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Das T, Nath BK, Hume S, Gowland DJ, Crawley LS, Forwood JK, Raidal SR, Das S. Novel pathogenic adenovirus in Timneh grey parrot (Psittacus timneh) unveils distinct lineage within Aviadenovirus. Virology 2024; 598:110173. [PMID: 39018684 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2024.110173] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2024] [Revised: 07/08/2024] [Accepted: 07/09/2024] [Indexed: 07/19/2024]
Abstract
Wild birds harbour a vast diversity of adenoviruses that remain uncharacterised with respect to their genome organisation and evolutionary relatedness within complex host ecosystems. Here, we characterise a novel adenovirus type within Aviadenovirus genus associated with severe necrotising hepatitis in a captive Timneh grey parrot, tentatively named as Timneh grey parrot adenovirus 1 (TpAdV-1). The TpAdV-1 genome is 39,867 bp and encodes 46 putative genes with seven hitherto not described ones. Comparative genomics and phylogenetic analyses revealed highest nucleotide identity with psittacine adenovirus 1 and psittacine adenovirus 4 that formed a discrete monophyletic clade within Aviadenovirus lineage suggesting a deep host co-divergent lineage within Psittaciformes hosts. Several recombination breakpoints were identified within the TpAdV-1 genome, which highlighted an ancient evolutionary relationship across the genera Aviadenovirus, Mastadenovirus and Atadenovirus. This study hints towards a host-adapted sub-lineage of avian adenovirus capable of having significant host virulence in Psittaciformes birds augmented with ecological opportunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tridip Das
- School of Agricultural, Environmental and Veterinary Sciences, FCharles Sturt University, Wagga Wagga, NSW-2678, Australia; Biosecurity Research Program and Training Centre, Gulbali Institute, Charles Sturt University, Wagga Wagga, NSW-2678, Australia; Training Hub Promoting Regional Industry and Innovation in Virology and Epidemiology, Gulbali Institute, Charles Sturt University, Wagga Wagga, NSW-2678, Australia.
| | - Babu K Nath
- Biosecurity Research Program and Training Centre, Gulbali Institute, Charles Sturt University, Wagga Wagga, NSW-2678, Australia
| | - Sandy Hume
- National Threatened Species Institute, Australia
| | | | - Lisa S Crawley
- Priam Psittaculture Centre, Bungendore, NSW-2621, Australia
| | - Jade K Forwood
- Biosecurity Research Program and Training Centre, Gulbali Institute, Charles Sturt University, Wagga Wagga, NSW-2678, Australia; Training Hub Promoting Regional Industry and Innovation in Virology and Epidemiology, Gulbali Institute, Charles Sturt University, Wagga Wagga, NSW-2678, Australia; School of Dentistry and Medical Sciences, Charles Sturt University, NSW-2678, Australia
| | - Shane R Raidal
- School of Agricultural, Environmental and Veterinary Sciences, FCharles Sturt University, Wagga Wagga, NSW-2678, Australia; Biosecurity Research Program and Training Centre, Gulbali Institute, Charles Sturt University, Wagga Wagga, NSW-2678, Australia; Training Hub Promoting Regional Industry and Innovation in Virology and Epidemiology, Gulbali Institute, Charles Sturt University, Wagga Wagga, NSW-2678, Australia
| | - Shubhagata Das
- School of Agricultural, Environmental and Veterinary Sciences, FCharles Sturt University, Wagga Wagga, NSW-2678, Australia; Biosecurity Research Program and Training Centre, Gulbali Institute, Charles Sturt University, Wagga Wagga, NSW-2678, Australia; Training Hub Promoting Regional Industry and Innovation in Virology and Epidemiology, Gulbali Institute, Charles Sturt University, Wagga Wagga, NSW-2678, Australia
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2
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Bertzbach LD, Seddar L, von Stromberg K, Ip WH, Dobner T, Hidalgo P. The adenovirus DNA-binding protein DBP. J Virol 2024; 98:e0188523. [PMID: 38197632 PMCID: PMC10878046 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01885-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2024] Open
Abstract
Adenoviruses are a group of double-stranded DNA viruses that can mainly cause respiratory, gastrointestinal, and eye infections in humans. In addition, adenoviruses are employed as vector vaccines for combatting viral infections, including SARS-CoV-2, and serve as excellent gene therapy vectors. These viruses have the ability to modulate the host cell machinery to their advantage and trigger significant restructuring of the nuclei of infected cells through the activity of viral proteins. One of those, the adenovirus DNA-binding protein (DBP), is a multifunctional non-structural protein that is integral to the reorganization processes. DBP is encoded in the E2A transcriptional unit and is highly abundant in infected cells. Its activity is unequivocally linked to the formation, structure, and integrity of virus-induced replication compartments, molecular hubs for the regulation of viral processes, and control of the infected cell. DBP also plays key roles in viral DNA replication, transcription, viral gene expression, and even host range specificity. Notably, post-translational modifications of DBP, such as SUMOylation and extensive phosphorylation, regulate its biological functions. DBP was first investigated in the 1970s, pioneering research on viral DNA-binding proteins. In this literature review, we provide an overview of DBP and specifically summarize key findings related to its complex structure, diverse functions, and significant role in the context of viral replication. Finally, we address novel insights and perspectives for future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luca D. Bertzbach
- Department of Viral Transformation, Leibniz Institute of Virology (LIV), Hamburg, Germany
| | - Laura Seddar
- Department of Viral Transformation, Leibniz Institute of Virology (LIV), Hamburg, Germany
| | | | - Wing-Hang Ip
- Department of Viral Transformation, Leibniz Institute of Virology (LIV), Hamburg, Germany
| | - Thomas Dobner
- Department of Viral Transformation, Leibniz Institute of Virology (LIV), Hamburg, Germany
| | - Paloma Hidalgo
- Department of Viral Transformation, Leibniz Institute of Virology (LIV), Hamburg, Germany
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3
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Dasgupta S, Thomas JA, Ray K. Mechanism of Viral DNA Packaging in Phage T4 Using Single-Molecule Fluorescence Approaches. Viruses 2024; 16:192. [PMID: 38399968 PMCID: PMC10893049 DOI: 10.3390/v16020192] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2023] [Revised: 01/19/2024] [Accepted: 01/23/2024] [Indexed: 02/25/2024] Open
Abstract
In all tailed phages, the packaging of the double-stranded genome into the head by a terminase motor complex is an essential step in virion formation. Despite extensive research, there are still major gaps in the understanding of this highly dynamic process and the mechanisms responsible for DNA translocation. Over the last fifteen years, single-molecule fluorescence technologies have been applied to study viral nucleic acid packaging using the robust and flexible T4 in vitro packaging system in conjunction with genetic, biochemical, and structural analyses. In this review, we discuss the novel findings from these studies, including that the T4 genome was determined to be packaged as an elongated loop via the colocalization of dye-labeled DNA termini above the portal structure. Packaging efficiency of the TerL motor was shown to be inherently linked to substrate structure, with packaging stalling at DNA branches. The latter led to the design of multiple experiments whose results all support a proposed torsional compression translocation model to explain substrate packaging. Evidence of substrate compression was derived from FRET and/or smFRET measurements of stalled versus resolvase released dye-labeled Y-DNAs and other dye-labeled substrates relative to motor components. Additionally, active in vivo T4 TerS fluorescent fusion proteins facilitated the application of advanced super-resolution optical microscopy toward the visualization of the initiation of packaging. The formation of twin TerS ring complexes, each expected to be ~15 nm in diameter, supports a double protein ring-DNA synapsis model for the control of packaging initiation, a model that may help explain the variety of ring structures reported among pac site phages. The examination of the dynamics of the T4 packaging motor at the single-molecule level in these studies demonstrates the value of state-of-the-art fluorescent tools for future studies of complex viral replication mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Souradip Dasgupta
- Division of Vaccine Research, Institute of Human Virology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, 725 West Lombard Street, Baltimore, MD 21201, USA
| | - Julie A. Thomas
- Thomas H. Gosnell School of Life Sciences, Rochester Institute of Technology, Rochester, NY 14623, USA;
| | - Krishanu Ray
- Division of Vaccine Research, Institute of Human Virology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, 725 West Lombard Street, Baltimore, MD 21201, USA
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, 725 West Lombard Street, Baltimore, MD 21201, USA
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4
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Adsero A, Chestnut B, Shahnejat-Bushehri S, Sasnoor L, McMurphy T, Swenor M, Pasquino R, Pradhan A, Hernandez V, Padegimas L, Dismuke D. A Novel Role for the Adenovirus L4 Region 22K and 33K Proteins in Adeno-Associated Virus Production. Hum Gene Ther 2024; 35:59-69. [PMID: 38062776 PMCID: PMC10818037 DOI: 10.1089/hum.2023.146] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2023] [Accepted: 11/26/2023] [Indexed: 01/18/2024] Open
Abstract
Despite decades of research in adeno-associated virus (AAV) and the role of adenovirus in production, the interplay of AAV and adenovirus is not fully understood. Specific regions of the adenoviral genome containing E1, E2a, E4 open reading frame (ORF), and VA RNA have been demonstrated as necessary for AAV production; however, incorporating these regions into either a producer cell line or subcloning into an Ad helper plasmid may lead to inclusion of neighboring adenoviral sequence or ORFs with unknown function. Because AAV is frequently used in gene therapies, removing excessive adenovirus sequences improves the Ad helper plasmid size and manufacturability, and may lead to safer vectors for patients. Furthermore, deepening our understanding of the helper virus genes required for recombinant AAV (rAAV) production has the potential to increase yields and manufacturability of rAAV for clinical and commercial applications. One region continuously included in various Ad helper plasmid iterations is the adenoviral E2a promoter region that appears to be necessary for E2a expression. Due to the compact nature of viral genomes, the E2a promoter region overlaps with the Hexon Assembly/100K protein and the L4 region. The L4 region, which contains the coding sequences for 22K and 33K proteins, had not been thought to be necessary for AAV production. Through molecular techniques, this study demonstrates that the adenoviral 22K protein is essential for rAAV production in HEK293 cells by triple transfection and that the 33K protein synergistically increases rAAV yield.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angela Adsero
- Molecular Development, Forge Biologics, Grove City, Ohio, USA
| | | | | | - Lalita Sasnoor
- Molecular Development, Forge Biologics, Grove City, Ohio, USA
| | - Travis McMurphy
- Molecular Development, Forge Biologics, Grove City, Ohio, USA
| | - Mike Swenor
- Molecular Development, Forge Biologics, Grove City, Ohio, USA
- Process Development, Forge Biologics, Grove City, Ohio, USA
| | - Ryan Pasquino
- Molecular Development, Forge Biologics, Grove City, Ohio, USA
| | - Arun Pradhan
- Molecular Development, Forge Biologics, Grove City, Ohio, USA
| | | | - Linas Padegimas
- Molecular Development, Forge Biologics, Grove City, Ohio, USA
| | - David Dismuke
- Chief Technical Officer, Forge Biologics, Grove City, Ohio, USA
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5
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Grams N, Charman M, Halko E, Lauman R, Garcia BA, Weitzman MD. Phosphorylation regulates viral biomolecular condensates to promote infectious progeny production. EMBO J 2024; 43:277-303. [PMID: 38177504 PMCID: PMC10897327 DOI: 10.1038/s44318-023-00021-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2023] [Revised: 12/06/2023] [Accepted: 12/07/2023] [Indexed: 01/06/2024] Open
Abstract
Biomolecular condensates (BMCs) play important roles in diverse biological processes. Many viruses form BMCs which have been implicated in various functions critical for the productive infection of host cells. The adenovirus L1-52/55 kilodalton protein (52K) was recently shown to form viral BMCs that coordinate viral genome packaging and capsid assembly. Although critical for packaging, we do not know how viral condensates are regulated during adenovirus infection. Here we show that phosphorylation of serine residues 28 and 75 within the N-terminal intrinsically disordered region of 52K modulates viral condensates in vitro and in cells, promoting liquid-like properties. Furthermore, we demonstrate that phosphorylation of 52K promotes viral genome packaging and the production of infectious progeny particles. Collectively, our findings provide insights into how viral condensate properties are regulated and maintained in a state conducive to their function in viral progeny production. In addition, our findings have implications for antiviral strategies aimed at targeting the regulation of viral BMCs to limit viral multiplication.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas Grams
- Division of Protective Immunity and Division of Cancer Pathobiology, The Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA, USA
- Cell & Molecular Biology Graduate Group, University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Matthew Charman
- Division of Protective Immunity and Division of Cancer Pathobiology, The Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA, USA.
