: 1.054-1.308, p < 0.001) follow-ups.

CONCLUSIONS

SMuRF-less individuals presented with STEMI are at an increased risk of all-cause mortality compared to those with at least one SMuRF. Consequently, further investigations regarding the recognition and treatment of risk factors, irrespective of SMuRF status, are indicated.

Platform for the interdisciplinary study of cardiovascular, metabolic and neurovascular diseases (PICMAN) protocol

Through extensive multisystem phenotyping, the central aim of Project PICMAN is to correlate metabolic flexibility to measures of cardiometabolic health, including myocardial diastolic dysfunction, coronary and cerebral atherosclerosis, body fat distribution and severity of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. This cohort will form the basis of larger interventional trials targeting metabolic inflexibility in the prevention of cardiovascular disease. Participants aged 21-72 years with no prior manifest atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD) are being recruited from a preventive cardiology clinic and an existing cohort of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) in an academic medical centre. A total of 120 patients will be recruited in the pilot phase of this study and followed up for 5 years. Those with 10-year ASCVD risk ≥ 5% as per the QRISK3 calculator are eligible. Those with established diabetes mellitus are excluded. Participants recruited undergo a detailed assessment of health behaviours and physical measurements. Participants also undergo a series of multimodality clinical phenotyping comprising cardiac tests, vascular assessments, metabolic tests, liver and neurovascular testing. Blood samples are also being collected and banked for plasma biomarkers, 'multi-omics analyses' and for generation of induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSC). Extensive evidence points to metabolic dysregulation as an early precursor of cardiovascular disease, particularly in Asia. We hypothesise that quantifiable metabolic inflexibility may be representative of an individual in his/her silent, but high-risk progression towards insulin resistance, diabetes and cardiovascular disease. The platform for interdisciplinary cardiovascular-metabolic-neurovascular diseases (PICMAN) is a pilot, prospective, multi-ethnic cohort study.

Impact of standard modifiable cardiovascular risk factors on 2-year all-cause mortality: Insights from an international cohort of 23,489 patients with acute coronary syndrome

BACKGROUND

Controversial findings have been reported in the literature regarding the impact of the absence of standard modifiable cardiovascular risk factors (SMuRFs) on long-term mortality risk in patients with acute coronary syndrome (ACS). While the prognostic additive value of SMuRFs has been well described, the prognostic role of prior cardiovascular disease (CVD) by sex is less well-known in patients with and without SMuRFs.

METHODS

EPICOR and EPICOR Asia are prospective, observational registries conducted between 2010 and 2014, which enrolled ACS patients in 28 countries across Europe, Latin America, and Asia. Association between SMuRFs (diabetes, dyslipidaemia, hypertension, and smoking) and 2-year postdischarge mortality was evaluated using adjusted Cox models stratified by geographical region.

RESULTS

Among 23,489 patients, the mean age was 60.9 ± 11.9 years, 24.3% were women, 4,582 (20.1%) presented without SMuRFs, and 16,055 (69.5%) without prior CVD. Patients with SMuRFs had a higher crude 2-year postdischarge mortality (HR 1.86; 95% CI, 1.56-2.22; P < .001), compared to those without SMuRFs. After adjustment for potential confounding, the association between SMuRFs and 2-year mortality risk was substantially attenuated (HR 1.17, 95% CI 0.98-1.41; P = .087), regardless of the type of ACS. The risk conferred by prior CVD was added to the underlying risk of SMuRFs to provide risk-specific phenotypes (eg, women with SMuRFs and with prior CVD were at higher risk of dying than women without SMuRFs and without CVD; HR 1.67, 95% CI 1.34-2.06).

CONCLUSIONS

In this large-scale international ACS cohort the absence of SMuRFs was not associated with a lower adjusted 2-year postdischarge mortality risk. Patients with both SMuRFs and prior CVD had a higher mortality irrespective of their sex.

