Insulin-Like Growth Factor-1 and Neuroinflammation

IGF-1 gene therapy prevents spatial memory deficits and modulates dopaminergic neurodegeneration and inflammation in a parkinsonism model

Cognitive impairment in Parkinson's disease is considered an indicator of the prodromal stages of this condition, occurring prior to the onset of classic and pathognomonic motor symptoms. Among other factors, neuroinflammation is increasingly recognized as a potential mediator of this neurodegenerative process, and glial cells are directly involved. However, the use of neurotrophic factors is associated with neuroprotection and cognitive improvements. Among all those factors, insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) has attracted considerable attention. In this study, we aimed to investigate the effect of IGF-1 gene therapy in an early animal model of 6-hydroxidopamine (6-OHDA)- induced parkinsonism. For this purpose, we employed male Wistar rats. The animals were first divided into two groups according to the bilateral injection into de Caudate Putamen unit (CPu):(a) VEH group (vehicle solution) and (b) 6-OHDA group (neurotoxic solution). After that, the animals in each group were divided, according to the bilateral injection into the dorsal hippocampus, in a control group (who received a control virus RAd-DSRed) and an experimental group (who received a therapeutic virus (RAd-IGF1). After three weeks of exposure to 6-OHDA, our study showed that IGF-1 gene therapy improved cognitive deficits related to short-term and spatial working memory, it also increased expression levels of tyrosine hydroxylase in the CPu. In addition, the therapy resulted in significant changes in several parameters (area, perimeter, roundness, ramification, and skeleton ́s analyses) related to microglia and astrocyte phenotypes, particularly in the CPu and dorsal hippocampal areas. Our data support the use of IGF-1 as a therapeutic molecule for future gene transfer interventions, that will contribute to a better understanding of the mechanisms correlating cognitive function and inflammatory process.

Local cannabinoid receptor type-1 regulates glial cell activity and insulin-like growth factor-1 receptor signaling in the mediobasal hypothalamus

As organisms age, the activity of the endocannabinoid system in the brain declines, coinciding with increased neuroinflammation and disrupted hypothalamic functions. Notably, cannabinoid receptors type-1 (CB1) are highly expressed in the ventromedial hypothalamic nucleus (VMH) within the mediobasal hypothalamus, a central area of neuroendocrine regulation. This study investigates whether the CB1 receptor influences age-related changes in a brain region-dependent manner. Therefore, we performed stereotaxic injections of rAAV1/2 expressing Cre recombinase in 2-month-old CB1flox/flox male animals to delete the CB1 gene and in CB1-deficient (CB1-STOP) mice to induce its re-expression. The intensity of pro-inflammatory glial activity, gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) and insulin-like growth factor-1 receptor (IGF-1R) expression was assessed in the hypothalamus of mice at 18-19 months of age. Site-specific CB1 receptor deletion induced pro-inflammatory glial activity and increased hypothalamic Igf1r mRNA expression. Unexpectedly, GnRH levels remained unaltered. Importantly, rescuing the receptor in null mutant animals had the opposite effect: it reduced pro-inflammatory glial activation and decreased Igf1r mRNA expression without affecting GnRH production. Overall, the study highlights the important role of the CB1 receptor in the VMH in reducing age-related inflammation and modulating IGF-1R signaling.

Astrocytes at the intersection of ageing, obesity, and neurodegeneration

Once considered passive cells of the central nervous system (CNS), glia are now known to actively maintain the CNS parenchyma; in recent years, the evidence for glial functions in CNS physiology and pathophysiology has only grown. Astrocytes, a heterogeneous group of glial cells, play key roles in regulating the metabolic and inflammatory landscape of the CNS and have emerged as potential therapeutic targets for a variety of disorders. This review will outline astrocyte functions in the CNS in healthy ageing, obesity, and neurodegeneration, with a focus on the inflammatory responses and mitochondrial function, and will address therapeutic outlooks.