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA.
| | - Edwin Halko
- Division of Protective Immunity and Division of Cancer Pathobiology, The Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Richard Lauman
- Division of Protective Immunity and Division of Cancer Pathobiology, The Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Benjamin A Garcia
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biophysics, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Matthew D Weitzman
- Division of Protective Immunity and Division of Cancer Pathobiology, The Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA, USA.
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA.
- Penn Epigenetics Institute, University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA.
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6
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Zhang H, Wang H, An Y, Chen Z. Construction and application of adenoviral vectors. MOLECULAR THERAPY. NUCLEIC ACIDS 2023; 34:102027. [PMID: 37808925 PMCID: PMC10556817 DOI: 10.1016/j.omtn.2023.09.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/10/2023]
Abstract
Adenoviral vectors have been widely used as vaccine candidates or potential vaccine candidates against infectious diseases due to the convenience of genome manipulation, their ability to accommodate large exogenous gene fragments, easy access of obtaining high-titer of virus, and high efficiency of transduction. At the same time, adenoviral vectors have also been used extensively in clinical research for cancer gene therapy and treatment of diseases caused by a single gene defect. However, application of adenovirus also faces a series of challenges such as poor targeting, strong immune response against the vector itself, and they cannot be used repeatedly. It is believed that these problems will be solved gradually with further research and technological development in related fields. Here, we review the construction methods of adenoviral vectors, including "gutless" adenovirus and discuss application of adenoviral vectors as prophylactic vaccines for infectious pathogens and their application prospects as therapeutic vaccines for cancer and other kinds of chronic infectious disease such as human papillomavirus, hepatitis B virus, and hepatitis C virus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hongbo Zhang
- Department of Basic Research, Ab&B Bio-Tech CO., LTD. JS, Taizhou, Jiangsu, China
| | - Hongdan Wang
- Department of Basic Research, Ab&B Bio-Tech CO., LTD. JS, Taizhou, Jiangsu, China
| | - Youcai An
- Department of Basic Research, Ab&B Bio-Tech CO., LTD. JS, Taizhou, Jiangsu, China
| | - Ze Chen
- Department of Basic Research, Ab&B Bio-Tech CO., LTD. JS, Taizhou, Jiangsu, China
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7
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Trivedi PD, Byrne BJ, Corti M. Evolving Horizons: Adenovirus Vectors' Timeless Influence on Cancer, Gene Therapy and Vaccines. Viruses 2023; 15:2378. [PMID: 38140619 PMCID: PMC10747483 DOI: 10.3390/v15122378] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2023] [Revised: 11/27/2023] [Accepted: 11/29/2023] [Indexed: 12/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Efficient and targeted delivery of a DNA payload is vital for developing safe gene therapy. Owing to the recent success of commercial oncolytic vector and multiple COVID-19 vaccines, adenovirus vectors are back in the spotlight. Adenovirus vectors can be used in gene therapy by altering the wild-type virus and making it replication-defective; specific viral genes can be removed and replaced with a segment that holds a therapeutic gene, and this vector can be used as delivery vehicle for tissue specific gene delivery. Modified conditionally replicative-oncolytic adenoviruses target tumors exclusively and have been studied in clinical trials extensively. This comprehensive review seeks to offer a summary of adenovirus vectors, exploring their characteristics, genetic enhancements, and diverse applications in clinical and preclinical settings. A significant emphasis is placed on their crucial role in advancing cancer therapy and the latest breakthroughs in vaccine clinical trials for various diseases. Additionally, we tackle current challenges and future avenues for optimizing adenovirus vectors, promising to open new frontiers in the fields of cell and gene therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Manuela Corti
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA; (P.D.T.); (B.J.B.)
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8
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Mafokwane T, Djikeng A, Nesengani LT, Dewar J, Mapholi O. Gastrointestinal Infection in South African Children under the Age of 5 years: A Mini Review. Gastroenterol Res Pract 2023; 2023:1906782. [PMID: 37663241 PMCID: PMC10469397 DOI: 10.1155/2023/1906782] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2023] [Revised: 07/14/2023] [Accepted: 07/24/2023] [Indexed: 09/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Objective To estimate gastroenteritis disease and its etiological agents in children under the age of 5 years living in South Africa. Methods A mini literature review of pertinent articles published in ScienceDirect, PubMed, GoogleScholar, and Scopus was conducted using search terms: "Gastroenteritis in children," "Gastroenteritis in the world," Gastroenteritis in South Africa," "Prevalence of gastroenteritis," "Epidemiological surveillance of gastroenteritis in the world," and "Causes of gastroenteritis". Results A total of 174 published articles were included in this mini review. In the last 20 years, the mortality rate resulting from diarrhea in children under the age of 5 years has declined and this is influenced by improved hygiene practices, awareness programs, an improved water and sanitation supply, and the availability of vaccines. More modern genomic amplification techniques were used to re-analyze stool specimens collected from children in eight low-resource settings in Asia, South America, and Africa reported improved sensitivity of pathogen detection to about 65%, that viruses were the main etiological agents in patients with diarrhea aged from 0 to 11 months but that Shigella, followed by sapovirus and enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli had a high incidence in children aged 12-24 months. In addition, co-infections were noted in nearly 10% of diarrhea cases, with rotavirus and Shigella being the main co-infecting agents together with adenovirus, enteropathogenic E. coli, Clostridium jejuni, or Clostridium coli. Conclusions This mini review outlines the epidemiology and trends relating to parasitic, viral, and bacterial agents responsible for gastroenteritis in children in South Africa. An increase in sequence-independent diagnostic approaches will improve the identification of pathogens to resolve undiagnosed cases of gastroenteritis. Emerging state and national surveillance systems should focus on improving the identification of gastrointestinal pathogens in children and the development of further vaccines against gastrointestinal pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tshepo Mafokwane
- Department of Life and Consumer Sciences, College of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences, University of South Africa, Science Campus, Florida, Johannesburg, South Africa
| | - Appolinaire Djikeng
- Department of Agriculture, College of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences, University of South Africa Science Campus, Florida, Johannesburg, South Africa
- Centre for Tropical Livestock Genetics and Health (CTLGH), Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Lucky T. Nesengani
- Department of Agriculture, College of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences, University of South Africa Science Campus, Florida, Johannesburg, South Africa
| | - John Dewar
- Department of Life and Consumer Sciences, College of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences, University of South Africa, Science Campus, Florida, Johannesburg, South Africa
| | - Olivia Mapholi
- Department of Agriculture, College of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences, University of South Africa Science Campus, Florida, Johannesburg, South Africa
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9
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Desingu PA, Rubeni TP, Sundaresan NR. Deciphering the Origin of DNA Viruses (Replication-Associated Parvo-NS1) That Infect Vertebrates from Invertebrate-Infecting Viruses. Microbiol Spectr 2023; 11:e0457022. [PMID: 37347193 PMCID: PMC10433990 DOI: 10.1128/spectrum.04570-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2022] [Accepted: 05/21/2023] [Indexed: 06/23/2023] Open
Abstract
DNA replication is a standard and essential function among DNA viruses; however, this functional domain's common ancestor, origin, and evolutionary path in invertebrate- and vertebrate-infecting viruses are not yet fully understood. Here, we present evidence, using a combination of phylogenetic relationships, coevolution, and CLANS (cluster analysis of sequences) analysis, that the parvo-NS1 domain (nonstructural protein NS1, DNA helicase domain) of these DNA viruses that infect vertebrates potentially originated from the invertebrate (Platyhelminthes) parvo-NS1 domain of parvovirus-related sequences (PRSs). Our results suggest that papillomaviruses and the parvovirus subfamilies Densovirinae and Hamaparvovirinae DNA helicase evolved directly from the Platyhelminthes NS1 domain (PRSs). Similarly, the parvovirus subfamily Parvovirinae NS1 domain displayed evolutionary heritage from the PRSs through Hamaparvovirinae. Further, our analysis also clarified that herpesviruses and adenoviruses independently obtained the parvo-NS1 domain from Dependoparvovirus (Parvovirinae). Furthermore, virus-host coevolution analysis revealed that the parvovirus NS1 domain has coevolved with hosts, from flatworms to humans, and it appears that the papillomavirus may have obtained the DNA helicase during the early stages of parvovirus evolution and later led to the development of the DNA helicase of adomavirus and polyomavirus. Finally, herpesviruses and adenoviruses likely inherited the parvo-NS1 domain from Dependoparvovirus in the later stages of evolution. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first evolutionary evidence to suggest that the DNA helicase of viruses that infect vertebrates originated from the invertebrate PRSs. IMPORTANCE DNA replication of DNA viruses is an essential function. This allows DNA replication of viruses to form virus particles. The DNA helicase domain is responsible for this primary function. This domain is present in parvoviruses, papillomaviruses, polyomaviruses, herpesviruses, and adenoviruses. But little is known about the common ancestor, origin, and evolutionary path of DNA helicase in invertebrate- and vertebrate-infecting viruses. Here, we report the possibility of the origin of DNA viruses (DNA helicase) infecting vertebrates from Platyhelminthes (invertebrate) PRSs. Our study established that the parvovirus subfamily Parvovirinae NS1 domain displayed evolutionary heritage from the Platyhelminthes PRSs through Hamaparvovirinae. Furthermore, our study suggests that the papillomavirus DNA helicase may have evolved in the early stages of parvovirus evolution and then led to the development of the adomavirus and polyomavirus. Our study suggests that the herpesviruses and adenoviruses likely inherited the parvo-NS1 domain through gene capture from Dependoparvovirus in the later stages of parvovirus evolution in their hosts.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - T. P. Rubeni
- Department of Microbiology and Cell Biology, Indian Institute of Science, Bengaluru, India
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10
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Charman M, Grams N, Kumar N, Halko E, Dybas JM, Abbott A, Lum KK, Blumenthal D, Tsopurashvili E, Weitzman MD. A viral biomolecular condensate coordinates assembly of progeny particles. Nature 2023; 616:332-338. [PMID: 37020020 DOI: 10.1038/s41586-023-05887-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2021] [Accepted: 02/24/2023] [Indexed: 04/07/2023]
Abstract
Biomolecular condensates formed by phase separation can compartmentalize and regulate cellular processes1,2. Emerging evidence has suggested that membraneless subcellular compartments in virus-infected cells form by phase separation3-8. Although linked to several viral processes3-5,9,10, evidence that phase separation contributes functionally to the assembly of progeny particles in infected cells is lacking. Here we show that phase separation of the human adenovirus 52-kDa protein has a critical role in the coordinated assembly of infectious progeny particles. We demonstrate that the 52-kDa protein is essential for the organization of viral structural proteins into biomolecular condensates. This organization regulates viral assembly such that capsid assembly is coordinated with the provision of viral genomes needed to produce complete packaged particles. We show that this function is governed by the molecular grammar of an intrinsically disordered region of the 52-kDa protein, and that failure to form condensates or to recruit viral factors that are critical for assembly results in failed packaging and assembly of only non-infectious particles. Our findings identify essential requirements for coordinated assembly of progeny particles and demonstrate that phase separation of a viral protein is critical for production of infectious progeny during adenovirus infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew Charman
- Division of Protective Immunity, The Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA, USA.
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA.
- Division of Cancer Pathobiology, The Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA, USA.
| | - Nicholas Grams
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Namrata Kumar
- Division of Protective Immunity, The Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA, USA
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA
- Division of Cancer Pathobiology, The Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Edwin Halko
- Division of Protective Immunity, The Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA, USA
- Division of Cancer Pathobiology, The Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Joseph M Dybas
- Division of Protective Immunity, The Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA, USA
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA
- Division of Cancer Pathobiology, The Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA, USA
- Department of Biomedical and Health Informatics, The Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Amber Abbott
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Krystal K Lum
- Division of Protective Immunity, The Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA, USA
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA
- Division of Cancer Pathobiology, The Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Daniel Blumenthal
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA
- Division of Cell Pathology, The Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | | | - Matthew D Weitzman
- Division of Protective Immunity, The Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA, USA.
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA.
- Division of Cancer Pathobiology, The Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA, USA.
- Penn Epigenetics Institute, University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA.
