Role of Modulator of Inflammation Cyclooxygenase-2 in Gammaherpesvirus Mediated Tumorigenesis

Anti-cancer activity and cellular uptake of 7,3',4'- and 7,8,4'-trihydroxyisoflavone in HepG2 cells under hypoxic conditions

Transarterial chemoembolisation (TACE) is used for unresectable hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) treatment, but TACE-induced hypoxia leads to poor prognosis. The anti-cancer effects of soybean isoflavones daidzein derivatives 7,3',4'-trihydroxyisoflavone (734THIF) and 7,8,4'-trihydroxyisoflavone (784THIF) were evaluated under hypoxic microenvironments. Molecular docking of these isomers with cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) and vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 2 (VEGFR2) was assessed. About 40 μM of 734THIF and 784THIF have the best effect on inhibiting the proliferation of HepG2 cells under hypoxic conditions. At a concentration of 40 μM, 784THIF significantly inhibits COX-2 expression in pre-hypoxia conditions compared to 734THIF, with an inhibition rate of 67.73%. Additionally, 40 μM 784THIF downregulates the expression of hypoxic, inflammatory, and metastatic-related proteins, regulates oxidative stress, and inhibits the expression of anti-apoptotic proteins. The uptake by HepG2 confirmed higher 784THIF level and slower degradation characteristics under post- or pre-hypoxic conditions. In conclusion, our results showed that 784THIF had better anti-cancer effects and cellular uptake than 734THIF.

The Janus face of HIF-1α in ischemic stroke and the possible associated pathways

Stroke is the most devastating disease, causing paralysis and eventually death. Many clinical and experimental trials have been done in search of a new safe and efficient medicine; nevertheless, scientists have yet to discover successful remedies that are also free of adverse effects. This is owing to the variability in intensity, localization, medication routes, and each patient's immune system reaction. HIF-1α represents the modern tool employed to treat stroke diseases due to its functions: downstream genes such as glucose metabolism, angiogenesis, erythropoiesis, and cell survival. Its role can be achieved via two downstream EPO and VEGF strongly related to apoptosis and antioxidant processes. Recently, scientists paid more attention to drugs dealing with the HIF-1 pathway. This review focuses on medicines used for ischemia treatment and their potential HIF-1α pathways. Furthermore, we discussed the interaction between HIF-1α and other biological pathways such as oxidative stress; however, a spotlight has been focused on certain potential signalling contributed to the HIF-1α pathway. HIF-1α is an essential regulator of oxygen balance within cells which affects and controls the expression of thousands of genes related to sustaining homeostasis as oxygen levels fluctuate. HIF-1α's role in ischemic stroke strongly depends on the duration and severity of brain damage after onset. HIF-1α remains difficult to investigate, particularly in ischemic stroke, due to alterations in the acute and chronic phases of the disease, as well as discrepancies between the penumbra and ischemic core. This review emphasizes these contrasts and analyzes the future of this intriguing and demanding field.

Gramine Exerts Cytoprotective Effects and Antioxidant Properties Against H2O2-Induced Oxidative Stress in HEK 293 Cells

Oxidative stress caused due to the perturbations in the oxidant-antioxidant system can damage molecules and cause cellular alteration leading to the pathogenesis of multiple diseases. This study was designed and performed to investigate the antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects of an alkaloid, gramine on H2O2-induced oxidative stress on HEK 293 cells. Cell viability and morphometric analysis of cells treated with H2O2 and gramine were studied. Oxidative stress and inflammatory and antioxidant enzymes such as ROS, LPO, NO, SOD, GSH, and CAT were analyzed. Furthermore, mRNA expression of SOD, CAT, and COX-2 was also evaluated. H2O2 at concentration > 0.3 mM and gramine at concentration > 80 μg/mL affect the proliferation. Viability and morphometric analysis showed that gramine has protective effects. Treating cells with gramine suppressed oxidative stress and inflammatory enzymes, whereas antioxidant enzymes were enhanced. SOD and CAT mRNA levels were overexpressed and COX-2 mRNA levels were decreased in the treated groups. Gramine possesses effective antioxidant potential and can regulate oxidative stress and damages associated with it.

Discovery of novel pyrazole based Urea/Thiourea derivatives as multiple targeting VEGFR-2, EGFRWT, EGFRT790M tyrosine kinases and COX-2 Inhibitors, with anti-cancer and anti-inflammatory activities

A novel series of pyrazole derivatives with urea/thiourea scaffolds 16a-l as hybrid sorafenib/erlotinib/celecoxib analogs was designed, synthesized and tested for its VEGFR-2, EGFRWT, EGFRT790M tyrosine kinases and COX-2, pro-inflammatory cytokines TNF-α and IL-6 inhibitory activities. All the tested compounds showed excellent COX-2 selectivity index in range of 18.04-47.87 compared to celecoxib (S.I. = 26.17) and TNF-α and IL-6 inhibitory activities (IC50 = 5.0-7.50, 6.23-8.93 respectively, compared to celecoxib IC50 = 8.40 and 8.50, respectively). Screening was carried out against 60 human cancer cell lines by National Cancer Institute (NCI), compounds 16a, 16c, 16d and 16 g were the most potent inhibitors with GI% ranges of 100 %, 99.63-87.02 %, 98.98-43.10 % and 98.68-23.62 % respectively, and with GI50 values of 1.76-15.50 µM, 1.60-5.38 µM, 1.68-7.39 µM and 1.81-11.0 µM respectively, in addition, of showing good safety profile against normal cell line (F180). Moreover, compounds 16a, 16c, 16d and 16 g had cell cycle arrest at G2/M phase with induced necrotic percentage compared to sorafenib of 2.06 %, 2.47 %, 1.57 %, 0.88 % and 1.83 % respectively. Amusingly, compounds 16a, 16c, 16d and 16 g inhibited VEGFR-2 with IC50 of 25 nM, 52 nM, 324 nM and 110 nM respectively, compared to sorafenib (IC50 = 85 nM), and had excellent EGFRWT and EGFRT790M kinase inhibitory activities (IC50 = 94 nM, 128 nM, 160 nM, 297 nM), (10 nM, 25 nM, 36 nM and 48 nM) respectively, compared to both erlotinib and osimertinib (IC50 = 114 nM, 56 nM) and (70 nM, 37 nM) respectively and showed (EGFRwt/EGFRT790M S.I.) of (range: 4.44-9.40) compared to erlotinib (2.03) and osmertinib (1.89).

Targeting cyclooxygenase-2 for chemoprevention of inflammation-associated intestinal carcinogenesis: An update

Mounting evidence from preclinical and clinical studies suggests that persistent inflammation functions as a driving force in the journey to cancer. Cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) is a key enzyme involved in inflammatory signaling. While being transiently upregulated upon inflammatory stimuli, COX-2 has been found to be consistently overexpressed in human colorectal cancer and several other malignancies. The association between chronic inflammation and cancer has been revisited: cancer can arise when inflammation fails to resolve. Besides its proinflammatory functions, COX-2 also catalyzes the production of pro-resolving as well as anti-inflammatory metabolites from polyunsaturated fatty acids. This may account for the side effects caused by long term use of some COX-2 inhibitory drugs during the cancer chemopreventive trials. This review summarizes the latest findings highlighting the dual functions of COX-2 in the context of its implications in the development, maintenance, and progression of cancer.

Dual COX-2 and 15-LOX inhibition study of novel 4-arylidine-2-mercapto-1-phenyl-1H-imidazolidin-5(4H)-ones: Design, synthesis, docking, and anti-inflammatory activity

Novel arylidene-5(4H)-imidazolone derivatives 4a-r were designed and evaluated as multidrug-directed ligands, that is, inflammatory, proinflammatory mediators, and reactive oxygen species (ROS) inhibitors. All of the tested compounds showed cyclooxygenase (COX)-1 inhibitory effect more than celecoxib and less than indomethacin and also demonstrated an improved inhibitory activity against 15-lipoxygenase (15-LOX). Compounds 4f, 4l, and 4p exhibited COX-2 selectivity comparable to that of celecoxib, while 4k was the most selective COX-2 inhibitor. Interestingly, the screened results showed that compound 4k exhibited a superior inhibition effect against 15-LOX and was found to be the most selective COX-2 inhibitor over celecoxib, whereas compound 4f showed promising COX-2 and 15-LOX inhibitory activities besides its inhibitory effect against ROS production and its lowering effect of both tumor necrosis factor-α and interleukin-6 levels by ∼80%. Moreover, compound 4f attenuated the lipopolysaccharide-mediated increase in NF-κB activation in RAW 264.7 macrophages. The preferred binding affinity of these molecules was confirmed by docking studies. We conclude that arylidene-5(4H)-imidazolone scaffolds provide promising hits for developing new synthons with anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activities.

Curative effects of tectochrysin on paraquat-instigated testicular toxicity in rats: A biochemical and histopathological based study

Background

Paraquat (PQ) is a herbicide that is used globally in the agriculture sector to eradicate unwanted weeds, however it also induces significant damages in various organs of the body such as testes. Tectochrysin (TEC) is an important flavonoid that shows versatile therapeutic potentials. Currently, there is no established antidote to cure PQ-induced testicular toxicity.

Objective

The present study was conducted to evaluate the ameliorative effects of TEC against PQ prompted testicular damage.