Identifying transcriptomic profiles of iron-quercetin complex treated peripheral blood mononuclear cells from healthy volunteers and diabetic patients

Peripheral blood is an alternative source of stem/progenitor cells for regenerative medicine owing to its ease of retrieval and blood bank storage. Previous in vitro studies indicated that the conditioned medium derived from peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) treated with the iron-quercetin complex (IronQ) contains potent angiogenesis and wound-healing properties. This study aims to unveil the intricate regulatory mechanisms governing the effects of IronQ on the transcriptome profiles of human PBMCs from healthy volunteers and those with diabetes mellitus (DM) using RNA sequencing analysis. Our findings revealed 3741 and 2204 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) when treating healthy and DM PBMCs with IronQ, respectively. Functional enrichment analyses underscored the biological processes shared by the DEGs in both conditions, including inflammatory responses, cell migration, cellular stress responses, and angiogenesis. A comprehensive exploration of these molecular alterations exposed a network of 20 hub genes essential in response to stimuli, cell migration, immune processes, and the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway. The activation of these pathways enabled PBMCs to potentiate angiogenesis and tissue repair. Corroborating this, quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) and cell phenotyping confirmed the upregulation of candidate genes associated with anti-inflammatory, pro-angiogenesis, and tissue repair processes in IronQ-treated PBMCs. In summary, combining IronQ and PBMCs brings about substantial shifts in gene expression profiles and activates pathways that are crucial for tissue repair and immune response, which is promising for the enhancement of the therapeutic potential of PBMCs, especially in diabetic wound healing.

Causal relationship between circulating insulin-like growth factor-1 and Parkinson's disease: a two-sample Mendelian randomization study

Background

Linear associations between circulating insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) levels and Parkinson's disease (PD) have been evidenced in observational studies. Yet, the causal relationship between IGF-1 levels and PD remains obscure. We conducted Mendelian randomization to examine the correlation between genetically predicted IGF-1 levels and PD.

Methods

By reviewing genome-wide association studies (GWAS) that are publicly accessible, we uncovered SNPs linked to both serum concentrations of IGF-1 and PD. A two-sample Mendelian randomization (MR) analysis was carried out to evaluate the individual effect of IGF-1 on PD.

Results

In a primary causal effects model in MR analysis, employing the inverse-variance weighted (IVW) method, IGF-1 levels exhibited a notable association with the risk of PD (OR, 1.020, 95% CI, 1.003-1.038, p = 0.0215). Multiple evaluations revealed that horizontal pleiotropy was improbable to distort the main results (MR-Egger: P PD intercept =0.719), and no bias was detected by leave-one-out analysis.

Conclusion

This study unearthed evidence indicating that heightened IGF-1 levels might be causally correlated with an increased risk of PD.

'Unpredictable chronic mild stress does not exacerbate memory impairment or altered neuronal and glial plasticity in the hippocampus of middle-aged vitamin D deficient mice'

Vitamin D deficiency is a worldwide health concern, especially in the elderly population. Much remains unknown about the relationship between vitamin D deficiency (VDD), stress-induced cognitive dysfunctions and depressive-like behaviour. In this study, 4-month-old male C57Bl/6J mice were fed with control or vitamin D free diet for 6 months, followed by unpredictable chronic stress (UCMS) for 8 weeks. VDD induced cognitive impairment and reduced grooming behaviour, but did not induce depressive-like behaviour. While UCMS in vitamin D sufficient mice induced expected depressive-like phenotype and impairments in the contextual fear memory, chronic stress did not manifest as an additional risk factor for memory impairments and depressive-like behaviour in VDD mice. In fact, UCMS restored self-care behaviour in VDD mice. At the histopathological level, VDD mice exhibited cell loss in the granule cell layer, reduced survival of newly generated cells, accompanied with an increased number of apoptotic cells and alterations in glial morphology in the hippocampus; however, these effects were not exacerbated by UCMS. Interestingly, UCMS reversed VDD induced loss of microglial cells. Moreover, tyrosine hydroxylase levels decreased in the striatum of VDD mice, but not in stressed VDD mice. These findings indicate that long-term VDD in adulthood impairs cognition but does not augment behavioural response to UCMS in middle-aged mice. While VDD caused cell loss and altered glial response in the DG of the hippocampus, these effects were not exacerbated by UCMS and could contribute to mechanisms regulating altered stress response.