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11
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Hamdan F, Cerullo V. Cancer immunotherapies: A hope for the uncurable? FRONTIERS IN MOLECULAR MEDICINE 2023; 3:1140977. [PMID: 39086690 PMCID: PMC11285639 DOI: 10.3389/fmmed.2023.1140977] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2023] [Accepted: 02/07/2023] [Indexed: 08/02/2024]
Abstract
The use of cancer immunotherapies is not novel but has been used over the decades in the clinic. Only recently have we found the true potential of stimulating an anti-tumor response after the breakthrough of checkpoint inhibitors. Cancer immunotherapies have become the first line treatment for many malignancies at various stages. Nevertheless, the clinical results in terms of overall survival and progression free survival were not as anticipated. Majority of cancer patients do not respond to immunotherapies and the reasons differ. Hence, further improvements for cancer immunotherapies are crucially needed. In the review, we will discuss various forms of cancer immunotherapies that are being tested or already in the clinic. Moreover, we also highlight future directions to improve such therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Firas Hamdan
- Laboratory of Immunovirotherapy, Drug Research Program, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
- TRIMM, Translational Immunology Research Program, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
- Drug Delivery, Drug Research Program, Division of Pharmaceutical Biosciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Vincenzo Cerullo
- Laboratory of Immunovirotherapy, Drug Research Program, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
- TRIMM, Translational Immunology Research Program, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
- Drug Delivery, Drug Research Program, Division of Pharmaceutical Biosciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
- iCAN Digital Precision Cancer Medicine Flagship, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
- Department of Molecular Medicine and Medical Biotechnology and CEINGE, Naples University Federico II, Naples, Italy
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12
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An efficient capture strategy for the purification of human adenovirus type 5 from cell lysates. J Biotechnol 2023; 361:49-56. [PMID: 36494010 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiotec.2022.11.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2022] [Revised: 11/03/2022] [Accepted: 11/26/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
An efficient capture step for human adenovirus type 5 from cell lysate was developed as an initial virus purification step from cell debris supernatant. Organosilane-based polymer particles were synthesized and experimental monomer screening allowed the selection of appropriate functionalities for the development of particles for virus binding. After elution, virus recoveries of 83 % were obtained with significant reduction of matrix proteins and residual host cell DNA. Therefore, the implemented capture strategy for adenovirus via polymer particles provides a scalable and reproducible approach to reduce time and cost during virus purification processes.
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13
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Expansion of Single Chains Released from a Spherical Cavity. Polymers (Basel) 2022; 15:polym15010198. [PMID: 36616547 PMCID: PMC9824584 DOI: 10.3390/polym15010198] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2022] [Revised: 12/18/2022] [Accepted: 12/23/2022] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
A two-stage model is developed to explain the phenomena of chain expansion, released from a confining cavity. In the first stage, the chain is assumed to expand as a sphere, while in the second stage it expands like a coil. The kinetic equations for the variation of chain size are derived in the two stages by balancing the rate of the free energy change with the rate of the energy dissipation. Langevin dynamics simulations are then performed to examine the theory. We find that the expansion process is dominated by the second stage and the evolution of chain size follows, mainly, the predicted curve for coil expansion, which depends on the chain length and is not sensitive to the confining volume fraction. It permits to define the expansion time for the process. Further study reveals that the chain does undergo a spherical expansion in the first stage with the characteristic time much shorter than the one for the second stage. As a consequence, the first-stage variation of chain size can be regarded as an add-on to the principal curve of expansion designated by the second stage. The scaling behaviors and the associated scaling exponents are analyzed in details. The simulation results well support the theory.
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14
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Wang WC, Sayedahmed EE, Mittal SK. Significance of Preexisting Vector Immunity and Activation of Innate Responses for Adenoviral Vector-Based Therapy. Viruses 2022; 14:v14122727. [PMID: 36560730 PMCID: PMC9787786 DOI: 10.3390/v14122727] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2022] [Revised: 12/01/2022] [Accepted: 12/02/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
An adenoviral (AdV)-based vector system is a promising platform for vaccine development and gene therapy applications. Administration of an AdV vector elicits robust innate immunity, leading to the development of humoral and cellular immune responses against the vector and the transgene antigen, if applicable. The use of high doses (1011-1013 virus particles) of an AdV vector, especially for gene therapy applications, could lead to vector toxicity due to excessive levels of innate immune responses, vector interactions with blood factors, or high levels of vector transduction in the liver and spleen. Additionally, the high prevalence of AdV infections in humans or the first inoculation with the AdV vector result in the development of vector-specific immune responses, popularly known as preexisting vector immunity. It significantly reduces the vector efficiency following the use of an AdV vector that is prone to preexisting vector immunity. Several approaches have been developed to overcome this problem. The utilization of rare human AdV types or nonhuman AdVs is the primary strategy to evade preexisting vector immunity. The use of heterologous viral vectors, capsid modification, and vector encapsulation are alternative methods to evade vector immunity. The vectors can be optimized for clinical applications with comprehensive knowledge of AdV vector immunity, toxicity, and circumvention strategies.
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15
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KANATSU-SHINOHARA M, LEE J, MIYAZAKI T, MORIMOTO H, SHINOHARA T. Adenovirus-mediated gene delivery restores fertility in congenitally infertile female mice. J Reprod Dev 2022; 68:369-376. [PMID: 36223953 PMCID: PMC9792657 DOI: 10.1262/jrd.2022-090] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Abstract
Oogenesis depends on close interactions between oocytes and granulosa cells. Abnormal signaling between these cell types can result in infertility. However, attempts to manipulate oocyte-granulosa cell interactions have had limited success, likely due to the blood-follicle barrier (BFB), which prevents the penetration of exogenous materials into ovarian follicles. Here, we used adenoviruses (AVs) to manipulate the oocyte-granulosa cell interactions. AVs penetrated the BFB and transduced granulosa cells through ovarian microinjection. Although AVs caused transient inflammation, they did not impair fertility in wild-type mice. Introduction of Kitl-expressing AVs into congenitally infertile KitlSl-t/KitlSl-t mutant mouse ovaries, which contained only primordial follicles because of a lack of Kitl expression, restored fertility through natural mating. The offspring showed no evidence of AV integration and exhibited normal genomic imprinting patterns for imprinted genes. These results demonstrate the usefulness of AVs for manipulating oogenesis and suggest the possibility of gene therapies for human female infertility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mito KANATSU-SHINOHARA
- Department of Molecular Genetics, Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto University, Kyoto 606-8501, Japan,AMED-CREST, AMED 1-7-1 Otemachi, Chiyodaku, Tokyo 100-0004, Japan
| | - Jiyoung LEE
- Advanced Multidisciplinary Research Cluster, Institute of Research, Tokyo Medical and Dental University (TMDU), Tokyo 113-8510, Japan
| | - Takehiro MIYAZAKI
- Department of Molecular Genetics, Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto University, Kyoto 606-8501, Japan
| | - Hiroko MORIMOTO
- Department of Molecular Genetics, Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto University, Kyoto 606-8501, Japan
| | - Takashi SHINOHARA
- Department of Molecular Genetics, Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto University, Kyoto 606-8501, Japan
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16
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Investigation of the Association between the Energy Metabolism of the Insect Vector Laodelphax striatellus and Rice Stripe Virus (RSV). Viruses 2022; 14:v14102298. [PMID: 36298853 PMCID: PMC9607531 DOI: 10.3390/v14102298] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2022] [Revised: 10/14/2022] [Accepted: 10/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Viruses, as intracellular parasites, rely on the host organism to complete their life cycle. Although over 70% of plant viruses are transmitted by insect vectors, the role of vector energy metabolism on the infection process of insect-borne plant viruses is unclear. In this study, full-length cDNAs of three energy metabolism-related genes (LsATPase, LsMIT13 and LsNADP-ME) were obtained from the small brown planthopper (SBPH, Laodelphax striatellus), which transmits the Rice stripe virus (RSV). Expression levels of LsATPase, LsMIT13 and LsNADP-ME increased by 105%, 1120% and 259%, respectively, due to RSV infection. The repression of LsATPase, LsMIT13 or LsNADP-ME by RNAi had no effect on RSV nucleocapsid protein (NP) transcripts or protein levels. The repression of LsATPase caused a significant increase in LsMIT13 and LsNADP-ME transcript levels by 230% and 217%, respectively, and the repression of LsMIT13 caused a significant increase in LsNADP-ME mRNA levels. These results suggested that the silencing of LsATPase induced compensatory upregulation of LsMIT13 and LsNADP-ME, and silencing LsMIT13 induced compensatory upregulation of LsNADP-ME. Further study indicated that the co-silencing of LsATPase, LsMIT13 and LsNADP-ME in viruliferous SBPHs increased ATP production and RSV loads by 182% and 117%, respectively, as compared with nonviruliferous SBPHs. These findings indicate that SBPH energy metabolism is involved in RSV infection and provide insight into the association between plant viruses and energy metabolism in the insect vector.
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17
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Zarei M, Jonveaux J, Wang P, Haller FM, Gu B, Koulov AV, Jahn M. Proteomic Analysis of Adenovirus 5 by UHPLC-MS/MS: Development of a Robust and Reproducible Sample Preparation Workflow. ACS OMEGA 2022; 7:36825-36835. [PMID: 36278084 PMCID: PMC9583333 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.2c05325] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2022] [Accepted: 09/23/2022] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Adenoviruses (AdVs) have recently become widely used therapeutic vectors for severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) vaccine. AdVs are large, nonenveloped viruses with an icosahedral capsid formed from several proteins that encloses double-stranded DNA. These proteins are the main components and key players in initial stages of infection by the virus particles, so their heterogeneity and content must be evaluated to ensure product and process consistency. Peptide mapping can provide detailed information on these proteins, e.g., their amino acid sequences and post-translational modifications (PTMs), which is crucial for the development and optimization of the manufacturing processes. However, sample preparation remains the main bottleneck for successful proteomic analysis of the viral proteins (VPs) of AdVs due to their low concentrations and vast stoichiometric ranges. To address this problem, we have developed a fast and efficient protocol for preparing samples for proteomic analysis of VPs of AdV5 that requires no cleaning step prior to liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). The approach enabled identification of 92% of amino acids in AdV5 VPs on average and quantification of 53 PTMs in a single LC-MS/MS experiment using trypsin protease. The data obtained demonstrate the method's potential utility for supporting the development of novel AdV-based gene therapy products (GTPs).
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Affiliation(s)
- Mostafa Zarei
- Drug
Product Services, Lonza AG, Hochbergerstrasse 60G, CH-4057 Basel, Switzerland
- . Tel: +41 613168798. Fax: +41 61 316 9162
| | - Jérôme Jonveaux
- Drug
Product Services, Lonza AG, Hochbergerstrasse 60G, CH-4057 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Peng Wang
- Lonza
Houston, Inc. 14905 Kirby
Drive, Houston, Texas 77047, United States
| | | | - Bingnan Gu
- Lonza
Houston, Inc. 14905 Kirby
Drive, Houston, Texas 77047, United States
| | - Atanas V. Koulov
- Drug
Product Services, Lonza AG, Hochbergerstrasse 60G, CH-4057 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Michael Jahn
- Drug
Product Services, Lonza AG, Hochbergerstrasse 60G, CH-4057 Basel, Switzerland
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18
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Engineered Oncolytic Adenoviruses: An Emerging Approach for Cancer Therapy. Pathogens 2022; 11:pathogens11101146. [PMID: 36297203 PMCID: PMC9608483 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens11101146] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2022] [Revised: 09/29/2022] [Accepted: 09/29/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Cancer is among the major leading causes of mortality globally, and chemotherapy is currently one of the most effective cancer therapies. Unfortunately, chemotherapy is invariably accompanied by dose-dependent cytotoxic side effects. Recently, genetically engineered adenoviruses emerged as an alternative gene therapy approach targeting cancers. This review focuses on the characteristics of genetically modified adenovirus and oncology clinical studies using adenovirus-mediated gene therapy strategies. In addition, modulation of the tumor biology and the tumor microenvironment as well as the immunological responses associated with adenovirus-mediate cancer therapy are discussed.
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19
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Adenoviruses in Avian Hosts: Recent Discoveries Shed New Light on Adenovirus Diversity and Evolution. Viruses 2022; 14:v14081767. [PMID: 36016389 PMCID: PMC9416666 DOI: 10.3390/v14081767] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2022] [Revised: 08/09/2022] [Accepted: 08/11/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
While adenoviruses cause infections in a wide range of vertebrates, members of the genus Atadenovirus, Siadenovirus, and Aviadenovirus predominantly infect avian hosts. Several recent studies on avian adenoviruses have encouraged us to re-visit previously proposed adenovirus evolutionary concepts. Complete genomes and partial DNA polymerase sequences of avian adenoviruses were extracted from NCBI and analysed using various software. Genomic analyses and constructed phylogenetic trees identified the atadenovirus origin from an Australian native passerine bird in contrast to the previously established reptilian origin. In addition, we demonstrated that the theories on higher AT content in atadenoviruses are no longer accurate and cannot be considered as a species demarcation criterion for the genus Atadenovirus. Phylogenetic reconstruction further emphasised the need to reconsider siadenovirus origin, and we recommend extended studies on avian adenoviruses in wild birds to provide finer evolutionary resolution.