Characteristics and Outcomes of Young Patients With ST-Elevation Myocardial Infarction Without Standard Modifiable Risk Factors

Patients with ST-elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI) with no standard modifiable risk factors (SMuRFs: hypertension, diabetes mellitus, hypercholesterolemia, and smoking) have worse short-term mortality than those with SMuRFs. Whether this association extends to younger patients is unclear. A retrospective cohort study was performed of patients aged 18 to 45 years with STEMI at 3 Australian hospitals between 2010 and 2020. Nonatherosclerotic causes of STEMI were excluded. The primary outcome was 30-day all-cause mortality. Secondary outcomes included 1 and 2-year mortality. Cox proportional hazards analysis was used. Of 597 patients, the median age was 42 (interquartile range 38 to 44) years, 85.1% were men and 8.4% were SMuRF-less. Patients who are SMuRF-less were >2 times more likely to have cardiac arrest (28.0% vs 12.6%, p = 0.003); require vasopressors (16.0% vs 6.8%, p = 0.018), mechanical support (10.0% vs 2.3%, p = 0.046), or intensive care admission (20.0% vs 5.7%, p <0.001); and have higher rate of left anterior descending artery infarcts than those with SMuRFs (62.0% vs 47.2%, p = 0.045). No significant differences in thrombolysis or percutaneous intervention were observed. Guideline-directed medical therapy at discharge was high (>90%), and not different in the SMuRF-less. 30-day mortality was almost fivefold higher in the SMuRF-less (hazard ratio 4.70, 95% confidence interval 1.66 to 13.35, p = 0.004), remaining significant at 1 and 2 years. In conclusion, young patients who are SMuRF-less have a higher 30-day mortality after STEMI than their counterparts with SMuRFs. This may be partially mediated by higher rates of cardiac arrest and left anterior descending artery territory events. These findings further highlight the need for improved prevention and management of SMuRF-less STEMI.

Trends and predictions of metabolic risk factors for acute myocardial infarction: findings from a multiethnic nationwide cohort

Background

Understanding the trajectories of metabolic risk factors for acute myocardial infarction (AMI) is necessary for healthcare policymaking. We estimated future projections of the incidence of metabolic diseases in a multi-ethnic population with AMI.

Methods

The incidence and mortality contributed by metabolic risk factors in the population with AMI (diabetes mellitus [T2DM], hypertension, hyperlipidemia, overweight/obesity, active/previous smokers) were projected up to year 2050, using linear and Poisson regression models based on the Singapore Myocardial Infarction Registry from 2007 to 2018. Forecast analysis was stratified based on age, sex and ethnicity.

Findings

From 2025 to 2050, the incidence of AMI is predicted to rise by 194.4% from 482 to 1418 per 100,000 population. The largest percentage increase in metabolic risk factors within the population with AMI is projected to be overweight/obesity (880.0% increase), followed by hypertension (248.7% increase), T2DM (215.7% increase), hyperlipidemia (205.0% increase), and active/previous smoking (164.8% increase). The number of AMI-related deaths is expected to increase by 294.7% in individuals with overweight/obesity, while mortality is predicted to decrease by 11.7% in hyperlipidemia, 29.9% in hypertension, 32.7% in T2DM and 49.6% in active/previous smokers, from 2025 to 2050. Compared with Chinese individuals, Indian and Malay individuals bear a disproportionate burden of overweight/obesity incidence and AMI-related mortality.

Interpretation

The incidence of AMI is projected to continue rising in the coming decades. Overweight/obesity will emerge as fastest-growing metabolic risk factor and the leading risk factor for AMI-related mortality.

Funding

This research was supported by the NUHS Seed Fund (NUHSRO/2022/058/RO5+6/Seed-Mar/03) and National Medical Research Council Research Training Fellowship (MOH-001131). The SMIR is a national, ministry-funded registry run by the National Registry of Diseases Office and funded by the Ministry of Health, Singapore.

Effect of Cardiovascular Risk Factors on 30-Day All-Cause Mortality in Cardiogenic Shock