Insulin-like growth factor-1 and cognition in normoglycemia, prediabetes, and type 2 diabetes mellitus

BACKGROUND

The relationship between insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) and cognition has been studied in healthy individuals, but not extensively with regards to insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). In this retrospective observational study, we investigated relationships of IGF-1 with memory and executive function across people with normoglycemia, prediabetes, and T2DM.

METHODS

Data from the Midlife in the United States (MIDUS) study were used. Episodic memory and executive function were assessed using the Brief Test of Adult Cognition by Telephone approximately 21.42 ± 12.10 months prior to measuring IGF-1 levels from a fasting blood sample. Normoglycemia was identified as individuals without a physician diagnosis of diabetes and glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c) ≤5.6%. Prediabetes was identified as those without a physician diagnosis of diabetes and HbA1c between 5.7%-6.4%. T2DM was identified as anyone with a physician diagnosis of diabetes, or HbA1c ≥6.5%, or anyone using an oral hypoglycemic medication. The associations were assessed using linear regressions controlling for age, sex, education, body mass index, C-reactive protein, HbA1c or homeostatic model of insulin resistance, MIDUS wave, exercise, smoking status, sleep quality, alcohol intake, oral hypoglycemic use, and insulin use.

RESULTS

The study included 1400 participants, which consisted of 583 normoglycemic (48.4% female, mean age 51.0 ± 12.2 years), 512 prediabetes (58.4% female, mean age 57.3 ± 11.8 years), and 305 T2DM participants (53.8% female, mean age 57.6 ± 11.5 years). Peripheral IGF-1 concentrations were lower (F2,1397 = 28.29, p < 0.001) in people with prediabetes or T2DM, vs. normoglycemia. Participants with prediabetes or T2DM had lower episodic memory (F2,1397 = 9.21, p < 0.001) and executive function (F2,1397 = 20.29, p < 0.001) composite z-scores than people with normoglycemia. Higher IGF-1 concentrations were associated with better executive performance in individuals with prediabetes (β = 0.115 [0.028, 0.202], p = 0.010), but not in individuals with normoglycemia or T2DM. An interaction between IGF-1 and sex in predicting executive function was observed in the prediabetes group (β = -0.344, p = 0.042), where the relationship was weaker in females (β = 0.106 [-0.012, 0.224], p = 0.077) than males (β = 0.251 [0.123, 0.380], p < 0.001). No associations were seen between IGF-1 and memory.

CONCLUSION

The results suggest that peripheral IGF-1 concentrations may be related to executive function, and that the relationship may be sex-specific and dependent on diabetes status.

Arsenic-induced IGF-1 signaling impairment and neurite shortening: The protective roles of IGF-1 through the PI3K/Akt axis

We recently reported that arsenic caused insulin resistance in differentiated human neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cells. Herein, we further investigated the effects of sodium arsenite on IGF-1 signaling, which shares downstream signaling with insulin. A time-course experiment revealed that sodium arsenite began to decrease IGF-1-stimulated Akt phosphorylation on Day 3 after treatment, indicating that prolonged sodium arsenite treatment disrupted the neuronal IGF-1 response. Additionally, sodium arsenite decreased IGF-1-stimulated tyrosine phosphorylation of the IGF-1 receptor β (IGF-1Rβ) and its downstream target, insulin receptor substrate 1 (IRS1). These results suggested that sodium arsenite impaired the intrinsic tyrosine kinase activity of IGF-1Rβ, ultimately resulting in a reduction in tyrosine-phosphorylated IRS1. Sodium arsenite also reduced IGF-1 stimulated tyrosine phosphorylation of insulin receptor β (IRβ), indicating the potential inhibition of IGF-1R/IR crosstalk by sodium arsenite. Interestingly, sodium arsenite also induced neurite shortening at the same concentrations that caused IGF-1 signaling impairment. A 24-h IGF-1 treatment partially rescued neurite shortening caused by sodium arsenite. Moreover, the reduction in Akt phosphorylation by sodium arsenite was attenuated by IGF-1. Inhibition of PI3K/Akt by LY294002 diminished the protective effects of IGF-1 against sodium arsenite-induced neurite retraction. Together, our findings suggested that sodium arsenite-impaired IGF-1 signaling, leading to neurite shortening through IGF-1/PI3K/Akt.