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20
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Lu ZH, Li J, Dmitriev IP, Kashentseva EA, Curiel DT. Efficient Genome Editing Achieved via Plug-and-Play Adenovirus Piggyback Transport of Cas9/gRNA Complex on Viral Capsid Surface. ACS NANO 2022; 16:10443-10455. [PMID: 35749339 PMCID: PMC9330763 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.2c00909] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
The capacity to efficiently deliver the gene-editing enzyme complex to target cells is favored over other forms of gene delivery as it offers one-time hit-and-run gene editing, thus improving precision and safety and reducing potential immunogenicity against edited cells in clinical applications. Here we performed a proof-of-mechanism study and demonstrated that a simian adenoviral vector for DNA delivery can be repurposed as a robust intracellular delivery platform for a functional Cas9/guide RNA (gRNA) complex to recipient cells. In this system, the clinically relevant adenovirus was genetically engineered with a plug-and-display technology based on SpyTag003/SpyCatcher003 coupling chemistry. Under physiological conditions, an off-the-shelf mixture of viral vector with SpyTag003 incorporated into surface capsid proteins and Cas9 fused with SpyCatcher003 led to a rapid titration reaction yielding adenovirus carrying Cas9SpyCatcher003 on the virus surface. The Cas9 fusion protein-conjugated viruses in the presence of a reporter gRNA delivered gene-editing functions to cells with an efficiency comparable to that of a commercial CRISPR/Cas9 transfection reagent. Our data fully validate the adenoviral "piggyback" approach to deliver an intracellularly acting enzyme cargo and, thus, warrant the prospect of engineering tissue-targeted adenovirus carrying Cas9/gRNA for in vivo gene editing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhi Hong Lu
- Department of Radiation Oncology,
Biologic Therapeutics Center, Washington
University School of Medicine, 660 South Euclid Avenue, Campus Box 8224, St. Louis, Missouri 63110, United States
| | - Jie Li
- Department of Radiation Oncology,
Biologic Therapeutics Center, Washington
University School of Medicine, 660 South Euclid Avenue, Campus Box 8224, St. Louis, Missouri 63110, United States
| | - Igor P. Dmitriev
- Department of Radiation Oncology,
Biologic Therapeutics Center, Washington
University School of Medicine, 660 South Euclid Avenue, Campus Box 8224, St. Louis, Missouri 63110, United States
| | - Elena A. Kashentseva
- Department of Radiation Oncology,
Biologic Therapeutics Center, Washington
University School of Medicine, 660 South Euclid Avenue, Campus Box 8224, St. Louis, Missouri 63110, United States
| | - David T. Curiel
- Department of Radiation Oncology,
Biologic Therapeutics Center, Washington
University School of Medicine, 660 South Euclid Avenue, Campus Box 8224, St. Louis, Missouri 63110, United States
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21
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Abstract
Charge detection mass spectrometry (CDMS) is a single-particle technique where the masses of individual ions are determined from simultaneous measurement of their mass-to-charge ratio (m/z) and charge. Masses are determined for thousands of individual ions, and then the results are binned to give a mass spectrum. Using this approach, accurate mass distributions can be measured for heterogeneous and high-molecular-weight samples that are usually not amenable to analysis by conventional mass spectrometry. Recent applications include heavily glycosylated proteins, protein complexes, protein aggregates such as amyloid fibers, infectious viruses, gene therapies, vaccines, and vesicles such as exosomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin F Jarrold
- Chemistry Department, Indiana University, 800 E. Kirkwood Avenue, Bloomington, Indiana 47404, United States
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22
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Powers TW, Mullins EK, Zhang K, Binder JJ, Friese O, Runnels HA, Thompson LC. Identification of Recombinant Chimpanzee Adenovirus C68 Degradation Products Detected by AEX-HPLC. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2022; 10:753481. [PMID: 35449595 PMCID: PMC9017566 DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2022.753481] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2021] [Accepted: 03/09/2022] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
Physicochemical tests represent important tools for the analytical control strategy of biotherapeutics. For adenoviral modalities, anion-exchange high performance liquid chromatography (AEX-HPLC) represents an important methodology, as it is able to simultaneously provide information on viral particle concentration, product purity and surface charge in a high-throughput manner. During product development of an adenoviral-based therapeutic, an accelerated stability study was performed and showed changes in each of the AEX-HPLC reportable attributes. These changes also correlated with a decrease in product infectivity prompting a detailed characterization of the impurity and mechanism of the surface charge change. Characterization experiments identified the impurity to be free hexon trimer, suggesting that capsid degradation could be contributing to both the impurity and reduced particle concentration. Additional mass spectrometry characterization identified deamidation of specific hexon residues to be associated with the external surface charge modification observed upon thermal stress conditions. To demonstrate a causal relationship between deamidation and surface charge changes observed by AEX-HPLC, site-directed mutagenesis experiments were performed. Through this effort, it was concluded that deamidation of asparagine 414 was responsible for the surface charge alteration observed in the AEX-HPLC profile but was not associated with the reduction in infectivity. Overall, this manuscript details critical characterization efforts conducted to enable understanding of a pivotal physicochemical test for adenoviral based therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas W. Powers
- Analytical Research and Development, Biotherapeutic Pharmaceutical Sciences, Pfizer Inc., Chesterfield, MO, United States
| | - Elise K. Mullins
- Analytical Research and Development, Biotherapeutic Pharmaceutical Sciences, Pfizer Inc., Chesterfield, MO, United States
| | - Kun Zhang
- Analytical Research and Development, Biotherapeutic Pharmaceutical Sciences, Pfizer Inc., Chesterfield, MO, United States
| | - Joseph J. Binder
- Cancer Vaccines and Immunotherapeutics, Pfizer Inc., San Diego, CA, United States
| | - Olga Friese
- Analytical Research and Development, Biotherapeutic Pharmaceutical Sciences, Pfizer Inc., Chesterfield, MO, United States
| | - Herbert A. Runnels
- Analytical Research and Development, Biotherapeutic Pharmaceutical Sciences, Pfizer Inc., Chesterfield, MO, United States
| | - Lawrence C. Thompson
- Analytical Research and Development, Biotherapeutic Pharmaceutical Sciences, Pfizer Inc., Chesterfield, MO, United States
- *Correspondence: Lawrence C. Thompson,
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23
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Barnes LF, Draper BE, Jarrold MF. Analysis of Recombinant Adenovirus Vectors by Ion Trap Charge Detection Mass Spectrometry: Accurate Molecular Weight Measurements beyond 150 MDa. Anal Chem 2022; 94:1543-1551. [PMID: 35023731 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.1c02439] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Adenovirus is one of the largest nonenveloped, double-stranded DNA viruses. It is widely used as a gene therapy vector and has recently received a lot of attention as a novel vaccine platform for SARS-CoV-2. Human adenovirus 5 (HAdV5) contains over 2500 protein molecules and has a 36 kbp genome. Adenovirus is well beyond the range of conventional mass spectrometry, and it was unclear how well such a large complex could be desolvated. Here, we report molecular weight (MW) distributions measured for HAdV5 and for 11 recombinant AdV vectors with genomes of varying lengths. The MW distributions were recorded using ion trap charge detection mass spectrometry (CDMS), a single-particle technique where m/z and charge are measured for individual ions. The results show that ions as large as 150 MDa can be effectively desolvated and accurate MW distributions obtained. The MW distribution for HAdV5 contains a narrow peak at 156.1 MDa, assigned to the infectious virus. A smaller peak at 129.6 MDa is attributed to incomplete particles that have not packaged a genome. The ions in the 129.6 MDa peak have a much lower average charge than those in the peak at 156.1 MDa. This is attributed to the empty particles missing some or all of the fibers that decorate the surface of the virion. The MW measured for the mature virus (156.1 MDa) is much larger than that predicted from sequence masses and copy numbers of the constituents (142.5 MDa). Measurements performed for recombinant AdV as a function of genome length show that for every 1 MDa increase in the genome MW, the MW of the mature virus increases by around 2.3 MDa. The additional 1.3 MDa is attributed to core proteins that are copackaged with the DNA. This observation suggests that the discrepancy between the measured and expected MWs for mature HAdV5 is due to an underestimate in the copy numbers of the core proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lauren F Barnes
- Chemistry Department, Indiana University, 800 E Kirkwood Avenue, Bloomington, Indiana 47405, United States
| | - Benjamin E Draper
- Megadalton Solutions, Inc., 3750 E Bluebird Lane, Bloomington, Indiana 47401, United States
| | - Martin F Jarrold
- Chemistry Department, Indiana University, 800 E Kirkwood Avenue, Bloomington, Indiana 47405, United States
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24
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Zhang Z, Ma P, Ahmed R, Wang J, Akin D, Soto F, Liu BF, Li P, Demirci U. Advanced Point-of-Care Testing Technologies for Human Acute Respiratory Virus Detection. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2022; 34:e2103646. [PMID: 34623709 DOI: 10.1002/adma.202103646] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 37.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2021] [Revised: 08/25/2021] [Indexed: 04/14/2023]
Abstract
The ever-growing global threats to human life caused by the human acute respiratory virus (RV) infections have cost billions of lives, created a significant economic burden, and shaped society for centuries. The timely response to emerging RVs could save human lives and reduce the medical care burden. The development of RV detection technologies is essential for potentially preventing RV pandemic and epidemics. However, commonly used detection technologies lack sensitivity, specificity, and speed, thus often failing to provide the rapid turnaround times. To address this problem, new technologies are devised to address the performance inadequacies of the traditional methods. These emerging technologies offer improvements in convenience, speed, flexibility, and portability of point-of-care test (POCT). Herein, recent developments in POCT are comprehensively reviewed for eight typical acute respiratory viruses. This review discusses the challenges and opportunities of various recognition and detection strategies and discusses these according to their detection principles, including nucleic acid amplification, optical POCT, electrochemistry, lateral flow assays, microfluidics, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays, and microarrays. The importance of limits of detection, throughput, portability, and specificity when testing clinical samples in resource-limited settings is emphasized. Finally, the evaluation of commercial POCT kits for both essential RV diagnosis and clinical-oriented practices is included.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhaowei Zhang
- Oil Crops Research Institute of Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, National Reference Laboratory for Agricultural Testing (Biotoxin), Key Laboratory of Biology and Genetic Improvement of Oil Crops, Key Laboratory of Detection for Mycotoxins, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Wuhan, 430062, P. R. China
- Bio-Acoustic MEMS in Medicine (BAMM) Laboratory, Canary Center at Stanford for Cancer Early Detection, Department of Radiology, Stanford School of Medicine, Palo Alto, CA, 94304, USA
| | - Peng Ma
- Bio-Acoustic MEMS in Medicine (BAMM) Laboratory, Canary Center at Stanford for Cancer Early Detection, Department of Radiology, Stanford School of Medicine, Palo Alto, CA, 94304, USA
- The Key Laboratory for Biomedical Photonics of MOE at Wuhan National Laboratory for Optoelectronics - Hubei Bioinformatics & Molecular Imaging Key Laboratory Systems Biology Theme, Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Technology, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430074, P. R. China
| | - Rajib Ahmed
- Bio-Acoustic MEMS in Medicine (BAMM) Laboratory, Canary Center at Stanford for Cancer Early Detection, Department of Radiology, Stanford School of Medicine, Palo Alto, CA, 94304, USA
| | - Jie Wang
- Bio-Acoustic MEMS in Medicine (BAMM) Laboratory, Canary Center at Stanford for Cancer Early Detection, Department of Radiology, Stanford School of Medicine, Palo Alto, CA, 94304, USA
| | - Demir Akin
- Bio-Acoustic MEMS in Medicine (BAMM) Laboratory, Canary Center at Stanford for Cancer Early Detection, Department of Radiology, Stanford School of Medicine, Palo Alto, CA, 94304, USA
| | - Fernando Soto
- Bio-Acoustic MEMS in Medicine (BAMM) Laboratory, Canary Center at Stanford for Cancer Early Detection, Department of Radiology, Stanford School of Medicine, Palo Alto, CA, 94304, USA
| | - Bi-Feng Liu
- The Key Laboratory for Biomedical Photonics of MOE at Wuhan National Laboratory for Optoelectronics - Hubei Bioinformatics & Molecular Imaging Key Laboratory Systems Biology Theme, Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Technology, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430074, P. R. China
| | - Peiwu Li
- Oil Crops Research Institute of Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, National Reference Laboratory for Agricultural Testing (Biotoxin), Key Laboratory of Biology and Genetic Improvement of Oil Crops, Key Laboratory of Detection for Mycotoxins, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Wuhan, 430062, P. R. China
| | - Utkan Demirci
- Bio-Acoustic MEMS in Medicine (BAMM) Laboratory, Canary Center at Stanford for Cancer Early Detection, Department of Radiology, Stanford School of Medicine, Palo Alto, CA, 94304, USA
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25
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de Pablo PJ, San Martín C. Seeing and touching adenovirus: complementary approaches for understanding assembly and disassembly of a complex virion. Curr Opin Virol 2021; 52:112-122. [PMID: 34906758 DOI: 10.1016/j.coviro.2021.11.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2021] [Revised: 11/09/2021] [Accepted: 11/11/2021] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Understanding adenovirus assembly and disassembly poses many challenges due to the virion complexity. A distinctive feature of adenoviruses is the large amount of virus-encoded proteins packed together with the dsDNA genome. Cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM) structures are broadening our understanding of capsid variability along evolution, but little is known about the organization of the non-icosahedral nucleoproteic core and its influence in adenovirus function. Atomic force microscopy (AFM) probes the biomechanics of virus particles, while simultaneously inducing and monitoring their disassembly in real time. Synergistic combination of AFM with EM shows that core proteins play unexpected key roles in maturation and entry, and uncoating dynamics are finely tuned to ensure genome release at the appropriate time and place for successful infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pedro J de Pablo
- Departamento de Física de la Materia Condensada, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid and IFIMAC, 28049 Madrid, Spain.