Although previous studies investigated the influence of cardiovascular risk (CVR) factors in patients with acute coronary syndrome, data concerning the effect of CVR factors on the prognosis of patients with cardiogenic shock (CS) is scarce. Consecutive patients with CS were prospectively included from 2019 to 2021. The prognosis of patients with "low CVR" (i.e., 0-1 CVR factors) was compared to patients with "high CVR" (i.e., 2-4 CVR factors) according to presence or absence of arterial hypertension, diabetes mellitus, hyperlipidaemia or smoking. The primary endpoint was 30-day all-cause mortality. Statistical analyses included Kaplan-Meier and Cox proportional regression analyses. 273 consecutive patients with CS were included. 28% presented with low CVR and 72% with high CVR. Within the entire study cohort, the risk of 30-day all-cause mortality did not differ between patients with high and low CVR (55% vs. 57%; log rank p = 0.727; HR = 0.942; 95% CI 0.663-1.338; p = 0.738). Even after multivariable adjustment, high CVR was not associated with an elevated risk of 30-day all-cause mortality (HR = 1.039; 95% CI 0.648-1.667; p = 0.873). The presence of arterial hypertension (55% vs. 58%; log rank p = 0.564; HR = 0.906; 95% CI 0.638-1.287; p = 0.582), diabetes mellitus (60% vs. 52%; log rank p = 0.215; HR = 1.213; 95% CI 0.881-1.671; p = 0.237) and a history of smoking (56% vs. 56%; log rank p = 0.725; HR = 0.945; 95% CI 0.679-1.315; p = 0.737) did not significantly influence short-term prognosis.. Only the absence of hyperlipidaemia significantly decreased the risk of all-cause mortality (65% vs. 51%; log rank p = 0.038; HR = 0.718; 95% CI 0.516-0.998; p = 0.049), which was no longer observed after multivariable adjustment (HR = 0.801; 95% CI 0.536-1.195; p = 0.277). In conclusion, neither the overall CVR nor individual CVR factors were associated with the risk of 30-day all-cause mortality in patients with CS.

Clinical characteristics, management, and 5-year survival compared between no standard modifiable risk factor (SMuRFless) and ≥ 1 SMuRF ACS cases: an analysis of 15,051 cases from Pakistan

BACKGROUND

There has been an increase in Acute Coronary Syndrome (ACS) patients without standard modifiable risk factors i.e. hypertension, diabetes, dyslipidemia, and tobacco use (SMuRFless) compared to the patients with ≥ 1 SMuRF but this has not been studied in South Asia despite them being a high-risk population. We conducted a comparative analysis of first episodes of ACS cases admitted to a tertiary cardiac center in Pakistan between SMuRFless and ≥ 1 SMuRF patients for clinical presentation, management, in-hospital, and 5-year mortality.

METHODS

We undertook a retrospective study and data of 15,051 patients admitted at Tabba Heart Institute (THI) with the first episode of ACS was extracted from Chest Pain-MI™, and the CathPCI Registry® registry affiliated with the National Cardiovascular Data Registry (NCDR®), USA. Logistic regression and Cox proportional algorithm yielded odds ratio (OR) and hazard ratios (HR) with 95% confidence interval (CI) for associated factors of in-patient and 5-year mortality.

RESULTS

There were 15% SMuRFless cases and in-hospital mortality was 4.1% in SMuRFless vs. 3.9% in the ≥ 1 SMuRF group (p-0.59), the difference remained insignificant after adjusting for age, gender, Killip class, multivessel disease, type of ACS, percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) and coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG) (Adjusted OR:1.1 [0.8, 1.3]. Unadjusted 5-year mortality was 40% lower in the SMuRFless group but the difference was insignificant after adjusting for age, gender, disease at presentation, its severity, and management (Adjusted HR 0.7 95% CI[0.5, 1.0]). STEMI, NSTEMI, Killip class, and multivessel disease increased the risk of overall 5-year mortality.

CONCLUSION

In-hospital and 5-year mortality was not different between the SMuRFless and ≥ 1 SMuRF group, there is a need to understand mediators of immediate and long-term mortality risk in SMuRFless patients.

Risk Factors of Secondary Cardiovascular Events in a Multi-Ethnic Asian Population with Acute Myocardial Infarction: A Retrospective Cohort Study from Malaysia

This retrospective cohort study investigated the incidence and risk factors of major adverse cardiovascular events (MACE) after 1 year of first-documented myocardial infarctions (MIs) in a multi-ethnic Asian population. Secondary MACE were observed in 231 (14.3%) individuals, including 92 (5.7%) cardiovascular-related deaths. Both histories of hypertension and diabetes were associated with secondary MACE after adjustment for age, sex, and ethnicity (HR 1.60 [95%CI 1.22-2.12] and 1.46 [95%CI 1.09-1.97], respectively). With further adjustments for traditional risk factors, individuals with conduction disturbances demonstrated higher risks of MACE: new left-bundle branch block (HR 2.86 [95%CI 1.15-6.55]), right-bundle branch block (HR 2.09 [95%CI 1.02-4.29]), and second-degree heart block (HR 2.45 [95%CI 0.59-10.16]). These associations were broadly similar across different age, sex, and ethnicity groups, although somewhat greater for history of hypertension and BMI among women versus men, for HbA1c control in individuals aged >50 years, and for LVEF ≤ 40% in those with Indian versus Chinese or Bumiputera ethnicities. Several traditional and cardiac risk factors are associated with a higher risk of secondary major adverse cardiovascular events. In addition to hypertension and diabetes, the identification of conduction disturbances in individuals with first-onset MI may be useful for the risk stratification of high-risk individuals.