Plasma proteomic analysis on neuropathic pain in idiopathic peripheral neuropathy patients

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Why only half of the idiopathic peripheral neuropathy (IPN) patients develop neuropathic pain remains unknown. By conducting a proteomics analysis on IPN patients, we aimed to discover proteins and new pathways that are associated with neuropathic pain.

METHODS

We conducted unbiased mass-spectrometry proteomics analysis on blood plasma from 31 IPN patients with severe neuropathic pain and 29 IPN patients with no pain, to investigate protein biomarkers and protein-protein interactions associated with neuropathic pain. Univariate modeling was done with linear mixed modeling (LMM) and corrected for multiple testing. Multivariate modeling was performed using elastic net analysis and validated with internal cross-validation and bootstrapping.

RESULTS

In the univariate analysis, 73 proteins showed a p-value <.05 and 12 proteins showed a p-value <.01. None were significant after Benjamini-Hochberg adjustment for multiple testing. Elastic net analysis created a model containing 12 proteins with reasonable discriminatory power to differentiate between painful and painless IPN (false-negative rate 0.10, false-positive rate 0.18, and an area under the curve 0.75). Eight of these 12 proteins were clustered into one interaction network, significantly enriched for the complement and coagulation pathway (Benjamini-Hochberg adjusted p-value = .0057), with complement component 3 (C3) as the central node. Bootstrap validation identified insulin-like growth factor-binding protein 2 (IGFBP2), complement factor H-related protein 4 (CFHR4), and ferritin light chain (FTL), as the most discriminatory proteins of the original 12 identified.

INTERPRETATION

This proteomics analysis suggests a role for the complement system in neuropathic pain in IPN.

α-Synuclein oligomers potentiate neuroinflammatory NF-κB activity and induce Cav3.2 calcium signaling in astrocytes

BACKGROUND

It is now realized that Parkinson's disease (PD) pathology extends beyond the substantia nigra, affecting both central and peripheral nervous systems, and exhibits a variety of non-motor symptoms often preceding motor features. Neuroinflammation induced by activated microglia and astrocytes is thought to underlie these manifestations. α-Synuclein aggregation has been linked with sustained neuroinflammation in PD, aggravating neuronal degeneration; however, there is still a lack of critical information about the structural identity of the α-synuclein conformers that activate microglia and/or astrocytes and the molecular pathways involved.

METHODS

To investigate the role of α-synuclein conformers in the development and maintenance of neuroinflammation, we used primary quiescent microglia and astrocytes, post-mortem brain tissues from PD patients and A53T α-synuclein transgenic mice that recapitulate key features of PD-related inflammatory responses in the absence of cell death, i.e., increased levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines and complement proteins. Biochemical and -omics techniques including RNAseq and secretomic analyses, combined with 3D reconstruction of individual astrocytes and live calcium imaging, were used to uncover the molecular mechanisms underlying glial responses in the presence of α-synuclein oligomers in vivo and in vitro.

RESULTS

We found that the presence of SDS-resistant hyper-phosphorylated α-synuclein oligomers, but not monomers, was correlated with sustained inflammatory responses, such as elevated levels of endogenous antibodies and cytokines and microglial activation. Similar oligomeric α-synuclein species were found in post-mortem human brain samples of PD patients but not control individuals. Detailed analysis revealed a decrease in Iba1Low/CD68Low microglia and robust alterations in astrocyte number and morphology including process retraction. Our data indicated an activation of the p38/ATF2 signaling pathway mostly in microglia and a sustained induction of the NF-κB pathway in astrocytes of A53T mice. The sustained NF-κB activity triggered the upregulation of astrocytic T-type Cav3.2 Ca2+ channels, altering the astrocytic secretome and promoting the secretion of IGFBPL1, an IGF-1 binding protein with anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective potential.