| | - Carmen San Martín
- Departamento de Estructura de Macromoléculas, Centro Nacional de Biotecnología (CNB-CSIC), Darwin 3, 28049 Madrid, Spain.
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26
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Mullins EK, Powers TW, Zobel J, Clawson KM, Barnes LF, Draper BE, Zou Q, Binder JJ, Dai S, Zhang K, Friese O, Runnels HA, Jarrold MF, Thompson LC. Characterization of Recombinant Chimpanzee Adenovirus C68 Low and High-Density Particles: Impact on Determination of Viral Particle Titer. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2021; 9:753480. [PMID: 34805110 PMCID: PMC8599148 DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2021.753480] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2021] [Accepted: 10/20/2021] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
We observed differential infectivity and product yield between two recombinant chimpanzee adenovirus C68 constructs whose primary difference was genome length. To determine a possible reason for this outcome, we characterized the proportion and composition of the empty and packaged capsids. Both analytical ultracentrifugation (AUC) and differential centrifugation sedimentation (DCS, a rapid and quantitative method for measuring adenoviral packaging variants) were employed for an initial assessment of genome packaging and showed multiple species whose abundance deviated between the virus builds but not manufacturing campaigns. Identity of the packaging variants was confirmed by charge detection mass spectrometry (CDMS), the first known application of this technique to analyze adenovirus. The empty and packaged capsid populations were separated via preparative ultracentrifugation and then combined into a series of mixtures. These mixtures showed the oft-utilized denaturing A260 adenoviral particle titer method will underestimate the actual particle titer by as much as three-fold depending on the empty/full ratio. In contrast, liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection proves to be a superior viral particle titer methodology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elise K Mullins
- Analytical Research and Development, Biotherapeutic Pharmaceutical Sciences, Pfizer Inc., Chesterfield, MO, United States
| | - Thomas W Powers
- Analytical Research and Development, Biotherapeutic Pharmaceutical Sciences, Pfizer Inc., Chesterfield, MO, United States
| | - Jim Zobel
- Analytical Research and Development, Biotherapeutic Pharmaceutical Sciences, Pfizer Inc., Chesterfield, MO, United States
| | - Kory M Clawson
- Analytical Research and Development, Biotherapeutic Pharmaceutical Sciences, Pfizer Inc., Chesterfield, MO, United States
| | - Lauren F Barnes
- Chemistry Department, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN, United States
| | | | - Qin Zou
- Analytical Research and Development, Biotherapeutic Pharmaceutical Sciences, Pfizer Inc., Chesterfield, MO, United States
| | - Joseph J Binder
- Cancer Vaccines and Immunotherapies, Pfizer Inc., San Diego, CA, United States
| | - Stanley Dai
- Nektar Therapeutics, San Francisco, CA, United States
| | - Kun Zhang
- Analytical Research and Development, Biotherapeutic Pharmaceutical Sciences, Pfizer Inc., Chesterfield, MO, United States
| | - Olga Friese
- Analytical Research and Development, Biotherapeutic Pharmaceutical Sciences, Pfizer Inc., Chesterfield, MO, United States
| | - Herbert A Runnels
- Analytical Research and Development, Biotherapeutic Pharmaceutical Sciences, Pfizer Inc., Chesterfield, MO, United States
| | - Martin F Jarrold
- Chemistry Department, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN, United States
| | - Lawrence C Thompson
- Analytical Research and Development, Biotherapeutic Pharmaceutical Sciences, Pfizer Inc., Chesterfield, MO, United States
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27
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Bajrovic I, Le MD, Davis MM, Croyle MA. Evaluation of intermolecular interactions required for thermostability of a recombinant adenovirus within a film matrix. J Control Release 2021; 341:118-131. [PMID: 34780881 DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2021.11.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2021] [Revised: 11/02/2021] [Accepted: 11/08/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Thermostability of vaccines and biologic drugs are key to increasing global access to a variety of life-saving agents. In this report, we characterize interactions between a novel zwitterionic surfactant and adenovirus serotype 5 which allow the virus to remain stable at room temperature in a thin film matrix. Complexity of the adenovirus capsid and the polydispersity of the surfactant required use of a variety of techniques to achieve this goal. The CMC of the surfactant in Tris buffer (pH 6.5) was estimated to be 0.7-1.17 × 10-4 M by the pyrene 1:3 ratio method. TEM images depict micelle formation around virus capsids. An estimated Kd of the virus-surfactant interaction of 2.25 × 10-9 M was determined by isothermal titration calorimetry. Associated data suggest that this interaction may be thermodynamically favorable and entropically driven. A competitive saturation study and TEM images indicate that the surfactant also binds to hexon proteins on the virus capsid. Taken together, these data support the working hypothesis that the surfactant is capable of forming micelles in the solid and liquid state and that it forms a protective coating around the virus by binding to hexon proteins on the virus capsid during the film forming process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Irnela Bajrovic
- Molecular Pharmaceutics and Drug Delivery, College of Pharmacy, The University of Texas at Austin, 2409 University Ave., Austin, TX, USA
| | - Matthew D Le
- Molecular Pharmaceutics and Drug Delivery, College of Pharmacy, The University of Texas at Austin, 2409 University Ave., Austin, TX, USA
| | - Madison M Davis
- Molecular Pharmaceutics and Drug Delivery, College of Pharmacy, The University of Texas at Austin, 2409 University Ave., Austin, TX, USA
| | - Maria A Croyle
- Molecular Pharmaceutics and Drug Delivery, College of Pharmacy, The University of Texas at Austin, 2409 University Ave., Austin, TX, USA; LaMontagne Center for Infectious Disease, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA.
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28
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Abstract
Although the process of genome encapsidation is highly conserved in tailed bacteriophages and eukaryotic double-stranded DNA viruses, there are two distinct packaging pathways that these viruses use to catalyze ATP-driven translocation of the viral genome into a preassembled procapsid shell. One pathway is used by ϕ29-like phages and adenoviruses, which replicate and subsequently package a monomeric, unit-length genome covalently attached to a virus/phage-encoded protein at each 5'-end of the dsDNA genome. In a second, more ubiquitous packaging pathway characterized by phage lambda and the herpesviruses, the viral DNA is replicated as multigenome concatemers linked in a head-to-tail fashion. Genome packaging in these viruses thus requires excision of individual genomes from the concatemer that are then translocated into a preassembled procapsid. Hence, the ATPases that power packaging in these viruses also possess nuclease activities that cut the genome from the concatemer at the beginning and end of packaging. This review focuses on proposed mechanisms of genome packaging in the dsDNA viruses using unit-length ϕ29 and concatemeric λ genome packaging motors as representative model systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlos E Catalano
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Colorado, Aurora, CO, United States.
| | - Marc C Morais
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Sealy Center for Structural and Molecular Biophysics, University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston, Galveston, TX, United States
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29
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Metagenomic detection and characterisation of multiple viruses in apparently healthy Australian Neophema birds. Sci Rep 2021; 11:20915. [PMID: 34686748 PMCID: PMC8536680 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-00440-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2021] [Accepted: 10/13/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Emerging viral pathogens are a significant concern, with potential consequences for human, animal and environmental health. Over the past several decades, many novel viruses have been found in animals, including birds, and often pose a significant threat to vulnerable species. However, despite enormous interest in virus research, little is known about virus communities (viromes) in Australian Neophema birds. Therefore, this study was designed to characterise the viromes of Neophema birds and track the evolutionary relationships of recently emerging psittacine siadenovirus F (PsSiAdV-F) circulating in the critically endangered, orange-bellied parrot (OBP, Neophema chrysogaster), using a viral metagenomic approach. This study identified 16 viruses belonging to the families Adenoviridae, Circoviridae, Endornaviridae, Picobirnaviridae and Picornaviridae. In addition, this study demonstrated a potential evolutionary relationship of a PsSiAdV-F sequenced previously from the critically endangered OBP. Strikingly, five adenoviral contigs identified in this study show the highest identities with human adenovirus 2 and human mastadenovirus C. This highlights an important and unexpected aspects of the avian virome and warrants further studies dedicated to this subject. Finally, the findings of this study emphasise the importance of testing birds used for trade or in experimental settings for potential pathogens to prevent the spread of infections.
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30
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Rao VB, Fokine A, Fang Q. The remarkable viral portal vertex: structure and a plausible model for mechanism. Curr Opin Virol 2021; 51:65-73. [PMID: 34619513 DOI: 10.1016/j.coviro.2021.09.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2021] [Revised: 08/23/2021] [Accepted: 09/12/2021] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
Many icosahedral viruses including tailed bacteriophages and herpes viruses have a unique portal vertex where a dodecameric protein ring is associated with a fivefold capsid shell. While the peripheral regions of the portal ring are involved in capsid assembly, its central channel is used to transport DNA into and out of capsid during genome packaging and infection. Though the atomic structure of this highly conserved, turbine-shaped, portal is known for nearly two decades, its molecular mechanism remains a mystery. Recent high-resolution in situ structures reveal various conformational states of the portal and the asymmetric interactions between the 12-fold portal and the fivefold capsid. These lead to a valve-like mechanism for this symmetry-mismatched portal vertex that regulates DNA flow through the channel, a critical function for high fidelity assembly of an infectious virion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Venigalla B Rao
- Bacteriophage Medical Research Center, Department of Biology, The Catholic University of America, Washington, DC 20064, USA.
| | - Andrei Fokine
- Department of Biological Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
| | - Qianglin Fang
- School of Public Health (Shenzhen), Sun Yat-sen University, Shenzhen, Guangdong, China
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31
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Abstract
The COVID-19 pandemic has motivated the rapid development of numerous vaccines that have proven effective against SARS-CoV-2. Several of these successful vaccines are based on the adenoviral vector platform. The mass manufacturing of these vaccines poses great challenges, especially in the context of a pandemic where extremely large quantities must be produced quickly at an affordable cost. In this work, two baseline processes for the production of a COVID-19 adenoviral vector vaccine, B1 and P1, were designed, simulated and economically evaluated with the aid of the software SuperPro Designer. B1 used a batch cell culture viral production step, with a viral titer of 5 × 1010 viral particles (VP)/mL in both stainless-steel and disposable equipment. P1 used a perfusion cell culture viral production step, with a viral titer of 1 × 1012 VP/mL in exclusively disposable equipment. Both processes were sized to produce 400 M/yr vaccine doses. P1 led to a smaller cost per dose than B1 ($0.15 vs. $0.23) and required a much smaller capital investment ($126 M vs. $299 M). The media and facility-dependent expenses were found to be the main contributors to the operating cost. The results indicate that adenoviral vector vaccines can be practically manufactured at large scale and low cost.