Epicardial Adipose Tissue Assessed by Computed Tomography and Echocardiography Are Associated With Adverse Cardiovascular Outcomes: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

BACKGROUND

Epicardial adipose tissue (EAT) has garnered attention as a prognostic and risk stratification factor for cardiovascular disease. This study, via meta-analyses, evaluates the associations between EAT and cardiovascular outcomes stratified across imaging modalities, ethnic groups, and study protocols.

METHODS

Medline and Embase databases were searched without date restriction on May 2022 for articles that examined EAT and cardiovascular outcomes. The inclusion criteria were (1) studies measuring EAT of adult patients at baseline and (2) reporting follow-up data on study outcomes of interest. The primary study outcome was major adverse cardiovascular events. Secondary study outcomes included cardiac death, myocardial infarction, coronary revascularization, and atrial fibrillation.

RESULTS

Twenty-nine articles published between 2012 and 2022, comprising 19 709 patients, were included in our analysis. Increased EAT thickness and volume were associated with higher risks of cardiac death (odds ratio, 2.53 [95% CI, 1.17-5.44]; P=0.020; n=4), myocardial infarction (odds ratio, 2.63 [95% CI, 1.39-4.96]; P=0.003; n=5), coronary revascularization (odds ratio, 2.99 [95% CI, 1.64-5.44]; P<0.001; n=5), and atrial fibrillation (adjusted odds ratio, 4.04 [95% CI, 3.06-5.32]; P<0.001; n=3). For 1 unit increment in the continuous measure of EAT, computed tomography volumetric quantification (adjusted hazard ratio, 1.74 [95% CI, 1.42-2.13]; P<0.001) and echocardiographic thickness quantification (adjusted hazard ratio, 1.20 [95% CI, 1.09-1.32]; P<0.001) conferred an increased risk of major adverse cardiovascular events.

CONCLUSIONS

The utility of EAT as an imaging biomarker for predicting and prognosticating cardiovascular disease is promising, with increased EAT thickness and volume being identified as independent predictors of major adverse cardiovascular events.

REGISTRATION

URL: https://www.crd.york.ac.uk/prospero; Unique identifier: CRD42022338075.

Socioeconomic deprivation and prognostic outcomes in acute coronary syndrome: A meta-analysis using multidimensional socioeconomic status indices

BACKGROUND

Low socioeconomic status (SES) is an important prognosticator amongst patients with acute coronary syndrome (ACS). This paper analysed the effects of SES on ACS outcomes.

METHODS

Medline and Embase were searched for articles reporting outcomes of ACS patients stratified by SES using a multidimensional index, comprising at least 2 of the following components: Income, Education and Employment. A comparative meta-analysis was conducted using random-effects models to estimate the risk ratio of all-cause mortality in low SES vs high SES populations, stratified according to geographical region, study year, follow-up duration and SES index.

RESULTS

A total of 29 studies comprising of 301,340 individuals were included, of whom 43.7% were classified as low SES. While patients of both SES groups had similar cardiovascular risk profiles, ACS patients of low SES had significantly higher risk of all-cause mortality (adjusted HR:1.19, 95%CI: 1.10-1.1.29, p < 0.001) compared to patients of high SES, with higher 1-year mortality (RR:1.08, 95%CI:1.03-1.13, p = 0.0057) but not 30-day mortality (RR:1.07, 95%CI:0.98-1.16, p = 0.1003). Despite having similar rates of ST-elevation myocardial infarction and non-ST-elevation ACS, individuals with low SES had lower rates of coronary revascularisation (RR:0.95, 95%CI:0.91-0.99, p = 0.0115) and had higher cerebrovascular accident risk (RR:1.25, 95%CI:1.01-1.55, p = 0.0469). Excess mortality risk was independent of region (p = 0.2636), study year (p = 0.7271) and duration of follow-up (p = 0.0604) but was dependent on the SES index used (p < 0.0001).