CONCLUSIONS

Our work supports a causative link between the neuron-produced α-synuclein oligomers and sustained neuroinflammation in vivo and maps the signaling pathways that are stimulated in microglia and astrocytes. It also highlights the recruitment of astrocytic Cav3.2 channels as a potential neuroprotective mediator against the α-synuclein-induced neuroinflammation.

IGF1R deficiency in vascular smooth muscle cells impairs myogenic autoregulation and cognition in mice

Introduction

Cerebrovascular pathologies contribute to cognitive decline during aging, leading to vascular cognitive impairment and dementia (VCID). Levels of circulating insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1), a vasoprotective hormone, decrease during aging. Decreased circulating IGF-1 in animal models leads to the development of VCID-like symptoms, but the cellular mechanisms underlying IGF-1-deficiency associated pathologies in the aged cerebrovasculature remain poorly understood. Here, we test the hypothesis that vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) play an integral part in mediating the vasoprotective effects of IGF-1.

Methods

We used a hypertension-based model of cerebrovascular dysfunction in mice with VSMC-specific IGF-1 receptor (Igf1r) deficiency and evaluated the development of cerebrovascular pathologies and cognitive dysfunction.

Results

VSMC-specific Igf1r deficiency led to impaired cerebral myogenic autoregulation, independent of blood pressure changes, which was also associated with impaired spatial learning and memory function as measured by radial arm water maze and impaired motor learning measured by rotarod. In contrast, VSMC-specific IGF-1 receptor knockdown did not lead to cerebral microvascular rarefaction.

Discussion

These studies suggest that VSMCs are key targets for IGF-1 in the context of cerebrovascular health, playing a role in vessel stability alongside other cells in the neurovascular unit, and that VSMC dysfunction in aging likely contributes to VCID.

Endothelial deficiency of insulin-like growth factor-1 receptor leads to blood-brain barrier disruption and accelerated endothelial senescence in mice, mimicking aspects of the brain aging phenotype

INTRODUCTION

Age-related blood-brain barrier (BBB) disruption, cerebromicrovascular senescence, and microvascular rarefaction substantially contribute to the pathogenesis of vascular cognitive impairment (VCI) and Alzheimer's disease (AD). Previous studies established a causal link between age-related decline in circulating levels of insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1), cerebromicrovascular dysfunction, and cognitive decline. The aim of our study was to determine the effect of IGF-1 signaling on senescence, BBB permeability, and vascular density in middle-age and old brains.

METHODS

Accelerated endothelial senescence was assessed in senescence reporter mice (VE-Cadherin-CreERT2 /Igf1rfl/fl × p16-3MR) using flow cytometry. To determine the functional consequences of impaired IGF-1 input to cerebromicrovascular endothelial cells, BBB integrity and capillary density were studied in mice with endothelium-specific knockout of IGF1R (VE-Cadherin-CreERT2 /Igf1rfl/fl ) using intravital two-photon microscopy.

RESULTS

In VE-Cadherin-CreERT2 /Igf1rfl/fl mice: (1) there was an increased presence of senescent endothelial cells; (2) cumulative permeability of the microvessels to fluorescent tracers of different molecular weights (0.3-40 kDa) is significantly increased, as compared to that of control mice, whereas decline in cortical capillary density does not reach statistical significance.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings support the notion that IGF-1 signaling plays a crucial role in preserving a youthful cerebromicrovascular endothelial phenotype and maintaining the integrity of the BBB.