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32
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Suomalainen M, Greber UF. Virus Infection Variability by Single-Cell Profiling. Viruses 2021; 13:1568. [PMID: 34452433 PMCID: PMC8402812 DOI: 10.3390/v13081568] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2021] [Revised: 07/30/2021] [Accepted: 08/05/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Cell-to-cell variability of infection has long been known, yet it has remained one of the least understood phenomena in infection research. It impacts on disease onset and development, yet only recently underlying mechanisms have been studied in clonal cell cultures by single-virion immunofluorescence microscopy and flow cytometry. In this review, we showcase how single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq), single-molecule RNA-fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH), and copper(I)-catalyzed azide-alkyne cycloaddition (click) with alkynyl-tagged viral genomes dissect infection variability in human and mouse cells. We show how the combined use of scRNA-FISH and click-chemistry reveals highly variable onsets of adenoviral gene expression, and how single live cell plaques reveal lytic and nonlytic adenovirus transmissions. The review highlights how scRNA-seq profiling and scRNA-FISH of coxsackie, influenza, dengue, zika, and herpes simplex virus infections uncover transcriptional variability, and how the host interferon response tunes influenza and sendai virus infections. We introduce the concept of "cell state" in infection variability, and conclude with advances by single-cell simultaneous measurements of chromatin accessibility and mRNA counts at high-throughput. Such technology will further dissect the sequence of events in virus infection and pathology, and better characterize the genetic and genomic stability of viruses, cell autonomous innate immune responses, and mechanisms of tissue injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maarit Suomalainen
- Department of Molecular Life Sciences, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, CH-8057 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Urs F. Greber
- Department of Molecular Life Sciences, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, CH-8057 Zurich, Switzerland
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33
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Daussy CF, Pied N, Wodrich H. Understanding Post Entry Sorting of Adenovirus Capsids; A Chance to Change Vaccine Vector Properties. Viruses 2021; 13:1221. [PMID: 34202573 PMCID: PMC8310329 DOI: 10.3390/v13071221] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2021] [Revised: 06/15/2021] [Accepted: 06/17/2021] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Adenovirus vector-based genetic vaccines have emerged as a powerful strategy against the SARS-CoV-2 health crisis. This success is not unexpected because adenoviruses combine many desirable features of a genetic vaccine. They are highly immunogenic and have a low and well characterized pathogenic profile paired with technological approachability. Ongoing efforts to improve adenovirus-vaccine vectors include the use of rare serotypes and non-human adenoviruses. In this review, we focus on the viral capsid and how the choice of genotypes influences the uptake and subsequent subcellular sorting. We describe how understanding capsid properties, such as stability during the entry process, can change the fate of the entering particles and how this translates into differences in immunity outcomes. We discuss in detail how mutating the membrane lytic capsid protein VI affects species C viruses' post-entry sorting and briefly discuss if such approaches could have a wider implication in vaccine and/or vector development.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Harald Wodrich
- Microbiologie Fondamentale et Pathogénicité, MFP CNRS UMR 5234, University of Bordeaux, 146 rue Leo Saignat, CEDEX, 33076 Bordeaux, France; (C.F.D.); (N.P.)
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34
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Patel YD, Brown AJ, Zhu J, Rosignoli G, Gibson SJ, Hatton D, James DC. Control of Multigene Expression Stoichiometry in Mammalian Cells Using Synthetic Promoters. ACS Synth Biol 2021; 10:1155-1165. [PMID: 33939428 PMCID: PMC8296667 DOI: 10.1021/acssynbio.0c00643] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2020] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
To successfully engineer mammalian cells for a desired purpose, multiple recombinant genes are required to be coexpressed at a specific and optimal ratio. In this study, we hypothesized that synthetic promoters varying in transcriptional activity could be used to create single multigene expression vectors coexpressing recombinant genes at a predictable relative stoichiometry. A library of 27 multigene constructs was created comprising three discrete fluorescent reporter gene transcriptional units in fixed series, each under the control of either a relatively low, medium, or high transcriptional strength synthetic promoter in every possible combination. Expression of each reporter gene was determined by absolute quantitation qRT-PCR in CHO cells. The synthetic promoters did generally function as designed within a multigene vector context; however, significant divergences from predicted promoter-mediated transcriptional activity were observed. First, expression of all three genes within a multigene vector was repressed at varying levels relative to coexpression of identical reporter genes on separate single gene vectors at equivalent gene copies. Second, gene positional effects were evident across all constructs where expression of the reporter genes in positions 2 and 3 was generally reduced relative to position 1. Finally, after accounting for general repression, synthetic promoter transcriptional activity within a local multigene vector format deviated from that expected. Taken together, our data reveal that mammalian synthetic promoters can be employed in vectors to mediate expression of multiple genes at predictable relative stoichiometries. However, empirical validation of functional performance is a necessary prerequisite, as vector and promoter design features can significantly impact performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yash D. Patel
- Department
of Chemical and Biological Engineering, The University of Sheffield, Mappin Street, Sheffield, S1 3JD, U.K.
| | - Adam J. Brown
- Department
of Chemical and Biological Engineering, The University of Sheffield, Mappin Street, Sheffield, S1 3JD, U.K.
| | - Jie Zhu
- Cell
Culture and Fermentation Sciences, BioPharmaceuticals Development,
R&D, AstraZeneca, Gaithersburg, Maryland 20878, United States
| | - Guglielmo Rosignoli
- Dynamic
Omics, Antibody Discovery & Protein Engineering, R&D, AstraZeneca, Cambridge, CB21 6GH, U.K.
| | - Suzanne J. Gibson
- Cell
Culture and Fermentation Sciences, BioPharmaceuticals Development,
R&D, AstraZeneca, Cambridge, CB21 6GH, U.K.
| | - Diane Hatton
- Cell
Culture and Fermentation Sciences, BioPharmaceuticals Development,
R&D, AstraZeneca, Cambridge, CB21 6GH, U.K.
| | - David C. James
- Department
of Chemical and Biological Engineering, The University of Sheffield, Mappin Street, Sheffield, S1 3JD, U.K.
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35
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Adenovirus Structure: What Is New? Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22105240. [PMID: 34063479 PMCID: PMC8156859 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22105240] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2021] [Revised: 05/06/2021] [Accepted: 05/07/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Adenoviruses are large (~950 Å) and complex non-enveloped, dsDNA icosahedral viruses. They have a pseudo-T = 25 triangulation number with at least 12 different proteins composing the virion. These include the major and minor capsid proteins, core proteins, maturation protease, terminal protein, and packaging machinery. Although adenoviruses have been studied for more than 60 years, deciphering their architecture has presented a challenge for structural biology techniques. An outstanding event was the first near-atomic resolution structure of human adenovirus type 5 (HAdV-C5), solved by cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM) in 2010. Discovery of new adenovirus types, together with methodological advances in structural biology techniques, in particular cryo-EM, has lately produced a considerable amount of new, high-resolution data on the organization of adenoviruses belonging to different species. In spite of these advances, the organization of the non-icosahedral core is still a great unknown. Nevertheless, alternative techniques such as atomic force microscopy (AFM) are providing interesting glimpses on the role of the core proteins in genome condensation and virion stability. Here we summarize the current knowledge on adenovirus structure, with an emphasis on high-resolution structures obtained since 2010.
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36
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Xie S, Shen Q, Zhang W, Wang W, Xie Q, Li T, Wan Z, Shao H, Qin A, Ye J. An efficient peptide-based ELISA for differentiating fowl adenovirus 4-infected chickens from vaccinated chickens. J Vet Diagn Invest 2021; 33:762-766. [PMID: 33856244 DOI: 10.1177/10406387211005749] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Fowl adenovirus serotype 4 (FAdV4), the causative agent of hepatitis-hydropericardium syndrome (HPS), has caused major economic losses to the poultry industry worldwide. Although inactivated vaccines have been deployed widely against FAdV4, a DIVA (differentiating infected from vaccinated animals) test specific for FAdV4 has not been available. We synthesized an immunogenic peptide, corresponding to regions 66-88 aa of the 22K nonstructural protein of FAdV4, and used the peptide as coating antigen to develop an indirect ELISA for a DIVA test specific to FAdV4. Specificity analysis showed that the ELISA only reacted with sera against FAdV4, and not with sera against other pathogens tested. Moreover, the ELISA could effectively differentiate FAdV4-infected chickens from vaccinated chickens. In a test of sera from experimentally infected chickens, the ELISA had 95% and 85% concordance with an indirect immunofluorescence assay (indirect IFA) and a commercial ELISA, respectively, and the concordance was 80.5% between the ELISA and the indirect IFA in detecting clinical infection samples. Our peptide-based ELISA provides an efficient DIVA test for FAdV4 in clinical samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Songhua Xie
- Key Laboratory of Jiangsu Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Key Laboratory for Avian Preventive Medicine, Ministry of Education, and Joint International Research Laboratory of Agriculture and Agri-Product Safety, Ministry of Education, and Institutes of Agricultural Science and Technology Development, College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, China.,Jiangsu Co-innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, China
| | - Qiuping Shen
- Key Laboratory of Jiangsu Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Key Laboratory for Avian Preventive Medicine, Ministry of Education, and Joint International Research Laboratory of Agriculture and Agri-Product Safety, Ministry of Education, and Institutes of Agricultural Science and Technology Development, College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, China.,Jiangsu Co-innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, China
| | - Wei Zhang
- Sinopharm Yangzhou VAC Biological Engineering, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, China
| | - Weikang Wang
- Key Laboratory of Jiangsu Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Key Laboratory for Avian Preventive Medicine, Ministry of Education, and Joint International Research Laboratory of Agriculture and Agri-Product Safety, Ministry of Education, and Institutes of Agricultural Science and Technology Development, College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, China.,Jiangsu Co-innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, China
| | - Quan Xie
- Key Laboratory of Jiangsu Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Key Laboratory for Avian Preventive Medicine, Ministry of Education, and Joint International Research Laboratory of Agriculture and Agri-Product Safety, Ministry of Education, and Institutes of Agricultural Science and Technology Development, College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, China.,Jiangsu Co-innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, China
| | - Tuofan Li
- Key Laboratory of Jiangsu Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Key Laboratory for Avian Preventive Medicine, Ministry of Education, and Joint International Research Laboratory of Agriculture and Agri-Product Safety, Ministry of Education, and Institutes of Agricultural Science and Technology Development, College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, China.,Jiangsu Co-innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, China
| | - Zhimin Wan
- Key Laboratory of Jiangsu Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Key Laboratory for Avian Preventive Medicine, Ministry of Education, and Joint International Research Laboratory of Agriculture and Agri-Product Safety, Ministry of Education, and Institutes of Agricultural Science and Technology Development, College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, China.,Jiangsu Co-innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, China
| | - Hongxia Shao
- Key Laboratory of Jiangsu Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Key Laboratory for Avian Preventive Medicine, Ministry of Education, and Joint International Research Laboratory of Agriculture and Agri-Product Safety, Ministry of Education, and Institutes of Agricultural Science and Technology Development, College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, China
| | - Aijian Qin
- Key Laboratory of Jiangsu Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Key Laboratory for Avian Preventive Medicine, Ministry of Education, and Joint International Research Laboratory of Agriculture and Agri-Product Safety, Ministry of Education, and Institutes of Agricultural Science and Technology Development, College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, China.,Jiangsu Co-innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, China
| | - Jianqiang Ye
- Key Laboratory of Jiangsu Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Key Laboratory for Avian Preventive Medicine, Ministry of Education, and Joint International Research Laboratory of Agriculture and Agri-Product Safety, Ministry of Education, and Institutes of Agricultural Science and Technology Development, College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, China.,Jiangsu Co-innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, China
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37
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Bulcha JT, Wang Y, Ma H, Tai PWL, Gao G. Viral vector platforms within the gene therapy landscape. Signal Transduct Target Ther 2021; 6:53. [PMID: 33558455 PMCID: PMC7868676 DOI: 10.1038/s41392-021-00487-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 517] [Impact Index Per Article: 172.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2020] [Revised: 10/05/2020] [Accepted: 10/23/2020] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Throughout its 40-year history, the field of gene therapy has been marked by many transitions. It has seen great strides in combating human disease, has given hope to patients and families with limited treatment options, but has also been subject to many setbacks. Treatment of patients with this class of investigational drugs has resulted in severe adverse effects and, even in rare cases, death. At the heart of this dichotomous field are the viral-based vectors, the delivery vehicles that have allowed researchers and clinicians to develop powerful drug platforms, and have radically changed the face of medicine. Within the past 5 years, the gene therapy field has seen a wave of drugs based on viral vectors that have gained regulatory approval that come in a variety of designs and purposes. These modalities range from vector-based cancer therapies, to treating monogenic diseases with life-altering outcomes. At present, the three key vector strategies are based on adenoviruses, adeno-associated viruses, and lentiviruses. They have led the way in preclinical and clinical successes in the past two decades. However, despite these successes, many challenges still limit these approaches from attaining their full potential. To review the viral vector-based gene therapy landscape, we focus on these three highly regarded vector platforms and describe mechanisms of action and their roles in treating human disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jote T Bulcha
- Horae Gene Therapy Center, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA, USA
- Department of Microbiology and Physiological Systems, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA, USA
| | - Yi Wang
- Department of Pathophysiology, West China College of Basic medical sciences & Forensic Medicine, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Hong Ma
- Horae Gene Therapy Center, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA, USA
| | - Phillip W L Tai
- Horae Gene Therapy Center, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA, USA.