CONCLUSION

Low SES is associated with increased mortality post-ACS, with suboptimal coronary revascularisation rates compared to those of high SES. Concerted efforts are needed to address the global ACS-related socioeconomic inequity.

REGISTRATION AND PROTOCOL

The current study was registered with PROSPERO, ID: CRD42022334482.

Mortality, Cardiovascular, and Medication Outcomes in Patients With Myocardial Infarction and Underweight in a Meta-Analysis of 6.3 Million Patients

Although most of the current evidence on myocardial infarction focuses on obesity, there is growing evidence that patients who are underweight have unfavorable prognosis. This study aimed to explore the prevalence, clinical characteristics, and prognosis of this population at risk. Embase and Medline were searched for studies reporting outcomes in populations who were underweight with myocardial infarction. Underweight and normal weight were defined according to the World Health Organization criteria. A single-arm meta-analysis of proportions was used to estimate the prevalence of underweight in patients with myocardial infarction, whereas a meta-analysis of proportions was used to estimate the odds ratio of all-cause mortality, medications prescribed, and cardiovascular outcomes. Twenty-one studies involving 6,368,225 patients were included, of whom 47,866 were underweight. The prevalence of underweight in patients with myocardial infarction was 2.96% (95% confidence interval 1.96% to 4.47%). Despite having fewer classical cardiovascular risk factors, patients who were underweight had 66% greater hazard for mortality (hazard ratio 1.66, 95% confidence interval 1.44 to 1.92, p <0.0001). The mortality of patients who were underweight increased from 14.1% at 30 days to 52.6% at 5 years. Nevertheless, they were less likely to receive guideline-directed medical therapy. Relative to subjects with normal weight, Asian populations who were underweight had greater mortality risks than those of their Caucasian counterparts (p = 0.0062). In conclusion, in patients with myocardial infarction, those who were underweight tend to have poorer prognostic outcomes. A lower body mass index is an independent predictor of mortality, which calls for global efforts in addressing this modifiable risk factor in clinical practice guidelines.

Hepatic steatosis and advanced hepatic fibrosis are independent predictors of long-term mortality in acute myocardial infarction

AIM

To examine the prevalence and prognosis of hepatic steatosis and fibrosis in post-acute myocardial infarction (AMI) patients.

METHODS

Patients presenting with AMI to a tertiary hospital were examined from 2014 to 2021. Hepatic steatosis and advanced hepatic fibrosis were determined using the Hepatic Steatosis Index and fibrosis-4 index, respectively. The primary outcome was all-cause mortality. Cox regression models identified determinants of mortality after adjustments and Kaplan-Meier curves were constructed for all-cause mortality, stratified by hepatic steatosis and advanced fibrosis.

RESULTS

Of 5765 patients included, 24.8% had hepatic steatosis, of whom 41.7% were diagnosed with advanced fibrosis. The median follow-up duration was 2.7 years. Patients with hepatic steatosis tended to be younger, female, with elevated body mass index and an increased metabolic burden of diabetes, hypertension and hyperlipidaemia. Patients with hepatic steatosis (24.6% vs. 20.9% mortality, P < .001) and advanced fibrosis (45.6% vs. 32.9% mortality, P < .001) had higher all-cause mortality rates compared with their respective counterparts. Hepatic steatosis (adjusted hazard ratio 1.364, 95% CI 1.145-1.625, P = .001) was associated with all-cause mortality after adjustment for confounders. Survival curves showed excess mortality in patients with hepatic steatosis compared with those without (P = .002).

CONCLUSIONS

Hepatic steatosis and advanced fibrosis have a substantial prevalence among patients with AMI. Both are associated with mortality, with an incrementally higher risk when advanced fibrosis ensues. Hepatic steatosis and fibrosis could help risk stratification of AMI patients beyond conventional risk factors.