Oral administration of ellagic acid mitigates perioperative neurocognitive disorders, hippocampal oxidative stress, and neuroinflammation in aged mice by restoring IGF-1 signaling

This study investigates the potential of ellagic acid (EA), a phytochemical with antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties, in managing perioperative neurocognitive disorders (PND). PND, which represents a spectrum of cognitive impairments often faced by elderly patients, is principally linked to surgical and anesthesia procedures, and heavily impacted by oxidative stress in the hippocampus and microglia-induced neuroinflammation. Employing an aged mice model subjected to abdominal surgery, we delve into EA's ability to counteract postoperative oxidative stress and cerebral inflammation by engaging the Insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) pathway. Our findings revealed that administering EA orally notably alleviated post-surgical cognitive decline in older mice, a fact that was manifested in improved performance during maze tests. This enhancement in the behavioral performance of the EA-treated mice corresponded with the rejuvenation of IGF-1 signaling, a decrease in oxidative stress markers in the hippocampus (like MDA and carbonylated protein), and an increase in the activity of antioxidant enzymes such as SOD and CAT. Alongside these, we observed a decrease in microglia-driven neuroinflammation in the hippocampus, thus underscoring the antioxidant and anti-inflammatory roles of EA. Interestingly, when EA was given in conjunction with an IGF1R inhibitor, these benefits were annulled, accentuating the pivotal role that the IGF-1 pathway plays in the neuroprotective potential of EA. Hence, EA could serve as a potent candidate for safeguarding against PND in older patients by curbing oxidative stress and neuroinflammation through the activation of the IGF-1 pathway.

Virus-induced brain pathology and the neuroinflammation-inflammation continuum: the neurochemists view

Fascinatingly, an abundance of recent studies has subscribed to the importance of cytotoxic immune mechanisms that appear to increase the risk/trigger for many progressive neurodegenerative disorders, including Parkinson's disease (PD), Alzheimer's disease (AD), amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, and multiple sclerosis. Events associated with the neuroinflammatory cascades, such as ageing, immunologic dysfunction, and eventually disruption of the blood-brain barrier and the "cytokine storm", appear to be orchestrated mainly through the activation of microglial cells and communication with the neurons. The inflammatory processes prompt cellular protein dyshomeostasis. Parkinson's and Alzheimer's disease share a common feature marked by characteristic pathological hallmarks of abnormal neuronal protein accumulation. These Lewy bodies contain misfolded α-synuclein aggregates in PD or in the case of AD, they are Aβ deposits and tau-containing neurofibrillary tangles. Subsequently, these abnormal protein aggregates further elicit neurotoxic processes and events which contribute to the onset of neurodegeneration and to its progression including aggravation of neuroinflammation. However, there is a caveat for exclusively linking neuroinflammation with neurodegeneration, since it's highly unlikely that immune dysregulation is the only factor that contributes to the manifestation of many of these neurodegenerative disorders. It is unquestionably a complex interaction with other factors such as genetics, age, and environment. This endorses the "multiple hit hypothesis". Consequently, if the host has a genetic susceptibility coupled to an age-related weakened immune system, this makes them more susceptible to the virus/bacteria-related infection. This may trigger the onset of chronic cytotoxic neuroinflammatory processes leading to protein dyshomeostasis and accumulation, and finally, these events lead to neuronal destruction. Here, we differentiate "neuroinflammation" and "inflammation" with regard to the involvement of the blood-brain barrier, which seems to be intact in the case of neuroinflammation but defect in the case of inflammation. There is a neuroinflammation-inflammation continuum with regard to virus-induced brain affection. Therefore, we propose a staging of this process, which might be further developed by adding blood- and CSF parameters, their stage-dependent composition and stage-dependent severeness grade. If so, this might be suitable to optimise therapeutic strategies to fight brain neuroinflammation in its beginning and avoid inflammation at all.