Methods

Sprague-Dawley rats (n = 48) were used to conduct the trial. Rats were allocated in to 4 groups i.e., Control, PQ administrated group (5 mgkg-1), PQ + TEC co-administrated group (5 mgkg-1 + 2.5 mgkg-1) and TEC only administrated group (2.5 mgkg-1). The trial was conducted for 8 weeks. The activity of anti-oxidants and the levels of MDA and ROS were determined by spectrophotometric method. Steroidogenic enzymes as well as apoptotic markers expressions were evaluated by qRT-PCR. The level of hormones and inflammatory indices was quantified by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay.

Results

PQ exposure markedly (P < 0.05) disturbed the biochemical, spermatogenic and histological profile in the rats. Nevertheless, TEC treatment considerably (P < 0.05) increased CAT, GPx GSR and SOD activity, besides decreasing MDA and ROS contents. TEC administration also increased sperm viability, count and motility. 17β-HSD, 3β-HSD, StAR and Bcl-2 expressions were also increased following TEC administration. The supplementation of TEC substantially (P < 0.05) decreased Bax, Caspase-3 expression and the levels of inflammatory markers i.e., interleukin-1β (IL-1β), interleukin-6 (IL-6), nuclear factor kappa-B (NF-κB), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) activity. Additionally, the levels of plasma testosterone, follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) were increased following TEC supplementation. Furthermore, TEC supplementation considerably decreased sperm structural abnormalities and histomorphological damages of the testes. The mitigative role of TEC might be due to its anti-inflammatory, anti-apoptotic, androgenic and anti-oxidant potentials.

Conclusion

Taken together, it is concluded that TEC can be used as a potential candidate to treat testicular toxicity.

Pharmacotherapeutic potential of ginkgetin against polystyrene microplastics-instigated testicular toxicity in rats: A biochemical, spermatological, and histopathological assessment

Polystyrene microplastics (PSMPs) have emerged as a ubiquitous environmental toxicant that affects different organs including testes. Ginkgetin (GNG) is a biflavonoid that shows antioxidant properties. The current research was undertaken to evaluate the ameliorative potential of GNG against PSMPs-instigated testicular damages. Forty-eight albino rats (male) were randomly divided into 4 equal groups: control, PSMPs-treated group (0.01 mgkg-1), GNG + PSMPs-exposed group (25 mgkg-1 + 0.01 mgkg-1), and only GNG-supplemented group (25 mgkg-1). After 56 days of treatment, it was revealed that PSMPs significantly reduced the activity of glutathione peroxidase (GPx), catalase (CAT), superoxide dismutase (SOD), and glutathione reductase (GSR), while concurrently augmented the levels of lipid peroxidation marker, i.e., malondialdehyde (MDA) along with reactive oxygen species (ROS). Rats administered with PSMPs showed a significant reduction in the spermatogenic indices (sperm count, viability, and motility), HOS coiled tail sperm along with increased sperm structural deformities, i.e., tail, head, and mid-piece. Additionally, PSMPs exposure decreased the levels of testosterone, luteinizing (LH), and follicle-stimulating hormones (FSH). Besides, administration of PSMPs reduced the steroidogenic enzymes (13β-HSD, StAR, and 17β-HSD) and Bcl-2 expression, while augmented the caspase-3 and Bax expression. PSMPs also elevated the levels of inflammatory markers (IL-6, IL-1β, TNF-α, and NF-κB) and activity of COX-2 in the testes. Furthermore, PSMPs treatment induced various histopathological damages in the testes of rats. Therefore, findings of the current study suggested that GNG effectively mitigated the PSMPs-induced testicular toxicity owing to its chemoprotective potential possibly through its anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anti-apoptotic, and androgenic properties.

Comparison of the inhibition effects of naringenin and its glycosides on LPS-induced inflammation in RAW 264.7 macrophages

BACKGROUND

Inflammation is intricately linked to the development of various diseases, such as diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, and cancer. Flavonoids, commonly found in plants, are known for their diverse health benefits, including antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. These compounds are categorized into different classes based on their chemical structure. structures. However, limited research has compared the effects of flavonoid aglycones and flavonoid glycosides. This study aims to assess the anti-inflammatory effects of naringenin and its glycosides (naringin and narirutin) in RAW264.7 macrophages.

METHODS AND RESULTS

RAW264.7 cells were treated with naringenin, naringin, and narirutin, followed by stimulation with lipopolysaccharide. The levels of inflammatory mediators, including tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α), interleukin-1β (IL-1β), nitric oxide (NO), inducible NO synthase (iNOS), and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), were assessed. Additionally, the study examined nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) activation using western blot analysis. Among the compounds tested, narirutin exhibited the most potent anti-inflammatory effect against TNF-α, NO, and iNOS. Naringin and narirutin showed comparable inhibitory effects on IL-1β and COX-2. Both naringin and narirutin suppressed the expression of pro-inflammatory mediators by targeting different levels of the NF-κB and MAPK pathways. Naringenin demonstrated the weakest anti-inflammatory effect, primarily inhibiting NF-κB and reducing the phosphorylation levels of p38.

CONCLUSIONS

This study suggests that the presence of glycosides on naringenin and the varied binding forms of sugars in naringenin glycosides significantly influence the anti-inflammatory effects compared with naringenin in RAW 264.7 macrophages.

Interaction between escitalopram and ibuprofen or paracetamol: DFT and molecular docking on the drug-drug interactions

A large number of drugs are introduced each year to treat different diseases. Most of the time, patients suffer from more than one health problem which makes it necessary to take multiple drugs. When drugs are combined, the problem of drug-drug interaction becomes relevant. In this work, we studied the drug-drug interaction between escitalopram and ibuprofen or paracetamol using density functional theory and quantum theory of atoms in molecules. The results suggest that following the interactions, the activity of drugs changes according to site of interaction. Most reactive and most stable interactions would be preferable for the purpose of use. The in silico drug-likeness studies show that escitalopram and paracetamol couple is more bioavailable than escitalopram and ibuprofen couple. Moreover, in order to gain additional insights into the mentioned drugs' interactions, the drugs were docked separately and jointly against the potential targets for antidepressants and NSAIDs, namely 6HIS and 2PXX. The molecular docking results showed a potential improvement of the effectiveness of the drugs after combining by forming hydrogen bonds, hydrophobic contacts and π…π stacking.Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.

Polar Lipids of Marine Microalgae Nannochloropsis oceanica and Chlorococcum amblystomatis Mitigate the LPS-Induced Pro-Inflammatory Response in Macrophages

Microalgae are recognized as a relevant source of bioactive compounds. Among these bioactive products, lipids, mainly glycolipids, have been shown to present immunomodulatory properties with the potential to mitigate chronic inflammation. This study aimed to evaluate the anti-inflammatory effect of polar lipids isolated from Nannochloropsis oceanica and Chlorococcum amblystomatis. Three fractions enriched in (1) digalactosyldiacylglycerol (DGDG) and sulfoquinovosyldiacylglycerol (SQDG), (2) monogalactosyldiacylglycerol (MGDG), and (3) diacylglyceryl-trimethylhomoserine (DGTS) and phospholipids (PL) were obtained from the total lipid extracts (TE) of N. oceanica and C. amblystomatis, and their anti-inflammatory effect was assessed by analyzing their capacity to counteract nitric oxide (NO) production and transcription of pro-inflammatory genes Nos2, Ptgs2, Tnfa, and Il1b in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-activated macrophages. For both microalgae, TE and Fractions 1 and 3 strongly inhibited NO production, although to different extents. A strong reduction in the LPS-induced transcription of Nos2, Ptgs2, Tnfa, and Il1b was observed for N. oceanica and C. amblystomatis lipids. The most active fractions were the DGTS-and-PL-enriched fraction from N. oceanica and the DGDG-and-SQDG-enriched fraction from C. amblystomatis. Our results reveal that microalgae lipids have strong anti-inflammatory capacity and may be explored as functional ingredients or nutraceuticals, offering a natural solution to tackle chronic inflammation-associated diseases.

Therapeutic potential of natural products in inflammation: underlying molecular mechanisms, clinical outcomes, technological advances, and future perspectives

Chronic inflammation is a common underlying factor in many major diseases, including heart disease, diabetes, cancer, and autoimmune disorders, and is responsible for up to 60% of all deaths worldwide. Metformin, statins, and corticosteroids, and NSAIDs (non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs) are often given as anti-inflammatory pharmaceuticals, however, often have even more debilitating side effects than the illness itself. The natural product-based therapy of inflammation-related diseases has no adverse effects and good beneficial results compared to substitute conventional anti-inflammatory medications. In this review article, we provide a concise overview of present pharmacological treatments, the pathophysiology of inflammation, and the signaling pathways that underlie it. In addition, we focus on the most promising natural products identified as potential anti-inflammatory therapeutic agents. Moreover, preclinical studies and clinical trials evaluating the efficacy of natural products as anti-inflammatory therapeutic agents and their pragmatic applications with promising outcomes are reviewed. In addition, the safety, side effects and technical barriers of natural products are discussed. Furthermore, we also summarized the latest technological advances in the discovery and scientific development of natural products-based medicine.