Association of clinical, laboratory and imaging biomarkers with the occurrence of acute myocardial infarction in patients without standard modifiable risk factors - rationale and design of the "Beyond-SMuRFs Study"

BACKGROUND

Acute myocardial infarction (AMI) remains the leading cause of mortality worldwide. The majority of patients who suffer an AMI have a history of at least one of the standard modifiable risk factors (SMuRFs): smoking, hypertension, dyslipidemia, and diabetes mellitus. However, emerging scientific evidence recognizes a clinically significant and increasing proportion of patients presenting with AMI without any SMuRF (SMuRF-less patients). To date, there are no adequate data to define specific risk factors or biomarkers associated with the development of AMIs in these patients.

METHODS

The ''Beyond-SMuRFs Study'' is a prospective, non-interventional cohort trial designed to enroll patients with AMI and no previous coronary intervention history, who undergo coronary angiography in two academic hospitals in Thessaloniki, Greece. The rationale of the study is to investigate potential relations between SMuRF-less AMIs and the clinical, laboratory and imaging profile of patients, by comparing parameters between patients with and without SMuRFs. Complete demographic and comprehensive clinical data will be recorded, Venous blood samples will be collected before coronary angiography and the following parameters will be measured: total blood count, standard biochemistry parameters, coagulation tests, hormone levels, glycosylated hemoglobin, N- terminal pro-B-type natriuretic peptide and high-sensitivity troponin T levels- as well as serum levels of novel atherosclerosis indicators and pro-inflammatory biomarkers. Furthermore, all participants will undergo a complete and comprehensive transthoracic echocardiographic assessment according to a pre-specified protocol within 24 h from admission. Among others, 2D-speckle-tracking echocardiographic analysis of cardiac chambers and non-invasive calculation of myocardial work indices for the left ventricle will be performed. Moreover, all patients will be assessed for angiographic parameters and the complexity of coronary artery disease using the SYNTAX score. Multivariable linear and logistic regression models will be used to phenotypically characterize SMuRF-less patients and investigate independent clinical, laboratory, echocardiographic and angiographic biomarkers-predictors of SMuRF-less status in AMI.The first patient was enrolled in March 2022 and completion of enrollment is expected until December 2023.

DISCUSSION

The ''Beyond-SmuRFs'' study is an ongoing prospective trial aiming to investigate potential clinical, laboratory and imaging biomarkers associated with the occurrence of AMIs in SMuRF-less patients. The configuration of these patients' profiles could lead to the development of personalized risk-stratification models predicting the occurrence of cardiovascular events in SΜuRF-less individuals.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT05535582 / September 10, 2022.

Management and outcomes of patients admitted with type 2 myocardial infarction with and without standard modifiable risk factors

BACKGROUND

Whilst it is known patients without standard modifiable cardiovascular risk factors (SMuRF; hypertension, diabetes, hypercholesterolaemia, smoking) have worse outcomes in Type 1 acute myocardial infarction (AMI), the relationship between type 2 AMI (T2AMI) and outcomes in patients with and without SMuRF is unknown. This study aimed to determine the prevalence, characteristics and clinical outcomes of patients hospitalised with T2AMI based on the presence of SMuRF.

METHODS

Using the National Inpatient Sample, all hospitalizations with a primary discharge diagnosis of T2AMI were stratified according to SMuRF status (SMuRF and SMURF-less). Primary outcome was all-cause mortality while secondary outcomes were major adverse cardiovascular and cerebrovascular events (MACCE), major bleeding and ischemic stroke. Multivariable logistic regression was used to determine adjusted odds ratios (aOR) with 95% confidence intervals (95% CI).

RESULTS

Among 17,595 included hospitalizations, 1345 (7.6%) were SMuRF-less and 16,250 (92.4%) were SMuRF. On adjusted analysis, SMuRF-less patients had increased odds of all-cause mortality (aOR 2.43, 95% CI 1.83 to 3.23), MACCE (aOR 2.32, 95% CI 1.79 to 2.90) and ischaemic stroke (aOR 2.57, 95% CI 1.56 to 4.24) compared to their SMuRF counterparts. Secondary diagnoses among both cohorts were similar, with respiratory disorders most prevalent followed by cardiovascular and renal disorders.

CONCLUSIONS

T2AMI in the absence of SMuRF was associated with worse in-hospital outcomes compared to SMuRF-less patients. There was no SMuRF-based difference in the secondary diagnoses with the most common being respiratory, cardiovascular, and renal disorders. Further studies are warranted to improve overall care and outcomes of SMuRF-less patients.