Neuroinflammaging: A Tight Line Between Normal Aging and Age-Related Neurodegenerative Disorders

Aging in the healthy brain is characterized by a low-grade, chronic, and sterile inflammatory process known as neuroinflammaging. This condition, mainly consisting in an up-regulation of the inflammatory response at the brain level, contributes to the pathogenesis of age-related neurodegenerative disorders. Development of this proinflammatory state involves the interaction between genetic and environmental factors, able to induce age-related epigenetic modifications. Indeed, the exposure to environmental compounds, drugs, and infections, can contribute to epigenetic modifications of DNA methylome, histone fold proteins, and nucleosome positioning, leading to epigenetic modulation of neuroinflammatory responses. Furthermore, some epigenetic modifiers, which combine and interact during the life course, can contribute to modeling of epigenome dynamics to sustain, or dampen the neuroinflammatory phenotype. The aim of this review is to summarize current knowledge about neuroinflammaging with a particular focus on epigenetic mechanisms underlying the onset and progression of neuroinflammatory cascades in the central nervous system; furthermore, we describe some diagnostic biomarkers that may contribute to increase diagnostic accuracy and help tailor therapeutic strategies in patients with neurodegenerative diseases.

Characterisation of Matrix-Bound Nanovesicles (MBVs) Isolated from Decellularised Bovine Pericardium: New Frontiers in Regenerative Medicine

Matrix-bound nanovesicles (MBVs) are a recently discovered type of extracellular vesicles (EVs), and they are characterised by a strong adhesion to extracellular matrix structural proteins (ECM) and ECM-derived biomaterials. MBVs contain a highly bioactive and tissue-specific cargo that recapitulates the biological activity of the source ECM. The rich content of MBVs has shown to be capable of potent cell signalling and of modulating the immune system, thus the raising interest for their application in regenerative medicine. Given the tissue-specificity and the youthfulness of research on MBVs, until now they have only been isolated from a few ECM sources. Therefore, the objective of this research was to isolate and identify the presence of MBVs in decellularised bovine pericardium ECM and to characterise their protein content, which is expected to play a major role in their biological potential. The results showed that nanovesicles, corresponding to the definition of recently described MBVs, could be isolated from decellularised bovine pericardium ECM. Moreover, these MBVs were composed of numerous proteins and cytokines, thus preserving a highly potential biological effect. Overall, this research shows that bovine pericardium MBVs show a rich and tissue-specific biological potential.

Comprehensive Sex-Stratified Genetic Analysis of 28 Blood Biomarkers and Depression Reveals a Significant Association between Depression and Low Levels of Total Protein in Females

Introduction

Major depression (MD) is more common amongst women than men, and MD episodes have been associated with fluctuations in reproductive hormones amongst women. To investigate biological underpinnings of heterogeneity in MD, the associations between depression, stratified by sex and including perinatal depression (PND), and blood biomarkers, using UK Biobank (UKB) data, were evaluated, and extended to include the association of depression with biomarker polygenic scores (PGS), generated as proxy for each biomarker.

Method

Using female (N = 39,761) and male (N = 38,821) UKB participants, lifetime MD and PND were tested for association with 28 blood biomarkers. A GWAS was conducted for each biomarker and genetic correlations with depression subgroups were estimated. Using independent data from the Australian Genetics of Depression Study, PGS were constructed for each biomarker, and tested for association with depression status (n [female cases/controls] = 9,006/6,442; n [male cases/controls] = 3,106/6,222). Regions of significant local genetic correlation between depression subgroups and biomarkers highlighted by the PGS analysis were identified.

Results

Depression in females was significantly associated with levels of twelve biomarkers, including total protein (OR = 0.90, CI = [0.86, 0.94], p = 3.9 × 10-6) and vitamin D (OR = 0.94, CI = [0.90, 0.97], p = 2.6 × 10-4), and PND with five biomarker levels, also including total protein (OR = 0.88, CI = [0.81, 0.96], p = 4.7 × 10-3). Depression in males was significantly associated with levels of eleven biomarkers. In the independent Australian Genetics of Depression Study, PGS analysis found significant associations for female depression and PND with total protein (female depression: OR = 0.93, CI = [0.88, 0.98], p = 3.6 × 10-3; PND: OR = 0.91, CI = [0.86, 0.96], p = 1.1 × 10-3), as well as with vitamin D (female depression: OR = 0.93, CI = [0.89, 0.97], p = 2.0 × 10-3; PND: OR = 0.92, CI = [0.87, 0.97], p = 1.4 × 10-3). The male depression sample did not report any significant results, and the point estimate of total protein (OR = 0.98, CI = [0.92-1.04], p = 4.7 × 10-1) did not indicate any association. Local genetic correlation analysis highlighted significant genetic correlation between PND and total protein, located in 5q13.3 (rG = 0.68, CI = [0.33, 1.0], p = 3.6 × 10-4).