Magic shotgun approach to anti-inflammatory pharmacotherapy: Synthesis of novel thienopyrimidine monomers/heterodimer as dual COX-2 and 15-LOX inhibitors endowed with potent antioxidant activity

Emerging evidence points to the intertwining framework of inflammation and oxidative stress in various ailments. We speculate on the potential impact of the magic shotgun approach in these ailments as an attempt to mitigate the drawbacks of current NSAIDs. Hence, we rationally designed and synthesized new tetrahydrobenzo[4,5]thieno[2,3-d]pyrimidine monomers/heterodimer as dual selective COX-2/15-LOX inhibitors with potent antioxidant activity. The synthesized compounds were challenged with diverse in vitro biological assays. Regarding the monomeric series, compound 5k exerted the highest COX-2 inhibitory activity (IC50 = 0.068 μM, SI = 160.441), while compound 5i showed the highest 15-LOX inhibitory activity (IC50 = 1.97 μM). Surpassing the most active monomeric members, the heterodimer 11 stemmed as the most potent and selective one in the whole study (COX-2 IC50 = 0.065 μM, SI = 173.846, 15-LOX IC50 = 1.86 μM). Heterodimer design was inspired by the cross-talk between the partner monomers of the COX-2 isoform. Moreover, some of our synthesized compounds could significantly reverse the LPS-enhanced production of ROS and proinflammatory cytokines (IL-6, TNF-α, and NO) in RAW 264.7 macrophages. Again, the heterodimer showed the strongest suppressor activity against ROS (IC50 = 18.79 μM) and IL-6 (IC50 = 4.15 μM) production outperforming the two references, celecoxib and diclofenac. Regarding NO suppressor activity, compound 5j (IC50 = 18.62 μM) surpassed the two references. Only compound 5a significantly suppressed TNF-α production (IC50 = 19.68 μM). Finally, molecular modeling simulated the possible binding scenarios of our synthesized thienopyrimidines within the active sites of COX-2 and 15-LOX. These findings suggest that those novel thienopyrimidines are promising leads showing pharmacodynamics synergy against the selected targets.

Sciadopitysin mitigates spermatological and testicular damage instigated by paraquat administration in male albino rats

Paraquat (PQ) is a herbicide that has ability to induce testicular toxicity by producing reactive oxygen species (ROS). Sciadopitysin (SPS) is a promising flavonoid that displays multiple pharmacological properties i.e., anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidant and anti-apoptotic. Therefore, the present study was designed to evaluate the mitigative role of SPS against PQ induced testicular toxicity in male rats. The experiment was performed on male albino rats (n = 48) that were divided into 4 groups. The group-1 was control group. Group-2 was administrated orally with PQ (5 mg/kg). Group-3 was administrated orally with PQ (5 mg/kg) and SPS (2 mg/kg). Group-4 was supplemented with SPS (2 mg/kg) through oral gavage. The experiment was conducted for 56 days. The exposure to PQ significantly lowered the activities of catalase (CAT), glutathione reductase (GSR), superoxide dismutase (SOD) as well as glutathione peroxidase (GPx). Whereas, a substantial increase was observed in dead sperms number, abnormalities in the tail, head as well as midpiece of sperms in PQ intoxicated rats. Moreover, a significant increase in the level of ROS and malondialdehyde (MDA) was noticed in PQ administrated group. Furthermore, steroidogenic enzymes expression was significantly decreased in PQ-intoxicated group, whereas the level of inflammatory markers was increased in PQ administrated rats. Besides, the expression of apoptotic markers was significantly escalated in PQ exposed rats, whereas the expression of anti-apoptotic markers was considerably reduced. A significant reduction in hormonal level was also noticed in the rats that were administrated with PQ. Moreover, the histopathological examination revealed that PQ significantly damaged the testicles. However, the supplementation of SPS with PQ significantly reduced the adverse effects of PQ in the testes of albino rats. Therefore, the current investigation demonstrated that SPS possesses a significant potential to avert PQ-induced testicular dysfunction due to its anti-apoptotic, androgenic, anti-oxidant and anti-inflammatory nature.

Agarwood oil nanoemulsion counteracts LPS-induced inflammation and oxidative stress in RAW264.7 mouse macrophages

PURPOSE

Oxidative stress and inflammation are key pathophysiological features of chronic respiratory diseases, including asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Agarwood oil obtained from Aquilaria trees has promising antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities. However, its clinical application is hampered by poor solubility. A viable approach to overcome this involves formulation of oily constituents into emulsions. Here, we have investigated the antioxidant and anti-inflammatory potential of an agarwood oil-based nanoemulsion (DE'RAAQSIN) against lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced RAW264.7 mouse macrophages in vitro.

METHODS

The antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activity of DE'RAAQSIN was assessed by measuring the levels of ROS and nitric oxide (NO) produced, using the DCF-DA assay and the Griess reagent assay, respectively. The molecular pathways activated by DE'RAAQSIN were investigated via qPCR.

RESULTS

LPS stimulation of RAW264.7 cells increased the production of nitric oxide (NO) and ROS and resulted in the overexpression of the inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) gene. Furthermore, LPS induced the upregulation of the expression of key proinflammatory genes (IL-6, TNF-α, IL-1β, and CXCL1) and of the antioxidant gene heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1). DE'RAAQSIN demonstrated potent antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activity by significantly reducing the levels of ROS and of secreted NO, simultaneously counteracting the LPS-induced overexpression of iNOS, IL-6, TNF-α, IL-1β, and HO-1. These findings were corroborated by in silico activity prediction and physicochemical analysis of the main agarwood oil components.

CONCLUSIONS

We propose DE'RAAQSIN as a promising alternative managing inflammatory disorders, opening the platform for further studies aimed at understanding the effectiveness of DE'RAAQSIN.

Anti-Neuroinflammatory Effect of the Ethanolic Extract of Black Ginseng through TLR4-MyD88-Regulated Inhibition of NF-κB and MAPK Signaling Pathways in LPS-Induced BV2 Microglial Cells

Korean ginseng (Panax ginseng) contains various ginsenosides as active ingredients, and they show diverse biological activities. Black ginseng is manufactured by repeated steaming and drying of white ginseng, which alters the polarity of ginsenosides and improves biological activities. The aim of the present investigation was to examine the anti-neuroinflammatory effects of the ethanolic extract of black ginseng (BGE) in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced BV2 microglial cells. Pre-treatment with BGE inhibited the overproduction of pro-inflammatory mediators including nitric oxide (NO), prostaglandin E2 (PGE2), inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), interleukin-6 (IL-6), and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) in LPS-induced BV2 cells. In addition, BGE reduced the activation of nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-κB), p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), and c-jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) MAPK signaling pathways induced by LPS. These anti-neuroinflammatory effects were mediated through the negative regulation of the toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4)/myeloid differentiation primary response 88 (MyD88) signaling pathway. Among the four ginsenosides contained in BGE, ginsenosides Rd and Rg3 inhibited the production of inflammatory mediators. Taken together, this investigation suggests that BGE represents potential anti-neuroinflammatory candidates for the prevention and treatment of neurodegenerative diseases.

Mitracarpus frigidus reduces lipid metabolism and PGE2 levels in inflammatory cells

OBJECTIVES

To evaluate the ability of the aqueous extract of Mitracarpus frigidus (MFAq) to inhibit lipid body formation and inflammatory mediator production in macrophages stimulated with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and interferon gamma (IFN-γ).

METHODS

MFAq was chemically characterized by ultrafast liquid chromatography/quadruple time-of-flight tandem mass spectrometry. The macrophages obtained from mice were incubated with MFAq. Cell viability and membrane integrity were evaluated by 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide and propidium iodide assays, respectively. Moreover, NO, reactive oxygen species (ROS), transforming growth factor beta (TGF-β), prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) levels and lipid bodies (LBs) were examined in macrophages that were stimulated with LPS and IFN-γ and treated with MFAq. Finally, molecular docking analysis was conducted to investigate the interaction of MFAq with the cyclooxygenase 2 (COX-2) enzyme.

KEY FINDINGS

Chlorogenic acid, clarinoside, harounoside, rutin, kaempferol-3O-rutinoside and 2-azaanthraquinone were identified in MFAq. MFAq significantly inhibited NO, ROS and LBs, and did not affect the membrane integrity of macrophages. MFAq-treated cells showed significantly lower levels of TGF-β and PGE2. Molecular docking demonstrated that the compounds found in MFAq are able to inhibit COX-2 by binding to important residues in the catalytic site.

CONCLUSIONS

MFAq interferes with lipid metabolism in stimulated macrophages, leading to the reduction of important inflammatory mediators. Furthermore, MFAq can directly inhibit the COX-2 enzyme or inhibit its expression owing to its ability to reduce NO production.

Dibenzoylmethane ameliorates adiposity-mediated neuroinflammatory response and inflammation-mediated neuronal cell death in mouse microglia and neuronal cells

Dibenzoylmethane (DBM), a licorice-derived component, has numerous health benefits. The current study aimed to investigate the effect of DBM on adiposity-induced neuroinflammatory/oxidative response and microglial activation-induced neuronal cell damage. For this research, BV2 and HT22 cells were cultured using adipcyte- and microglia-conditioned media, respectively. DBM effectively suppressed lipopolysaccharide-induced productions in inducible nitric oxide synthase and cyclooxygenase2. Interleukin (IL)-6, monocyte chemoattractant protein-1, IL-1β, and tumor necrosis factor-α levels were also downregulated by DBM. In adipocyte-conditioned medium (ACM)-cultured BV2 cells, DBM effectively decreased ACM-induced generation of nitric oxide, reactive oxygen species, and inflammatory cytokines by activating nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2/heme oxygenase-1 signaling and reducing nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells. In BV2-conditioned medium (BVM)-cultured neuron cells, DBM recovered the BVM-induced reduction of neuronal cell viability, thereby regulating B-cell lymphoma 2 (BCL2), BCL2-associated X (BAX), and cleaved caspase-3 protein expression. Taken together, DBM suppressed adiposity-induced inflammation/oxidative responses and inflammation-induced neuronal cell death.