Higher mortality in acute coronary syndrome patients without standard modifiable risk factors: Results from a global meta-analysis of 1,285,722 patients

BACKGROUND

Standard modifiable cardiovascular risk factors (SMuRF), comprising diabetes, hyperlipidemia, hypertension, and smoking, are used for risk stratification in acute coronary syndrome (ACS). Recent studies showed an increasing proportion of SMuRF-less ACS patients.

METHODS

Embase, Medline and Pubmed were searched for studies comparing SMuRF-less and SMuRF patients with first presentation of ACS. We conducted single-arm analyses to determine the proportion of SMuRF-less patients in the ACS cohort, and compared the clinical presentation and outcomes of these patients.

RESULTS

Of 1,285,722 patients from 15 studies, 11.56% were SMuRF-less. A total of 7.44% of non-ST-segment-elevation ACS patients and 12.87% of ST-segment-elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI) patients were SMuRF-less. The proportion of SMuRF-less patients presenting with STEMI (60.71%) tended to be higher than those with SMuRFs (49.21%). Despite lower body mass index and fewer comorbidities such as chronic kidney disease, peripheral arterial disease, stroke and heart failure, SMuRF-less patients had increased in-hospital mortality (RR:1.57, 95%CI:1.38 to 1.80) and cardiogenic shock (RR:1.39, 95%CI:1.18 to 1.65), but lower risk of heart failure (RR:0.91, 95%CI:0.83 to 0.99). On discharge, SMuRF-less patients were prescribed less statins (RR:0.93, 95%CI:0.91 to 0.95), beta-blockers (RR:0.94, 95%CI:0.92 to 0.96), P2Y12 inhibitors (RR: 0.98, 95%CI: 0.96 to 0.99), and angiotensin-converting-enzyme inhibitor or angiotensin-receptor blocker (RR:0.92, 95%CI:0.75 to 0.91).

CONCLUSION

In this study level meta-analysis, SMuRF-less ACS patients demonstrate higher mortality compared with patients with at least one traditional atherosclerotic risk factor. Underuse of guideline-directed medical therapy amongst SMuRF-less patients is concerning. Unraveling novel risk factors amongst SMuRF-less individuals is the next important step.

SUMMARY

Standard modifiable cardiovascular risk factors (SMuRF), comprising diabetes mellitus, hyperlipidemia, hypertension, and smoking, are often used for risk stratification in acute coronary syndrome (ACS). Recent studies showed an increasing proportion of SMuRF-less ACS patients. Of 1,285,722 ACS patients, 11.56% were SMuRF-less. Despite lower body mass index and fewer comorbidities, SMuRF-less patients had increased in-hospital mortality and cardiogenic shock. However, despite worse outcomes, SMuRF-less patients were prescribed less guideline-directed medical therapies on discharge.

General Public's knowledge, awareness, and perception of Cardiometabolic diseases: data from a Singapore study population

Background

Health literacy and illness perception play crucial roles in tackling the cardiometabolic disease epidemic. We aim to compare the attitudes, knowledge, self-perceived risks and actions taken, between individuals with and without metabolic risk factors (MFs).

Methods

From 5 June to 5 October 2022, participants of the general public were invited to complete a self-administered questionnaire. MF status was defined as the presence of hypertension, hyperlipidemia, diabetes mellitus and/or current/previous smoking. Participants were assessed based on four categories (knowledge-based, attitude-based, perceived risk, and action-based) of questions pertaining to four cardiometabolic diseases - diabetes mellitus, hypertension, hyperlipidemia, and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease.

Results

A total of 345 participants were enrolled, of whom 34.5% had at least one MF. Compared to those without MFs, participants with MFs had lower knowledge scores, but higher perceived risk scores across all cardiometabolic diseases. The largest knowledge gap pertained to hypertension-related questions. After adjustment, linear regression demonstrated that the presence of MFs (β:2.752, 95%CI: 0.772-4.733, p = 0.007) and higher knowledge scores (β:0.418, 95%CI: 0.236-0.600, p < 0.001) were associated with higher perceived risk. Despite increased perceived risk in those with MFs, this translated to only few increased self-reported preventive actions, when compared to those without MFs, namely the reduction in red meat/processed food consumption (p = 0.045) and increase in fruits/vegetables consumption (p = 0.009).