- Department of Microbiology and Physiological Systems, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA, USA.
- VIDE Program, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA, USA.
| | - Guangping Gao
- Horae Gene Therapy Center, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA, USA.
- Department of Microbiology and Physiological Systems, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA, USA.
- Li Weibo Institute for Rare Diseases Research, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA, USA.
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38
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Abstract
We have used the Nanopore long-read sequencing platform to demonstrate how amazingly complex the human adenovirus type 2 (Ad2) transcriptome is with a flexible splicing machinery producing a range of novel mRNAs both from the early and late transcription units. In total we report more than 900 alternatively spliced mRNAs produced from the Ad2 transcriptome whereof more than 850 are novel mRNAs. A surprising finding was that more than 50% of all E1A transcripts extended upstream of the previously defined transcriptional start site. The novel start sites mapped close to the inverted terminal repeat (ITR) and within the E1A enhancer region. We speculate that novel promoters or enhancer driven transcription, so-called eRNA transcription, is responsible for producing these novel mRNAs. Their existence was verified by a peptide in the Ad2 proteome that was unique for the E1A ITR mRNA. Although we show a high complexity of alternative splicing from most early and late regions, the E3 region was by far the most complex when expressed at late times of infection. More than 400 alternatively spliced mRNAs were observed in this region alone. These mRNAs included extended L4 mRNAs containing E3 and L5 sequences and readthrough mRNAs combining E3 and L5 sequences. Our findings demonstrate that the virus has a remarkable capacity to produce novel exon combinations, which will offer the virus an evolutionary advantage to change the gene expression repertoire and protein production in an evolving environment.IMPORTANCE Work in the adenovirus system led to the groundbreaking discovery of RNA splicing and alternative RNA splicing in 1977. These mechanisms are essential in mammalian evolution by increasing the coding capacity of a genome. Here, we have used a long-read sequencing technology to characterize the complexity of human adenovirus pre-mRNA splicing in detail. It is mindboggling that the viral genome, which only houses around 36,000 bp, not being much larger than a single cellular gene, generates more than 900 alternatively spliced mRNAs. Recently, adenoviruses have been used as the backbone in several promising SARS-CoV-2 vaccines. Further improvement of adenovirus-based vaccines demands that the virus can be tamed into an innocent carrier of foreign genes. This requires a full understanding of the components that govern adenovirus replication and gene expression.
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39
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Abstract
Much of virus fate, both in the environment and in physical/chemical treatment, is dependent on electrostatic interactions. Developing an accurate means of predicting virion isoelectric point (pI) would help to understand and anticipate virus fate and transport, especially for viruses that are not readily propagated in the lab. One simple approach to predicting pI estimates the pH at which the sum of charges from ionizable amino acids in capsid proteins approaches zero. However, predicted pIs based on capsid charges frequently deviate by several pH units from empirically measured pIs. Recently, the discrepancy between empirical and predicted pI was attributed to the electrostatic neutralization of predictable polynucleotide-binding regions (PBRs) of the capsid interior. In this paper, we review models presupposing (i) the influence of the viral polynucleotide on surface charge or (ii) the contribution of only exterior residues to surface charge. We then compare these models to the approach of excluding only PBRs and hypothesize a conceptual electrostatic model that aligns with this approach. The PBR exclusion method outperformed methods based on three-dimensional (3D) structure and accounted for major discrepancies in predicted pIs without adversely affecting pI prediction for a diverse range of viruses. In addition, the PBR exclusion method was determined to be the best available method for predicting virus pI, since (i) PBRs are predicted independently of the impact on pI, (ii) PBR prediction relies on proteome sequences rather than detailed structural models, and (iii) PBR exclusion was successfully demonstrated on a diverse set of viruses. These models apply to nonenveloped viruses only. A similar model for enveloped viruses is complicated by a lack of data on enveloped virus pI, as well as uncertainties regarding the influence of the phospholipid envelope on charge and ion gradients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joe Heffron
- Department of Civil, Construction and Environmental Engineering, Marquette University, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, USA
| | - Brooke K Mayer
- Department of Civil, Construction and Environmental Engineering, Marquette University, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, USA
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40
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Lee J, Oh GH, Hong JA, Choi S, Choi HJ, Song JJ. Enhanced oncolytic adenoviral production by downregulation of death-domain associated protein and overexpression of precursor terminal protein. Sci Rep 2021; 11:856. [PMID: 33441685 PMCID: PMC7807022 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-79998-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2020] [Accepted: 12/16/2020] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Adequate viral replication in tumor cells is the key to improving the anti-cancer effects of oncolytic adenovirus therapy. In this study, we introduced short hairpin RNAs against death-domain associated protein (Daxx), a repressor of adenoviral replication, and precursor terminal protein (pTP), an initiator of adenoviral genome replication, into adenoviral constructs to determine their contributions to viral replication. Both Daxx downregulation and pTP overexpression increased viral production in variety of human cancer cell lines, and the enhanced production of virus progeny resulted in more cell lysis in vitro, and tumor regression in vivo. We confirmed that increased virus production by Daxx silencing, or pTP overexpression, occurred using different mechanisms by analyzing levels of adenoviral protein expression and virus production. Specifically, Daxx downregulation promoted both virus replication and oncolysis in a consecutive manner by optimizing IVa2-based packaging efficiency, while pTP overexpression by increasing both infectious and total virus particles but their contribution to increased viral production may have been damaged to some extent by their another contribution to apoptosis and autophagy. Therefore, introducing both Daxx shRNA and pTP in virotherapy may be a suitable strategy to increase apoptotic tumor-cell death and to overcome poor viral replication, leading to meaningful reductions in tumor growth in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jihyun Lee
- Institute for Cancer Research, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea
- Severance Biomedical Science Institute, Yonsei University College of Medicine, 50-1 Yonsei-ro, Seodaemun-gu, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Geun-Hyeok Oh
- Institute for Cancer Research, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea
- Severance Biomedical Science Institute, Yonsei University College of Medicine, 50-1 Yonsei-ro, Seodaemun-gu, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Jeong A Hong
- Institute for Cancer Research, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea
- Severance Biomedical Science Institute, Yonsei University College of Medicine, 50-1 Yonsei-ro, Seodaemun-gu, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Soojin Choi
- Institute for Cancer Research, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea
- Severance Biomedical Science Institute, Yonsei University College of Medicine, 50-1 Yonsei-ro, Seodaemun-gu, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Hye Jin Choi
- Department of Internal Medicine, Yonsei University College of Medicine, 50-1 Yonsei-ro, Seodaemun-gu, Seoul, Republic of Korea.
| | - Jae J Song
- Institute for Cancer Research, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea.
- Severance Biomedical Science Institute, Yonsei University College of Medicine, 50-1 Yonsei-ro, Seodaemun-gu, Seoul, Republic of Korea.
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41
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Zhou YC, Zhang YN, Yang X, Wang SB, Hu PY. Delivery systems for enhancing oncolytic adenoviruses efficacy. Int J Pharm 2020; 591:119971. [PMID: 33059014 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2020.119971] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2020] [Revised: 10/07/2020] [Accepted: 10/08/2020] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Oncolytic adenovirus (OAds) has long been considered a promising biotherapeutic agent against various types of cancer owing to selectively replicate in and lyse cancer cells, while remaining dormant in healthy cells. In the last years, multiple (pre)clinical studies using genetic engineering technologies enhanced OAds anti-tumor effects in a broad range of cancers. However, poor targeting delivery, tropism toward healthy tissues, low-level expression of Ad receptors on tumor cells, and pre-existing neutralizing antibodies are major hurdles for systemic administration of OAds. Different vehicles have been developed for addressing these obstacles, such as stem cells, nanoparticles (NPs) and shielding polymers, extracellular vesicles (EVs), hydrogels, and microparticles (MPs). These carriers can enhance the therapeutic efficacy of OVs through enhancing transfection, circulatory longevity, cellular interactions, specific targeting, and immune responses against cancer. In this paper, we reviewed adenovirus structure and biology, different types of OAds, and the efficacy of different carriers in systemic administration of OAds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu-Cheng Zhou
- Gastroenterological & Pancreatic Surgery Department, Zhejiang Provincial People's Hospital, People's Hospital of Hangzhou Medical College, Hangzhou 310014, Zhejiang Province, China; Key Laboratory of Gastroenterology of Zhejiang Province, Zhejiang Provincial People's Hospital, People's Hospital of Hangzhou Medical College, Hangzhou 310014, Zhejiang Province, China
| | - You-Ni Zhang
- Clinical Laboratory, Tiantai People's Hospital of Zhejiang Province (Tiantai Branch of Zhejiang People's Hospital), Taizhou 317200, Zhejiang Province, China
| | - Xue Yang
- Key Laboratory of Gastroenterology of Zhejiang Province, Zhejiang Provincial People's Hospital, People's Hospital of Hangzhou Medical College, Hangzhou 310014, Zhejiang Province, China
| | - Shi-Bing Wang
- Key Laboratory of Tumor Molecular Diagnosis and Individualized Medicine of Zhejiang Province, Zhejiang Provincial People's Hospital, People's Hospital of Hangzhou Medical College, Hangzhou 310014, Zhejiang Province, China.
| | - Pei-Yang Hu
- Department of Traumatology, Tiantai People's Hospital of Zhejiang Province (Tiantai Branch of Zhejiang People's Hospital), Taizhou 317200, Zhejiang Province, China.