Phytochemicals in the treatment of inflammation-associated diseases: the journey from preclinical trials to clinical practice

Advances in biomedical research have demonstrated that inflammation and its related diseases are the greatest threat to public health. Inflammatory action is the pathological response of the body towards the external stimuli such as infections, environmental factors, and autoimmune conditions to reduce tissue damage and improve patient comfort. However, when detrimental signal-transduction pathways are activated and inflammatory mediators are released over an extended period of time, the inflammatory process continues and a mild but persistent pro-inflammatory state may develop. Numerous degenerative disorders and chronic health issues including arthritis, diabetes, obesity, cancer, and cardiovascular diseases, among others, are associated with the emergence of a low-grade inflammatory state. Though, anti-inflammatory steroidal, as well as non-steroidal drugs, are extensively used against different inflammatory conditions, they show undesirable side effects upon long-term exposure, at times, leading to life-threatening consequences. Thus, drugs targeting chronic inflammation need to be developed to achieve better therapeutic management without or with a fewer side effects. Plants have been well known for their medicinal use for thousands of years due to their pharmacologically active phytochemicals belonging to diverse chemical classes with a number of these demonstrating potent anti-inflammatory activity. Some typical examples include colchicine (alkaloid), escin (triterpenoid saponin), capsaicin (methoxy phenol), bicyclol (lignan), borneol (monoterpene), and quercetin (flavonoid). These phytochemicals often act via regulating molecular mechanisms that synergize the anti-inflammatory pathways such as increased production of anti-inflammatory cytokines or interfere with the inflammatory pathways such as to reduce the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines and other modulators to improve the underlying pathological condition. This review describes the anti-inflammatory properties of a number of biologically active compounds derived from medicinal plants, and their mechanisms of pharmacological intervention to alleviate inflammation-associated diseases. The emphasis is given to information on anti-inflammatory phytochemicals that have been evaluated at the preclinical and clinical levels. Recent trends and gaps in the development of phytochemical-based anti-inflammatory drugs have also been included.

The calcium-sensing receptor modulates the prostaglandin E2 pathway in intestinal inflammation

Introduction: The prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) pathway is one of the main mediators of intestinal inflammation. As activation of the calcium-sensing receptor (CaSR) induces expression of inflammatory markers in the colon, we assessed the impact of the CaSR on the PGE2 pathway regulation in colon cancer cells and the colon in vitro and in vivo. Methods and Results: We treated CaSR-transfected HT29 and Caco-2 colon cancer cell lines with different orthosteric ligands or modulators of the CaSR and measured gene expression and PGE2 levels. In CaSR-transfected HT29CaSR-GFP and Caco-2CaSR-GFP cells, the orthosteric CaSR ligand spermine and the positive allosteric CaSR modulator NPS R-568 both induced an inflammatory state as measured by IL-8 gene expression and significantly increased the expression of the PGE2 pathway key enzymes cyclooxygenase (COX)-2 and/or prostaglandin E2 synthase 1 (PGES-1). Inhibition of the CaSR with the calcilytic NPS 2143 abolished the spermine- and NPS R-568-induced pro-inflammatory response. Interestingly, we observed cell-line specific responses as e.g. PGES-1 expression was affected only in HT29CaSR-GFP but not in Caco-2CaSR-GFP cells. Other genes involved in the PGE2 pathway (COX-1, or the PGE2 receptors) were not responsive to the treatment. None of the studied genes were affected by any CaSR agonist in GFP-only transfected HT29GFP and Caco-2GFP cells, indicating that the observed gene-inducing effects of spermine and R-568 were indeed mediated by the CaSR. In vivo, we had previously determined that treatment with the clinically approved calcimimetic cinacalcet worsened symptoms in a dextran sulfate sodium (DSS)-induced colitis mouse model. In the colons of these mice, cinacalcet significantly induced gene expression of PGES-2 and the EP3 receptor, but not COX-2; while NPS 2143 increased the expression of the PGE2-degrading enzyme 15-hydroxyprostaglandin dehydrogenase (15-PGDH). Importantly, neither treatment had any effect on the colons of non-DSS treated mice. Discussion: Overall, we show that activation of the CaSR induces the PGE2 pathway, albeit with differing effects in vitro and in vivo. This may be due to the different microenvironment in vivo compared to in vitro, specifically the presence of a CaSR-responsive immune system. Since calcilytics inhibit ligand-mediated CaSR signaling, they may be considered for novel therapies against inflammatory bowel disease.

The Effect of Combined Treatment of Psilocybin and Eugenol on Lipopolysaccharide-Induced Brain Inflammation in Mice

Inflammation is an organism’s biological defense mechanism. Acute and chronic inflammation of the body triggers the production of pro- and anti-inflammatory pathways that can affect the content of cytokines in the brain and thus cause brain inflammation. Disorders such as depression and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) are often associated with elevated inflammation. Recently, positive and promising clinical results of psilocybin for the treatment of depression and PTSD were reported. Thus, we decided to test whether psilocybin alone or in combination with eugenol, an anti-inflammatory and antioxidant agent, would prevent the increase in or decrease the content of cytokines in the brain of C57BL/6J mice injected with lipopolysaccharides (LPS). Two experiments were performed, one with pre-treatment of mice through gavage with psilocybin (0.88 mg/kg), eugenol (17.6 mg/kg), or combinations of psilocybin and eugenol (1:10, 1:20, or 1:50), followed by intraperitoneal injection of LPS, and the second, post-treatment, with initial injection with LPS, followed by treatment with psilocybin, eugenol, or their combination. Brain tissues were collected, and cytokines were analyzed by qRT-PCR, Western blot, and ELISA. Data were analyzed with a one-way ANOVA followed by Tukey’s post hoc test or with multiple unpaired t-tests. LPS upregulated mRNA expression of COX-2, TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6. All pre-treatments decreased the expression of COX-2 and TNF-α, with psilocybin alone and in 1:50 combination, with eugenol being the most effective. In the post-treatment, all combinations of psilocybin and eugenol were effective in reducing inflammation, with the 1:50 ratio displaying the most prominent results in reducing the mRNA content of tested cytokines. Western blot analysis confirmed the effect on COX-2 and IL-1β proteins. Finally, the ELISA showed that post-treatment with psilocybin + eugenol (1:50) demonstrated the best results, decreasing the expression of multiple markers including IL-6 and IL-8. This demonstrates the anti-inflammatory effects of a combination of psilocybin and eugenol in the brain of animals with systemically induced inflammation.

Isodorsmanin A Prevents Inflammatory Response in LPS-Stimulated Macrophages by Inhibiting the JNK and NF-κB Signaling Pathways

Natural and synthetic chalcones exhibit anti-inflammatory, antitumoral, antibacterial, antifungal, antimalarial, and antitubercular activities. Isodorsmanin A (IDA), a chalcone, is a well-known constituent of the dried seeds of Psoralea corylifolia L. (PC). Although other constituents of PC have been widely investigated, there are no studies on the biological properties of IDA. In this study, we focused on the anti-inflammatory effects of IDA and evaluated its effects on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated macrophages. The results showed that IDA suppressed the production of inflammatory mediators (nitric oxide [NO] and prostaglandin E₂ [PGE₂]) and proinflammatory cytokines (tumor necrosis factor-α [TNF-α], interleukin-6 [IL-6], and interleukin-1β [IL-1β]) without cytotoxicity. In addition, it downregulated the mRNA levels of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) within the treatment concentrations. In our mechanistic studies, IDA inhibited the phosphorylation of the c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK), mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), and protected the nuclear factor of the kappa light polypeptide gene enhancer in the B-cells' inhibitor, alpha (IκB-α), from degradation, thus preventing the activation of the nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells' (NF-κB) transcription factor. Our results suggest that IDA is a promising compound for attenuating excessive inflammatory responses.

Evaluation of free radical quenching, anti-inflammatory activity together with anticancer potential of Lychnis coronaria and characterization of novel molecules from its extract through high resolution-liquid chromatography mass spectrometry coupled to structural biochemistry approach

Lychnis coronaria, a perennial (herbaceous) belonging to Caryophyllaceae has been traditionally used for treating different complications. However, the free radical scavenging effect, anti-inflammatory activity and anticancer property of methanolic extract of this plant has not been addressed. Most importantly, the chemical constituents present in the extract of Lychnis coronaria responsible for its diverse activities have not been scrutinized till date. Here, we used a complex approach for exploring the above mentioned effects of Lychnis coronaria. We performed rigorous phytochemical screening followed by quantification of tannins, phenols, alkaloids, quinones and sterols from the extract. Moreover we employed in vitro DPPH, ABTS , FRAP assay, albumin denaturation inhibition experiment, MTT assay, high resolution liquid chromatography mass spectrometry for measurng the reactive oxygen species quenching, anti-inflammatory and anticancer strength of Lychnis coronaria and for identifying the possible bioactive molecules. We identified two novel molecules panaxynol (polyacetylenic alcohol) and norharman (9H-Pyrido [3, 4-B] indole) following rigorous analysis of the extract. Following this, the binding affinity of these molecules was estimated using human cyclooxygenase (COX)-2 enzyme as target. Among the constituents of Lychnis coronaria norharman manifested stronger binding towards COX-2 compared to panaxynol. Most importantly, norharman showed high stability in the groove of COX2 as confirmed by molecular dynamics simulation. Collectively, Lychnis coronaria manifested free radical neutralizing, inflammation soothing and anticancer effect in concentration dependent manner and thus may serve as a promising phytotherapeutic in future.Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.