Conclusion

This study identified a vulnerable subpopulation living with MFs, with high perceived risks, and discordant levels of knowledge and preventive actions taken. Nationwide efforts should be channeled into addressing the knowledge-to-action gap.

Angiographic severity in acute coronary syndrome patients with and without standard modifiable risk factors

Background

Routine coronary artery disease (CAD) secondary prevention strategies target standard modifiable cardiovascular risk factors (SMuRFs), which include: diabetes mellitus, dyslipidemia, hypertension, and smoking. However, a significant proportion of patients with acute coronary syndrome (ACS) present without any SMuRFs. The angiographic severity of disease in this population has not yet been investigated.

Methods

After propensity score matching of patients without SMuRFs and patients with ≥1 SMuRFs (ratio 1:3), we used zero-inflated negative binomial regression modeling to investigate the relationship of SMuRF-less status with the angiographic severity of CAD, as measured by the SYNTAX score. Survival analysis was performed to investigate differences in all-cause mortality at 30 days and at the end of follow-up period.

Results

We analyzed 534 patients presenting with ACS who underwent coronary angiography. Of them, 56 (10.5%) presented without any SMuRF. After propensity score matching, the median SYNTAX score was 13.8 (IQR 0-22.1) in 56 SMuRF-less patients and 14 (IQR 5-25) in 166 patients with ≥1 SMuRFs. SMuRF-less status was associated with increased odds of zero SYNTAX score [zero-part model: odds ratio = 2.11, 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.03-4.33], but not with decreased SYNTAX score among patients with non-zero SYNTAX score (count-part model: incidence rate ratio = 0.99, 95% CI: 0.79-1.24); the overall distribution of the SYNTAX score was similar between the two groups (p = 0.26). The 30-day risk for all-cause mortality was higher for SMuRF-less patients compared to patients with ≥1 SMuRFs [hazard ratio (HR) = 3.58, 95% CI: 1.30-9.88]; however, the all-cause mortality risk was not different between the two groups over a median 1.7-year follow-up (HR = 1.72, 95% CI: 0.83-3.57).

Conclusion

Among patients with ACS, the absence of SMuRFs is associated with increased odds for non-obstructive CAD and with increased short-term mortality rates.

Long-term Prognosis of Acute Myocardial Infarction Associated with Metabolic Health and Obesity Status

BACKGROUND

Emerging evidence supports the favourable cardiovascular health in non-obese subjects with healthy metabolism. However, little is known regarding the prognosis across the range of metabolic phenotypes once cardiovascular disease is established. We examined the prognosis of patients with acute myocardial infarction (AMI) stratified according to metabolic health and obesity status.

METHODS

This is a retrospective study on consecutive patients with AMI admitted to a tertiary hospital between 2014-2021. Patients were allocated into 4 groups based on metabolic and obesity profile: metabolically healthy obese (MHO), metabolically healthy non-obese (MHNO), metabolically unhealthy obese (MUO) and metabolically unhealthy non-obese (MUNO). Metabolic health was defined in accordance to the BioSHARE-EU Healthy Obese Project. The primary outcome was all-cause mortality. Cox regression analysis examined the independent association between mortality and metabolic phenotypes, adjusting for age, sex, AMI type, chronic kidney disease, smoking status and left ventricular ejection fraction.

RESULTS

Of 9958 patients, the majority (68.5%) were MUNO, followed by MUO (25.1%), MHNO (5.6%), and MHO (0.8%). MHO had the lowest mortality (7.4%), followed by MHNO (9.7%), MUO (19.2%) and MUNO (22.6%) (p<0.001). Compared to MHNO, MUO (HR 1.737, 95%CI 1.282-2.355, p<0.001) and MUNO (HR 1.482, 95%CI 1.108-1.981, p=0.008) had significantly higher mortality risk, but not MHO (HR 1.390, 95%CI 0.594-3.251, p=0.447), after adjusting for confounders. Kaplan-Meier curves showed favourable survival in the metabolically healthy and obesity groups, with the highest overall survival in the MHO followed by MHNO, MUO and MUNO (p<0.001).

CONCLUSION

Metabolically healthy and obese AMI patients have favourable prognosis compared to metabolically unhealthy and non-obese patients. It is equally important to prioritize intensive metabolic risk factor management to weight reduction in the early phase after AMI.