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42
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Cao GD, He XB, Sun Q, Chen S, Wan K, Xu X, Feng X, Li PP, Chen B, Xiong MM. The Oncolytic Virus in Cancer Diagnosis and Treatment. Front Oncol 2020; 10:1786. [PMID: 33014876 PMCID: PMC7509414 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2020.01786] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2020] [Accepted: 08/11/2020] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Cancer has always been an enormous threat to human health and survival. Surgery, radiotherapy, and chemotherapy could improve the survival of cancer patients, but most patients with advanced cancer usually have a poor survival or could not afford the high cost of chemotherapy. The emergence of oncolytic viruses provided a new strategy for us to alleviate or even cure malignant tumors. An oncolytic virus can be described as a genetically engineered or naturally existing virus that can selectively replicate in cancer cells and then kill them without damaging the healthy cells. There have been many kinds of oncolytic viruses, such as herpes simplex virus, adenovirus, and Coxsackievirus. Moreover, they have different clinical applications in cancer treatment. This review focused on the clinical application of oncolytic virus and predicted the prospect by analyzing the advantages and disadvantages of oncolytic virotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guo-dong Cao
- Department of General Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China
| | - Xiao-bo He
- Department of General Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China
| | - Qiang Sun
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Biological Cancer, Cancer Institute, Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou, China
| | - Sihan Chen
- Department of General Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China
| | - Ke Wan
- Department of Oncology, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China
| | - Xin Xu
- Department of General Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China
| | - Xudong Feng
- Department of Infectious Disease, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Peng-ping Li
- Department of General Surgery, The First People’s Hospital of Xiaoshan District, Hangzhou, China
| | - Bo Chen
- Department of General Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China
| | - Mao-ming Xiong
- Department of General Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China
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43
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Saha B, Parks RJ. Recent Advances in Novel Antiviral Therapies against Human Adenovirus. Microorganisms 2020; 8:E1284. [PMID: 32842697 PMCID: PMC7563841 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms8091284] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2020] [Revised: 08/15/2020] [Accepted: 08/19/2020] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Human adenovirus (HAdV) is a very common pathogen that typically causes minor disease in most patients. However, the virus can cause significant morbidity and mortality in certain populations, including young children, the elderly, and those with compromised immune systems. Currently, there are no approved therapeutics to treat HAdV infections, and the standard treatment relies on drugs approved to combat other viral infections. Such treatments often show inconsistent efficacy, and therefore, more effective antiviral therapies are necessary. In this review, we discuss recent developments in the search for new chemical and biological anti-HAdV therapeutics, including drugs that are currently undergoing preclinical/clinical testing, and small molecule screens for the identification of novel compounds that abrogate HAdV replication and disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bratati Saha
- Regenerative Medicine Program, Ottawa Hospital Research Institute, Ottawa, ON K1H 8L6, Canada;
- Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology and Immunology, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON K1H 8M5, Canada
| | - Robin J. Parks
- Regenerative Medicine Program, Ottawa Hospital Research Institute, Ottawa, ON K1H 8L6, Canada;
- Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology and Immunology, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON K1H 8M5, Canada
- Centre for Neuromuscular Disease, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON K1H 8M5, Canada
- Department of Medicine, The Ottawa Hospital, Ottawa, ON K1H 8L6, Canada
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44
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Georgi F, Andriasyan V, Witte R, Murer L, Hemmi S, Yu L, Grove M, Meili N, Kuttler F, Yakimovich A, Turcatti G, Greber UF. The FDA-Approved Drug Nelfinavir Inhibits Lytic Cell-Free but Not Cell-Associated Nonlytic Transmission of Human Adenovirus. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2020; 64:e01002-20. [PMID: 32601166 PMCID: PMC7449217 DOI: 10.1128/aac.01002-20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2020] [Accepted: 06/19/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Adenoviruses (AdVs) are prevalent and give rise to chronic and recurrent disease. Human AdV (HAdV) species B and C, such as HAdV-C2, -C5, and -B14, cause respiratory disease and constitute a health threat for immunocompromised individuals. HAdV-Cs are well known for lysing cells owing to the E3 CR1-β-encoded adenovirus death protein (ADP). We previously reported a high-throughput image-based screening framework and identified an inhibitor of HAdV-C2 multiround infection, nelfinavir mesylate. Nelfinavir is the active ingredient of Viracept, an FDA-approved inhibitor of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) aspartyl protease that is used to treat AIDS. It is not effective against single-round HAdV infections. Here, we show that nelfinavir inhibits lytic cell-free transmission of HAdV, indicated by the suppression of comet-shaped infection foci in cell culture. Comet-shaped foci occur upon convection-based transmission of cell-free viral particles from an infected cell to neighboring uninfected cells. HAdV lacking ADP was insensitive to nelfinavir but gave rise to comet-shaped foci, indicating that ADP enhances but is not required for cell lysis. This was supported by the notion that HAdV-B14 and -B14p1 lacking ADP were highly sensitive to nelfinavir, although HAdV-A31, -B3, -B7, -B11, -B16, -B21, -D8, -D30, and -D37 were less sensitive. Conspicuously, nelfinavir uncovered slow-growing round HAdV-C2 foci, independent of neutralizing antibodies in the medium, indicative of nonlytic cell-to-cell transmission. Our study demonstrates the repurposing potential of nelfinavir with postexposure efficacy against different HAdVs and describes an alternative nonlytic cell-to-cell transmission mode of HAdV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fanny Georgi
- Department of Molecular Life Sciences, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Vardan Andriasyan
- Department of Molecular Life Sciences, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Robert Witte
- Department of Molecular Life Sciences, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Luca Murer
- Department of Molecular Life Sciences, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Silvio Hemmi
- Department of Molecular Life Sciences, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Lisa Yu
- Department of Molecular Life Sciences, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Melanie Grove
- Department of Molecular Life Sciences, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Nicole Meili
- Department of Molecular Life Sciences, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Fabien Kuttler
- Biomolecular Screening Facility, School of Life Sciences, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Artur Yakimovich
- Department of Molecular Life Sciences, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
- MRC Laboratory for Molecular Cell Biology, University College London, London, United Kingdom
- Artificial Intelligence for Life Sciences CIC, London, United Kingdom
| | - Gerardo Turcatti
- Biomolecular Screening Facility, School of Life Sciences, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Urs F Greber
- Department of Molecular Life Sciences, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
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45
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Yang Q, Catalano CE. ATP serves as a nucleotide switch coupling the genome maturation and packaging motor complexes of a virus assembly machine. Nucleic Acids Res 2020; 48:5006-5015. [PMID: 32255177 PMCID: PMC7229814 DOI: 10.1093/nar/gkaa205] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2019] [Revised: 03/10/2020] [Accepted: 04/02/2020] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
The assembly of double-stranded DNA viruses, from phages to herpesviruses, is strongly conserved. Terminase enzymes processively excise and package monomeric genomes from a concatemeric DNA substrate. The enzymes cycle between a stable maturation complex that introduces site-specific nicks into the duplex and a dynamic motor complex that rapidly translocates DNA into a procapsid shell, fueled by ATP hydrolysis. These tightly coupled reactions are catalyzed by terminase assembled into two functionally distinct nucleoprotein complexes; the maturation complex and the packaging motor complex, respectively. We describe the effects of nucleotides on the assembly of a catalytically competent maturation complex on viral DNA, their effect on maturation complex stability and their requirement for the transition to active packaging motor complex. ATP plays a major role in regulating all of these activities and may serve as a 'nucleotide switch' that mediates transitions between the two complexes during processive genome packaging. These biological processes are recapitulated in all of the dsDNA viruses that package monomeric genomes from concatemeric DNA substrates and the nucleotide switch mechanism may have broad biological implications with respect to virus assembly mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qin Yang
- Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO 80045, USA
| | - Carlos E Catalano
- Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO 80045, USA
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46
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Replication Compartments of DNA Viruses in the Nucleus: Location, Location, Location. Viruses 2020; 12:v12020151. [PMID: 32013091 PMCID: PMC7077188 DOI: 10.3390/v12020151] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2019] [Revised: 01/26/2020] [Accepted: 01/26/2020] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
DNA viruses that replicate in the nucleus encompass a range of ubiquitous and clinically important viruses, from acute pathogens to persistent tumor viruses. These viruses must co-opt nuclear processes for the benefit of the virus, whilst evading host processes that would otherwise attenuate viral replication. Accordingly, DNA viruses induce the formation of membraneless assemblies termed viral replication compartments (VRCs). These compartments facilitate the spatial organization of viral processes and regulate virus–host interactions. Here, we review advances in our understanding of VRCs. We cover their initiation and formation, their function as the sites of viral processes, and aspects of their composition and organization. In doing so, we highlight ongoing and emerging areas of research highly pertinent to our understanding of nuclear-replicating DNA viruses.
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47
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Gast M, Wondany F, Raabe B, Michaelis J, Sobek H, Mizaikoff B. Use of Super-Resolution Optical Microscopy To Reveal Direct Virus Binding at Hybrid Core–Shell Matrixes. Anal Chem 2020; 92:3050-3057. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.9b04328] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Bastian Raabe
- Labor Dr. Merk & Kollegen GmbH, Beim Braunland 1, 88416 Ochsenhausen, Germany
| | | | - Harald Sobek
- Labor Dr. Merk & Kollegen GmbH, Beim Braunland 1, 88416 Ochsenhausen, Germany
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48
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Charman M, Herrmann C, Weitzman MD. Viral and cellular interactions during adenovirus DNA replication. FEBS Lett 2019; 593:3531-3550. [PMID: 31764999 DOI: 10.1002/1873-3468.13695] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2019] [Revised: 11/14/2019] [Accepted: 11/15/2019] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Adenoviruses represent ubiquitous and clinically significant human pathogens, gene-delivery vectors, and oncolytic agents. The study of adenovirus-infected cells has long been used as an excellent model to investigate fundamental aspects of both DNA virus infection and cellular biology. While many key details supporting a well-established model of adenovirus replication have been elucidated over a period spanning several decades, more recent findings suggest that we have only started to appreciate the complex interplay between viral genome replication and cellular processes. Here, we present a concise overview of adenovirus DNA replication, including the biochemical process of replication, the spatial organization of replication within the host cell nucleus, and insights into the complex plethora of virus-host interactions that influence viral genome replication. Finally, we identify emerging areas of research relating to the replication of adenovirus genomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew Charman
- Division of Protective Immunity and Division of Cancer Pathobiology, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA, USA.,Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Christin Herrmann
- Division of Protective Immunity and Division of Cancer Pathobiology, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA, USA.,Cell and Molecular Biology Graduate Group, University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Matthew D Weitzman
- Division of Protective Immunity and Division of Cancer Pathobiology, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA, USA.,Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA
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49
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Saha B, Varette O, Stanford WL, Diallo JS, Parks RJ. Development of a novel screening platform for the identification of small molecule inhibitors of human adenovirus. Virology 2019; 538:24-34. [PMID: 31561058 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2019.09.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2019] [Revised: 09/07/2019] [Accepted: 09/12/2019] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Human adenovirus (HAdV) can cause severe disease and death in both immunocompromised and immunocompetent patients. The current standards of treatment are often ineffective, and no approved antiviral therapy against HAdV exists. We report here the design and validation of a fluorescence-based high-content screening platform for the identification of novel anti-HAdV compounds. The screen was conducted using a wildtype-like virus containing the red fluorescent protein (RFP) gene under the regulation of the HAdV major late promoter. Thus, RFP expression allows monitoring of viral late gene expression (a surrogate marker for virus replication), and compounds affecting virus growth can be easily discovered by quantifying RFP intensity. We used our platform to screen ~1200 FDA-approved small molecules, and identified several cardiotonic steroids, corticosteroids and chemotherapeutic agents as anti-HAdV compounds. Our screening platform provides the stringency necessary to detect compounds with varying degrees of antiviral activity, and facilitates drug discovery/repurposing to combat HAdV infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bratati Saha
- Regenerative Medicine Program, Ottawa Hospital Research Institute, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada; Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology and Immunology, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| | - Oliver Varette
- Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology and Immunology, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada; Cancer Therapeutics Program, Ottawa Hospital Research Institute, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| | - William L Stanford
- Regenerative Medicine Program, Ottawa Hospital Research Institute, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada; Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| | - Jean-Simon Diallo
- Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology and Immunology, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada; Cancer Therapeutics Program, Ottawa Hospital Research Institute, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| | - Robin J Parks
- Regenerative Medicine Program, Ottawa Hospital Research Institute, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada; Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology and Immunology, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada; Centre for Neuromuscular Disease, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada; Department of Medicine, The Ottawa Hospital, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.
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50
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Denning D, Bennett S, Mullen T, Moyer C, Vorselen D, Wuite GJL, Nemerow G, Roos WH. Maturation of adenovirus primes the protein nano-shell for successful endosomal escape. NANOSCALE 2019; 11:4015-4024. [PMID: 30768112 DOI: 10.1039/c8nr10182e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
The ability of adenoviruses to infect a broad range of species has spurred a growing interest in nanomedicine to use adenovirus as a cargo delivery vehicle. While successful maturation of adenovirus and controlled disassembly are critical for efficient infection, the underlying mechanisms regulating these processes are not well understood. Here, we present Atomic Force Microscopy nanoindentation and fatigue studies of adenovirus capsids at different maturation stages to scrutinize their dynamic uncoating properties. Surprisingly, we find that the early intermediate immature (lacking DNA) capsid is mechanically indistinguishable in both break force and spring constant from the mature (containing DNA) capsid. However, mature and immature capsids do display distinct disassembly pathways, as revealed by our mechanically-induced fatigue analysis. The mature capsid first loses the pentons, followed by either long-term capsid stability or abrupt and complete disassembly. However, the immature capsid has a stable penton region and undergoes a stochastic disassembly mechanism, thought to be due to the absence of genomic pressure. Strikingly, the addition of the genome alone is not sufficient to achieve penton destabilization as indicated by the penton stability of the maturation-intermediate mutant, G33A. Full penton destabilization was achieved only when the genome was present in addition to the successful maturation-linked proteolytic cleavage of preprotein VI. Therefore these findings strongly indicate that maturation of adenovirus in concert with genomic pressure induces penton destabilization and thus, primes the capsid for controlled disassembly. This latter aspect is critical for efficient infection and successful cargo delivery.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Denning
- Moleculaire Biofysica, Zernike Instituut, Rijksuniversiteit Groningen, The Netherlands and Natuur- en Sterrenkunde and LaserLaB, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
| | - S Bennett
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, the Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA.
| | - T Mullen
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, the Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA.
| | - C Moyer
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, the Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA.
| | - D Vorselen
- Natuur- en Sterrenkunde and LaserLaB, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
| | - G J L Wuite
- Natuur- en Sterrenkunde and LaserLaB, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
| | - G Nemerow
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, the Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA.
| | - W H Roos
- Moleculaire Biofysica, Zernike Instituut, Rijksuniversiteit Groningen, The Netherlands
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