A gene expression analysis of long non-coding RNAs NKILA and PACER as well as their target genes, NF-κB and cox-2 in bipolar disorder patients

Bipolar disorder (BD) is a severe condition characterized by periods of mania and depression. Despite advances in the neurobiology of bipolar disorder, the exact etiology of the disease remains unclear. There is evidence that Inflammation is associated with bipolar disorder. COX-2 and NF-κB are two critical mediators in the inflammatory pathways. Long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) are a new class of non-coding RNAs that play a wide range of roles, especially in developing and maintaining normal brain functions. Two lncRNAs called PACER and NKILA control the expression of COX-2 and NF-κB genes, respectively. In this study, Expression levels of PACER and NKILA lncRNAs, as well as, COX-2 and NF-κB genes were measured in fifty patients with bipolar disorder and 50 healthy individuals by real-time PCR. Expression levels of NKILA and COX2 were considerably reduced in BD patients compared with healthy controls. Such significant downregulation in the expression of NKILA and PACER was only observed in male patients with BD compared with male healthy subjects. Also, according to the results of the ROC curve, the area under curve values for NKILA and COX2 were 0.68 and 0.52 respectively. Consequently, the NKILA gene could be considered a biomarker. By examining the degree of pairwise correlation between genes, all genes had a significant positive correlation with each other. Taken together, these results revealed a function for NKILA and PACER lncRNAs in the pathogenesis of BD.

Rhamnetin alleviates polystyrene microplastics-induced testicular damage by restoring biochemical, steroidogenic, hormonal, apoptotic, inflammatory, spermatogenic and histological profile in male albino rats

The current research was performed to evaluate the ameliorative effects of Rhamnetin (RHM) on polystyrene microplastics (PS-MPs)-instigated testicular dysfunction in male albino rats. 48 albino rats were distributed in four groups, i.e., control, PS-MPs treated, PS-MPs + RHM co-treated and RHM only supplemented group. PS-MPs exposure considerably reduced anti-oxidant enzymes i.e., catalase (CAT), glutathione peroxidase (GSR), superoxide dismutase (SOD) and glutathione reductase (GPx) activities. Whereas, reactive oxygen species (ROS) level along with malondialdehyde (MDA) was considerably escalated in PS-MPs treated rats as well as a potential decline was observed in sperm progressive motility. Additionally, a substantial upsurge was noticed in the count of dead sperms, deformity in the tail, mid-piece and head of sperms in PS-MPs treated rats. PS-MPs exposure also decreased steroidogenic enzymes, 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (17β-HSD), steroidogenic acute regulatory protein (StAR) and 3β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (3β-HSD) expressions. Moreover, the levels of inflammatory indices i.e., Interleukin-6 (IL-6), Nuclear factor kappa-B (NF-κB), Interleukin-1β (IL-1β), tumour necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) activity were also increased in PS-MPs administrated group. Besides it increased the expression of apoptotic markers (Bax and caspase-3) expression. Whereas, anti-apoptotic marker i.e., Bcl-2 expression was reduced. Moreover, luteinizing hormone (LH), follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) as well as plasma testosterone levels were also decreased. PS-MPs exposure also led to a substantial histopathological damage in testicular tissues. However, RHM supplementation potentially reduced the damaging effects of PS-MPs in the reproductive tissues of male albino rats. Thus, the current study revealed, RHM possesses potential to prevent PS-MPs-induced testicular damage due to its anti-oxidant anti-apoptotic, anti-inflammatory as well as androgenic properties.

Chromosomal Instability as Enabling Feature and Central Hallmark of Breast Cancer

Chromosomal instability (CIN) has become a topic of great interest in recent years, not only for its implications in cancer diagnosis and prognosis but also for its role as an enabling feature and central hallmark of cancer. CIN describes cell-to-cell variation in the number or structure of chromosomes in a tumor population. Although extensive research in recent decades has identified some associations between CIN with response to therapy, specific associations with other hallmarks of cancer have not been fully evidenced. Such associations place CIN as an enabling feature of the other hallmarks of cancer and highlight the importance of deepening its knowledge to improve the outcome in cancer. In addition, studies conducted to date have shown paradoxical findings about the implications of CIN for therapeutic response, with some studies showing associations between high CIN and better therapeutic response, and others showing the opposite: associations between high CIN and therapeutic resistance. This evidences the complex relationships between CIN with the prognosis and response to treatment in cancer. Considering the above, this review focuses on recent studies on the role of CIN in cancer, the cellular mechanisms leading to CIN, its relationship with other hallmarks of cancer, and the emerging therapeutic approaches that are being developed to target such instability, with a primary focus on breast cancer. Further understanding of the complexity of CIN and its association with other hallmarks of cancer could provide a better understanding of the cellular and molecular mechanisms involved in prognosis and response to treatment in cancer and potentially lead to new drug targets.

Seaweed Derived Lipids Are a Potential Anti-Inflammatory Agent: A Review

Chronic, low-grade inflammation is linked to the development of non-communicable diseases, including cancer, cardiovascular disease, obesity, insulin resistance, diabetes, and others which together contribute to more than 50% of deaths globally. Modulation of inflammatory responses may be a promising strategy, and n-3 long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-3 LC-PUFA) may offer a new therapeutic option in inflammatory conditions. Seaweeds are characterised by high nutritional quality and are a good source of many bioactive compounds, including n-3 LC-PUFA. This review addresses the potential anti-inflammatory properties of seaweed derived lipids, and their immunomodulating mechanisms in order to identify the possible applications of seaweed as an anti-inflammatory functional food ingredient or dietary supplement. A few studies have evaluated the anti-inflammatory activity of seaweed lipids using crude lipid extracts, lipid fractions and isolated complex lipids from several seaweeds belonging to the Ochrophyta and Rhodophyta phyla, with only three Ulva rigida, Ulva sp. and Codium tomentosum within the Chlorophyta phylum. It was reported that seaweed derived lipids suppress inducible nitric oxide synthase and cyclooxygenase-2 expression and reduce nuclear factor κB p100 and myeloid differentiation primary response 88 protein levels leading to the downregulation of the production of several pro-inflammatory cytokines and nitric oxide. Further investigations are required to unravel the complex mechanisms underlying their preventive action against chronic inflammation and their potential use as a new functional food ingredient and/or health supplement.

Inflammatory effects of hexavalent chromium in the lung: A comprehensive review

Besides smoking, lung cancer can be caused by other factors, including heavy metals such as cadmium, nickel, arsenic, beryllium and hexavalent chromium [Cr(VI)], which is used in multiple settings, resulting in widespread environmental and occupational exposures as well as heavy use. The mechanism by which Cr(VI) causes lung cancer is not completely understood. Currently, it is admitted chromosome instability is a key process in the mechanism of Cr(VI)-induced cancer, and previous studies have suggested Cr(VI) impacts the lung tissue in mice by triggering tissue damage and inflammation. However, the mechanism underlying Cr(VI)-induced inflammation and its exact role in lung cancer are unclear. Therefore, this review aimed to systematically examine previous studies assessing Cr(VI)-induced inflammation and to summarize the major inflammatory pathways involved in Cr(VI)-induced inflammation. In cell culture studies, COX2, VEGF, JAK-STAT, leukotriene B4 (LTB4), MAPK, NF-ҡB and Nrf2 signaling pathways were consistently upregulated by Cr(VI), clearly demonstrating that these pathways are involved in Cr(VI)-induced inflammation. In addition, Akt signaling was also shown to contribute to Cr(VI)-induced inflammation, although discrepant findings were reported. Few mechanistic studies were performed in animal models, in which Cr(VI) upregulated oxidative pathways, NF-kB signaling and the MAPK pathway in the lung tissue. Similar to cell culture studies, opposite effects of Cr(VI) on Akt signaling were reported. This work provides insights into the mechanisms by which Cr(VI) induces lung inflammation. However, discrepant findings and other major issues in study design, both in cell and animal models, suggest that further studies are required to unveil the mechanism of Cr(VI)-induced inflammation and its role in lung cancer.

First study on the immunohistochemical expression of cyclooxygenase-2 and clinicopathological association in canine hepatoid gland neoplasms

Background and Aim: Hepatoid gland neoplasms (HGNs) constitute one of the most common cutaneous tumors that arise from perianal glands in dogs and are clinically characterized by rapid growth. Cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), the inducible form of the enzyme, is associated with several hallmarks of tumorigenesis. Its expression has been confirmed in several human and animal neoplastic tissues, but there are no reports in hepatoid gland tissues. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate COX-2 immunoexpression in canine HGNs, compare the expression among groups of normal hepatoid glands, hepatoid gland adenomas (HGAs), hepatoid gland epitheliomas (HGEs), and hepatoid gland carcinomas (HGCs), and assess the association of the COX-2 expression with clinicopathological features. Materials and Methods: Sixty-one formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded canine hepatoid gland tissues (20 samples of HGAs, 16 of HGEs, 15 of HGCs, and 10 of normal hepatoid glands) were analyzed for COX-2 expression using immunohistochemistry with scoring for percentage positivity and intensity. Multiple comparisons of COX-2 expression among normal and neoplastic hepatoid glands and the associations between COX-2 expression and clinicopathological features were analyzed. Results: Cyclooxygenase-2 expression was not detected in 60% of normal hepatoid glands and 25% of HGAs. Seventy-five percent of HGAs had a weak expression, while 43.7% and 56.3% of HGEs showed weak and moderate expression, respectively. The expression of HGCs ranged from weak (13.3%) to moderate (33.3%) and strong (53.3%). The immunoreactivity score of COX-2 labeling was significantly different among the normal and neoplastic hepatoid glands (p < 0.0001). The highest score was observed in the HGCs. Only in HGCs, the strong COX-2 expression was significantly associated with some clinicopathological features, including tissue invasion (p = 0.007) and necrosis (p = 0.029). Conclusion: These results suggest that COX-2 may play a role in the modulation of neoplastic cell growth. These preliminary data lead to further investigation on the potential of COX-2 expression as a prognostic indicator and COX-2 inhibitors for canine HGCs treatment.

Comprehensive Assessment of Antioxidant and Anti-Inflammatory Properties of Papaya Extracts

Antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties of papaya (Carica papaya) fruits were evaluated to provide comprehensive information associated with the bioactive compounds. ‘Tainung No. 2’ papaya fruits, cultivated in a greenhouse, Korea, were harvested at unripe and ripe stages and then divided into seed and peel-pulp. Total phenolic and flavonoid contents were determined using spectrophotometry, and individual phenolic compounds were relatively quantified by HPLC-DAD and fifteen standards. Antioxidant activities were measured using four assays: DPPH (2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl) and ABTS (2,2′-azino-bis (3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid)) scavenging activities, inhibition of lipid peroxidation, and FRAP (ferric reducing antioxidant power). Anti-inflammatory activities were measured by the regulation of NF-κB signaling pathways with the measurements of ROS and NO productions as the degree of oxidative stress. Total phenol contents increased in seed and peel–pulp extracts during ripening; flavonoid contents increased only in seed extracts. Total phenolic contents were associated with ABTS radical scavenging activity and FRAP. Of fifteen phenolic compounds, chlorogenic acid, cynarin, eupatorine, neochlorogenic acid, and vicenin II were identified among papaya extracts. ROS and NO productions were inhibited in papaya extracts. Especially, NO productions were inhibited higher in ripe seed extracts than in other extracts, which would be associated with the suppression of NF-κB activation and iNOS expression. These results suggest that papaya fruit extracts, including seeds, peels, and pulps, could be potential raw materials for functional foods.

Development of fermented rice cake containing strawberry showing anti-inflammatory effect on LPS-stimulated macrophages and paw edema induced mice

Strawberry (Fragaria ananassa) is one of the richest sources containing a wide variety of nutritive compounds. Anti-inflammatory activities of fermented rice cake made of strawberry powder as well as rice powder were evaluated. The fermented rice cake containing strawberry powder (SRC) significantly and dose-dependently inhibited NO production in LPS-stimulated RAW264.7 cells without cytotoxicity. Also, SRC effectively suppressed inflammatory gene expression, including iNOS, COX-2, IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α. In addition, the production of PGE2, IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α was significantly reduced. Furthermore, the anti-inflammatory effect of SRC was investigated using carrageenan-induced paw edema of ICR mice. It was demonstrated that pre-orally administration of SRC at a dose of 50 and 100 mg/kg BW significantly inhibited paw edema induced by carrageenan. This study suggested that the anti-inflammation activities of strawberry rice cake give the potential for increasing the commercialization of rice cake and rice products.

Mitochondrial Dysfunctions and Potential Molecular Markers in Sport Horses

Mitochondria are an essential part of most eukaryotic cells. The crucial role of these organelles is the production of metabolic energy, which is converted into ATP in oxidative phosphorylation. They are also involved in and constitute apoptosis, the site of many metabolic processes. Some of the factors that negatively affect mitochondria are stress, excessive exercise, disease, and the aging process. Exercise can cause the release of large amounts of free radicals, inflammation, injury, and stress. All of these factors can contribute to mitochondrial dysfunction, which can consistently lead to inflammatory responses, tissue damage, organ dysfunction, and a host of diseases. The functions of the mitochondria and the consequences of their disturbance can be of great importance in the breeding and use of horses. The paper reviews mitochondrial disorders in horses and, based on the literature, indicates genetic markers strongly related to this issue.

Molecular Docking of the Terpenes in Gorgonian Corals to COX-2 and iNOS Enzymes as Anti-Inflammatory

Background:

Because the inflammatory pathway is triggered by the enzymes cyclooxygenase- 2 (COX-2) and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), inhibitors, such as nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), are needed, although these have side effects. Therefore, the discovery and development of natural medicine as a lead compound are needed. The gorgonian corals have been reported to contain cyclic diterpenes with anti-inflammatory activities. The specific anti-inflammatory inhibitor potential has not been reported regarding these secondary metabolites, whether in COX-2 or iNOS. Thus, the in silico method is the right alternative.

Objective:

This study aimed to determine the potency of fifteen terpenes of the various gorgonian corals to COX-2 and iNOS enzymes as an anti-inflammatory.

Methods:

Molecular docking was performed using ChemDraw Ultra 12.0, Chem3D Pro 12.0, Biovia Discovery Studio 2016 Client®, Autodock Tools 4.2, prediction pharmacokinetics (Pre-ADMET), and oral administration (Lipinski rule of five).

Results:

Potential terpenes based on ΔG (kcal/mol) and Ki (nM) to COX-2 were gyrosanol B (-10,32; 27,15), gyrosanol A (-10,20; 33,57), echinolabdane A (-9,81; 64,76). Only nine terpenes were specific to COX-2 active sites, while for iNOS were palmonine F (-7.76; 2070), briarenol C (-7.55; 2910), and all test compounds binding to the iNOS active sites. Pre-ADMET prediction obtained that HIA was very excellent (70–100%), Caco-2 had moderate permeability (4–70 nm sec-1), and PPB had strong binding (> 90%). Eight terpenes qualified for the Lipinski rule of five.

Conclusion:

iNOS was a specific target for terpenes based on the free energy of binding (ΔG).

Neutrophil-Derived COX-2 has a Key Role during Inflammatory Hyperalgesia

Inflammation is a vital process for the injured tissue restoration and one of its hallmarks is inflammatory hyperalgesia. The cyclooxygenase (COX) pathway is strongly related to the inflammatory and painful process. Usually, the COX-1 isoform is described as homeostatic, while COX-2 is characterized as inducible in inflammatory conditions. Although it is well known that neutrophil cells are the first to arrive at the inflamed site and the major source of COX-2 is still unknown, the specific role of neutrophil-derived COX-2 in the pain process is. Thus, in the present study, we demonstrate for the first time that neutrophil-derived COX-2 plays a key role in peripheral inflammatory hyperalgesia. Conditional knockout mice for COX-2 in neutrophils (COX-2 ^{fl/fl: Mrp8cre±}) exhibited higher pain sensitivity after carrageenan (CG) injection and long-lasting IL-1β-induced hyperalgesia compared with the control group (COX-2 ^fl/fl). Also, CG-induced inflammation in COX-2 ^{fl/fl: Mrp8cre±} mice showed COX-1 overexpression, and increased neutrophil migration and pro-inflammatory cytokines (e.g., IL-1β and CXCL1). These findings revealed that neutrophil COX-2 has an important role in the regulation of inflammatory hyperalgesia.

Design and Synthesis of Novel 1,3,4-Oxadiazole and 1,2,4-Triazole Derivatives as Cyclooxygenase-2 Inhibitors with Anti-inflammatory and Antioxidant activity in LPS-stimulated RAW264.7 Macrophages

In an attempt to obtain new candidates with potential anti-inflammatory activity, two series of 1,3,4-oxadiazole based derivatives (8a-g) and 1,2,4-triazole based derivatives (10a,b and 11a-g) were synthesized and evaluated for their COX-1/COX-2 inhibitory activity. In vitro assays showed potent COX-2 inhibitory activity and selectivity of the novel designed compounds (IC50 = 0.04 - 0.16 μM, SI = 60.71 - 337.5) compared to celecoxib (IC50 = 0.045 μM, SI = 326.67). The anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activity of the synthesized compounds was investigated via testing their ability to inhibit pro-inflammatory [tumour necrosis factor (TNF-α) and interleukin-6 (IL-6)] and oxidative stress [nitric oxide (NO) and reactive oxygen species (ROS)] markers production in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-activated RAW 264.7 macrophages. Most of the novel compounds exhibited potent anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activity. In particular, the novel compounds showed excellent IL-6 inhibitory activity (IC50 = 0.96 - 11.14 μM) when compared to celecoxib (IC50 = 13.04 μM) and diclofenac sodium (IC50 = 22.97 μM). Moreover, the most potent and selective COX-2 inhibitor 11c (IC50 = 0.04 μM, SI = 337.5) displayed significantly higher activity against NO and ROS production compared to celecoxib (IC50 = 2.60 and 3.01 μM vs. 16.47 and 14.30 μM, respectively). Molecular modelling studies of the novel designed molecules into COX-2 active sites analysed their binding affinity. In-silico simulation studies indicated their acceptable physicochemical properties and pharmacokinetic profiles. This study suggests that the novel synthesized COX-2 inhibitors exert potent anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activity, highlighting their potential as promising therapeutic agents for the treatment of inflammation and oxidative stress-related diseases.

Combined Therapy Using Human Corneal Stromal Stem Cells and Quiescent Keratocytes to Prevent Corneal Scarring after Injury

Corneal blindness due to scarring is conventionally treated by corneal transplantation, but the shortage of donor materials has been a major issue affecting the global success of treatment. Pre-clinical and clinical studies have shown that cell-based therapies using either corneal stromal stem cells (CSSC) or corneal stromal keratocytes (CSK) suppress corneal scarring at lower levels. Further treatments or strategies are required to improve the treatment efficacy. This study examined a combined cell-based treatment using CSSC and CSK in a mouse model of anterior stromal injury. We hypothesize that the immuno-regulatory nature of CSSC is effective to control tissue inflammation and delay the onset of fibrosis, and a subsequent intrastromal CSK treatment deposited collagens and stromal specific proteoglycans to recover a native stromal matrix. Using optimized cell doses, our results showed that the effect of CSSC treatment for suppressing corneal opacities was augmented by an additional intrastromal CSK injection, resulting in better corneal clarity. These in vivo effects were substantiated by a further downregulated expression of stromal fibrosis genes and the restoration of stromal fibrillar organization and regularity. Hence, a combined treatment of CSSC and CSK could achieve a higher clinical efficacy and restore corneal transparency, when compared to a single CSSC treatment.

Tangeretin ameliorates bisphenol induced hepatocyte injury by inhibiting inflammation and oxidative stress

Bisphenol A (BPA) is an industrial toxicant that can potentially damage the liver. Tangeretin (TGN) is a natural flavonoid that displays various pharmacological activities. This experiment was carried out to evaluate the protective effects of TGN against BPA-induced hepatic impairment in the male albino rat. Twenty-four male albino rats were equally divided into four different groups: control, BPA (100 mg/kg), BPA + TGN (100 mg/kg + 50 mg/kg) and TGN (50 mg/kg). BPA exposure significantly decreased the activities of catalase (CAT), superoxidase dismutase (SOD), peroxidase (POD), glutathione reductase (GSR), glutathione S-transferase (GST), and glutathione (GSH) content while substantially increasing the thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) and hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) levels. A substantial increase in the levels of alanine aminotransferase (ALT), alkaline phosphatase (ALP), aspartate aminotransferase (AST) was also observed in BPA treated rats. Moreover, BPA significantly increased the inflammatory markers, including tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), nuclear factor kappa-B (NF-κB), Interleukin-6 (IL-6), Interleukin-1β (IL-1β)levels, cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) activity, and histopathological damages. However, co-treatment with TGN efficiently minimized the BPA-induced biochemical, inflammatory, and histopathological impairments in rat liver. The present study shows that TNG has significant potential to avert BPA-induced liver damage to its antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties.

Hydrocortisone Long-term Treatment Effect on Immunomodulatory Properties of Human Adipose-Derived Mesenchymal Stromal/Stem Cells

Cortisol is secreted in prolonged stress and has therapeutic effects in inflammatory diseases. Considering the immunomodulatory effects of mesenchymal stem cells, here we investigated the effect of hydrocortisone (HC) long-term treatment on immunomodulatory properties of human adipose-derived mesenchymal stromal/stem cells (ASCs). Isolated ASCs from healthy subjects were treated with different HC concentrations for 14 days. The effect of HC-treated ASCs on the proliferative response of peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) was evaluated in ASCs/2-way mixed leukocyte reaction coculture using 2,3-bis-(2-methoxy-4-nitro-5-sulfophenyl)-2H-tetrazolium-5-carboxanilide (XTT)-assay. HC-treated ASCs were further divided into interferon gamma (IFN-γ) stimulated and unstimulated groups. Transforming growth factor beta 1 (TGF-β1) and interleukin (IL)-6 levels were measured in culture supernatants by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Relative expression of cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), hepatocyte growth factor, indoleamine dioxygenase, and programmed death-ligand 1 genes was assessed by real-time PCR. Levels of TGF-β1 and COX-2 expression were elevated in unstimulated ASCs, while exposure to high concentration of HC significantly increased TGF-β1 levels and reduced COX-2 expression. Unstimulated HC-5-μM-treated ASCs increased PBMC proliferation ratio on day 2 of coculture compared to the control group (P = 0.05). In IFN-γ stimulated condition, pretreatment with HC-5 μM resulted in a significantly increased IL-6 and significantly decreased COX-2 expression compared to the HC untreated control group. In conclusion, our results showed various alterations of ASC immunomodulatory related features as a result of long-term exposure of different concentrations of HC. It seems that HC at low concentration pushed the balance toward extended immune response in ASCs, while this observation wasn't persistent in ASCs treated with higher concentrations of HC.

Resveratrol-Induced Signal Transduction in Wound Healing

Resveratrol is a well-known polyphenol that harbors various health benefits. Besides its well-known anti-oxidative potential, resveratrol exerts anti-inflammatory, pro-angiogenic, and cell-protective effects. It seems to be a promising adjuvant for various medical indications, such as cancer, vascular, and neurodegenerative diseases. Additionally, resveratrol was shown to display beneficial effects on the human skin. The polyphenol is discussed to be a feasible treatment approach to accelerate wound healing and prevent the development of chronic wounds without the drawback of systemic side effects. Despite resveratrol’s increasing popularity, its molecular mechanisms of action are still poorly understood. To take full advantage of resveratrol’s therapeutic potential, a profound knowledge of its interactions with its targets is needed. Therefore, this review highlights the resveratrol-induced molecular pathways with particular focus on the most relevant variables in wound healing, namely inflammation, oxidative stress, autophagy, collagen proliferation and angiogenesis.

A Novel Method of Mouse RPE Explant Culture and Effective Introduction of Transgenes Using Adenoviral Transduction for In Vitro Studies in AMD

Degeneration of retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) is one of the most critical phenotypic changes of age-related macular degeneration (AMD), the leading cause of vision loss in the elderly. While cultured polarized RPE cells with original properties are valuable in in vitro models to study RPE biology and the consequences of genetic and/or pharmacological manipulations, the procedure to establish mouse primary PRE cell culture or pluripotent stem cell-derived RPE cells is time-consuming and yields a limited number of cells. Thus, establishing a mouse in situ RPE culture system is highly desirable. Here we describe a novel and efficient method for RPE explant culture that allows for obtaining biologically relevant RPE cells in situ. These RPE explants (herein referred to as RPE flatmounts) are viable in culture for at least 7 days, can be efficiently transduced with adenoviral constructs, and/or treated with a variety of drugs/chemicals followed by downstream analysis of the signaling pathways/biological processes of interest, such as assessment of the autophagy flux, inflammatory response, and receptor tyrosine kinases stimulation. This method of RPE explant culture is highly beneficial for pharmacological and mechanistic studies in the field of RPE biology and AMD research.

Anticancer Effects of Helminthostachys zeylanica Ethyl acetate Extracts on Human Gastric Cancer Cells through Downregulation of the TNF-α-activated COX-2-cPLA2-PGE2 Pathway

Background: Gastric cancer (GC) is the second most prevalent cancer worldwide and the eighth most common cause of tumor-related death in Taiwan. Helminthostachys zeylanica, a flavonoid compound, has anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory, and anticancer effects. We examined whether an extract of H. zeylanica (E1 and E2) has potential as a treatment for GC. Methods: We investigated the effects (pro-apoptosis, pro-autophagy, and antiproliferation ability) of H. zeylanica-E2 on cell viability in healthy gastric epithelial (GES-1) and GC cells (AGS and BGC823). H. zeylanica-E2 was toxic to GC cells but had little or no toxicity to normal cells. Results: In this study, H. zeylanica-E2 induced apoptosis through caspase 3/7, Bcl-2, Bax, cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), and cleaved poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase pathways in GC cells. In addition, it increased autophagy by stimulating autophagy-related protein (ATG)5, ATG7, LC3-I/LC3-II, and inhibiting COX-2 activity in GC cells. We also found that H. zeylanica-E2 exhibited antiproliferation ability through cell cycle arrest in G0/G1 and G2/M and suppressed the migration of GC cells. The anticancer effects of H. zeylanica-E2 in GC cells might be mediated partly through inhibition of tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α)-activated proinflammatory cytosolic phospholipase A2 (cPLA2)-COX-2-prostaglandin E₂ (PGE₂) pathway. Conclusions: Our results suggest that H. zeylanica-E2 has potential as a novel adjunctive agent for the treatment of GC.

Evaluation of interleukin-32 and cyclooxygenase-2 expression in HAM/TSP patients and HTLV-1 asymptomatic carriers

Objective(s):

HTLV-1 associated myelopathy/tropical spastic paraparesis (HAM/TSP) is a neuroinflammatory disorder associated with HTLV-1. Cytokines and inflammatory mediators have a major role in forming inflammation in HAM/TSP patients. This study aimed to measure the levels of IL-32, a proinflammatory cytokine associated with autoinflammatory disorders, and also cyclooxygenase -2 (COX-2) as a key mediator of inflammatory pathways in HAM/TSP patients and HTLV-1 asymptomatic carriers (ACs).

Materials and Methods:

Peripheral blood monocyte cells (PBMCs) were isolated from HAM/TSP patients, ACs, and healthy controls (HCs), and DNA and RNA were extracted to evaluate HTLV-1 proviral load (PVL) and expression of IL-32 and COX-2, using real-time PCR. Serum levels of IL-32 were determined by using an ELISA assay.

Results:

The expression level of IL-32 was significantly higher in ACs compared with HAM/TSP patients and HCs (P<0.0001 and P>0.05, respectively). There were no statistically significant differences in the expression levels of Cox-2 and protein levels of IL-32 between the study groups. HTLV-1 PVL was higher in HAM/TSP patients compared with ACs.

Conclusion:

Results showed increased mRNA levels of IL-32 in ACs. Since HTLV-1 PVL in ACs is lower than in HAM/TSP patients, it could be concluded that IL-32 might be an HTLV-1 inhibitor that seems to control virus replication. Despite the difference in IL-32 mRNA levels between study groups, no statistically significant differences were observed in IL-32 serum levels. Also, there were no significant differences in COX-2 expression.

ASPP 092, a phenolic diarylheptanoid from Curcuma comosa suppresses experimentally-induced inflammatory ear edema in mice

Curcuma comosa Roxb., family Zingiberaceae, exhibits diverse biological activities. This study was aimed to investigate the anti-inflammatory potential of a major phenolic diarylheptanoid isolated from C. comosa, ASPP 092 [(3S)-1-(3,4-dihydroxy-phenyl)-7-phenyl-(6E)-6-hepten-3-ol] in an experimentally-induced inflammatory ear edema model in mice. Ear edema in the mice was induced by the topical application of irritant, ethyl phenylpropiolate (EPP). The topical application of ASPP 092 at the edema site was directed immediately after the EPP application. The edematous responses were assessed at different time points by measuring the thickness of each ear before and after the EPP application followed by histopathology analysis. The expressions of major inflammatory cytokines were analyzed by real-time RT-PCR followed by the immunohistochemistry analysis of cyclooxygenase (COX-2). The topical application of ASPP 092 effectively suppressed the EPP-induced edematous formation in the ear of mice. Histopathological analysis showed substantial improvements in epidermal hyperplasia and inflammatory cell infiltration. ASPP 092 treatment also modulated the expressions of inflammatory cytokines including Tumor Necrosis Factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin-6 (IL-6), interleukin-10 (IL-10), interleukin-1β (IL-1β), and Matrix metalloproteinase-13 (MMP-13). The expressions of cyclooxygenases (COX) including COX-1 and COX-2 were significantly reduced by ASPP 092 treatment. For the first time, our results suggest the efficacy of ASPP 092 to suppress experimentally-induced inflammation in a preclinical model in mice; however, a more detailed evaluation of its mechanism of action is necessary before evaluating its efficacy and safety in randomized trials.

The Adipokine Component in the Molecular Regulation of Cancer Cell Survival, Proliferation and Metastasis

A hormonal imbalance may disrupt the rigorously monitored cellular microenvironment by hampering the natural homeostatic mechanisms. The most common example of such hormonal glitch could be seen in obesity where the uprise in adipokine levels is in virtue of the expanding bulk of adipose tissue. Such aberrant endocrine signaling disrupts the regulation of cellular fate, rendering the cells to live in a tumor supportive microenvironment. Previously, it was believed that the adipokines support cancer proliferation and metastasis with no direct involvement in neoplastic transformations and tumorigenesis. However, the recent studies have reported discrete mechanisms that establish the direct involvement of adipokine signaling in tumorigenesis. Moreover, the individual adipokine profile of the patients has never been considered in the prognosis and staging of the disease. Hence, the present manuscript has focused on the reported extensive mechanisms that culminate the basis of poor prognosis and diminished survival rate in obese cancer patients.

Targeting Host Cellular Factors as a Strategy of Therapeutic Intervention for Herpesvirus Infections

Herpesviruses utilize various host factors to establish latent infection, survival, and spread disease in the host. These factors include host cellular machinery, host proteins, gene expression, multiple transcription factors, cellular signal pathways, immune cell activation, transcription factors, cytokines, angiogenesis, invasion, and factors promoting metastasis. The knowledge and understanding of host genes, protein products, and biochemical pathways lead to discovering safe and effective antivirals to prevent viral reactivation and spread infection. Here, we focus on the contribution of pro-inflammatory, anti-inflammatory, and resolution lipid metabolites of the arachidonic acid (AA) pathway in the lifecycle of herpesvirus infections. We discuss how various herpesviruses utilize these lipid pathways to their advantage and how we target them to combat herpesvirus infection. We also summarize recent development in anti-herpesvirus therapeutics and new strategies proposed or under clinical trials. These anti-herpesvirus therapeutics include inhibitors blocking viral life cycle events, engineered anticancer agents, epigenome influencing factors, immunomodulators, and therapeutic compounds from natural extracts.

Investigating the anti-inflammatory effects of high molecular weight secretions from Limosilactobacillus reuteri PTCC 1655 on LPS-stimulated PMA-differentiated THP-1 cells

AIMS

This study was done to investigate the anti-inflammatory effects of high molecular weight secretions from Limosilactobacillus reuteri PTCC 1655 probiotic bacteria on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA)-differentiated THP-1 cells.

METHODS AND RESULTS

After culturing the bacterium, the crude cell-free supernatant was fractionated on the basis of molecular weights using ultrafiltration. Also, a heat-killed and sonicated fraction was obtained from the biomass of the bacterial culture. All fractions were used to measure their anti-inflammatory effects on PMA-differentiated THP-1 cells following LPS stimulation by quantifying various cellular markers of inflammation. The results demonstrated that various L. reuteri PTCC 1655-derived fractions, especially the >100 kDa supernatant fraction decreased some of the inflammatory cytokines and mediators, including tumour necrosis factor-α, interleukin-1, nitric oxide, cyclooxygenase-2, matrix metalloproteinase-9 and interleukin-6, which are critical for the pathogenesis of some inflammatory diseases.

CONCLUSION

It is concluded that the L. reuteri PTCC 1655-derived high molecular weight fractions significantly reduce inflammation and therefore could be appropriate candidates for future medical studies.

SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY

Providing new insights about the significance of L. reuteri PTCC 1655-derived extracts and their potential to modulate inflammation.

Probing the chemoprevention potential of the antidepressant fluoxetine combined with epigallocatechin gallate or kaempferol in rats with induced early stage colon carcinogenesis

The enhanced chemopreventive action against 1,2 Dimethylhydrazine (DMH)-induced preneoplastic lesion in rats could be achieved via simultaneous administration of the antidepressant fluoxetine (FLX) with two natural polyphenolic compounds viz., kaempferol (KMP) and/or epigallocatechin-gallate (EGCG). The obtained results revealed that single FLX pre-treatment possess a significant apoptotic effect by increasing the activity of serum and colon tissue caspase 3. It also attenuated the DMH driven increase in, colon tissue MDA, NO, PCNA and COX-2 expression as well as serum and colon tissue β-catenin, with a decrease in the multiplicity of ACF and number of MPLs. The combination of FLX with either KMP or EGCG improved the antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and antiproliferating activities but with higher apoptotic activity in case of KMP. Eventually, histopathological assessment of colon tissues exposed that while sole pre-treatment can improve DMH-induced hyperplasia with only moderate inflammatory infiltration, tissues from the combined pre-treatment regimens groups exhibited almost a normal colonic architecture with slight submucosal edema. The study proved that single FLX administration prior to DMH exerts a chemopreventive effect and that the investigated combined pre-treatment regimens demonstrated more potent chemopreventive and antiproliferative actions.

Korean Red Ginseng suppresses bisphenol A-induced expression of cyclooxygenase-2 and cellular migration of A549 human lung cancer cell through inhibition of reactive oxygen species

BACKGROUND

Korean Red Ginseng (KRG) is a natural product with antiinflammatory and anticarcinogenic effects. We have previously reported that the endocrine-disrupting compound bisphenol A (BPA)-induced cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) via nuclear translocation of nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) and activation of mitogen-activated protein kinase and promoted the migration of A549. Here, in this study, we assessed the protective effect of KRG on the BPA-induced reactive oxygen species (ROS) and expression of COX-2 and matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9) in A549 cells.

METHODS

The effects of KRG on the upregulation of ROS production and COX-2 and MMP-9 expression by BPA were evaluated by fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACs) analysis, quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction, and western blotting. Antimigration ability by KRG was evaluated by migration assay in A549 cells.

RESULTS

KRG significantly suppressed the BPA-induced COX-2, the activity of NF-κB, the production of ROS, and the migration of A549 cells. These effects led to the downregulation of the expression of MMP-9.

CONCLUSIONS

Overall, our results suggest that KRG exerts an antiinflammatory effect on BPA-treated A549 cells via the suppression of ROS and downregulation of NF-κB activation and COX-2 expression which leads to a decrease in cellular migration and MMP-9 expression. These results provide a new possible therapeutic application of KRG to protect BPA-induced possible inflammatory disorders.