Discussion and Conclusion

Multiple lines of evidence from genetic analysis highlight an association between total serum protein levels and depression in females. Further research involving prospective measurement of total protein and depressive symptoms is warranted.

Protective effects of the saltinduced kinase inhibitor HG99101 on sepsisassociated cognitive dysfunction in mice and the underlying mechanisms

OBJECTIVES

Sepsis-associated cognitive dysfunction is a common complication in patients with sepsis and lack of effective treatment. Its pathological mechanisms remain unclear. Salt-induced kinase (SIK) is an important molecule in the regulation of metabolism, immunity, and inflammatory response. It is associated with the development of many neurological diseases. This study aims to investigate the expression of SIK in the hippocampus of septic mice, and to evaluate the role and mechanism of the SIK inhibitor HG-9-91-01 in sepsis-associated cognitive dysfunction.

METHODS

Firstly, C57BL/6 mice were randomly divided into a control group (Con group) and a sepsis model group [lipopolysaccharide (LPS) group]. The model group was injected intraperitoneally with LPS at a dose of 8 mg/kg and the Con group was injected with an equal volume of normal saline. Hippocampal tissues were harvested at 1, 3, and 6 days after injection and the expressions of SIK1, SIK2, and SIK3 were detected by real-time fluorescence quantitative PCR (qPCR) and Western blotting. Secondly, C57BL/6 mice were randomly divided into a Con group, a LPS group, and a SIK inhibitor group (HG group). The LPS and HG groups were injected with LPS to establish a sepsis model; in the HG group, HG-9-91-01 (10 mg/kg) was injected intraperitoneally at 3-6 days after LPS injection, and the LPS group was injected with the same volume of vehicle. Cognitive function was assessed at 7-11 days after LPS injection using the Morris water maze (MWM). Hippocampal tissues were harvested after the behavioral tests, and the mRNA levels of inflammatory factors and microglial markers were assessed by qPCR. The protein levels of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), CD68, ionized calcium binding adaptor molecule 1 (Iba-1), N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor (NR) subunit, cAMP response element-binding protein (CREB)-regulated transcription coactivator 1 (CRTC1), and insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) were detected by Western blotting. Immunohistochemistry (IHC) was used to detect the expression of Iba-1 positive cells in the CA1, CA3 and dentate gyrus (DG) of the hippocampus, followed by Sholl analysis.

RESULTS

Compared with the Con group, the mRNA and protein levels of SIK1, SIK2, and SIK3 in the hippocampus were increased in the LPS group (all P<0.05). Compared with the Con group, mice in the LPS group had a significantly longer escape latency, a lower percentage of target quadrant dwell time and a reduced locomotor speed (all P<0.05); the HG group had a decreased escape latency and an increased percentage of time spent in the target quadrant in comparison with the LPS group (both P<0.05). The mRNA levels of inflammatory factors [tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin-1β (IL-1β), interleukin-6 (IL-6)], and the M1-type microglial markers iNOS and CD68 in the hippocampus of the LPS group were increased in comparison with the Con group, while the M2-type microglial markers CD206 and arginase-1 (Arg-1) were decreased. Compared with the LPS group, the mRNA levels of TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, and iNOS were downregulated, while the levels of CD206 and Arg-1 were upregulated in the HG group (all P<0.05). The protein levels of iNOS, CD68, and Iba-1 in the hippocampus of the LPS group were increased in comparison with the Con group, but they were downregulated in the HG group in comparison with the LPS group (all P<0.05). The number of Iba-1 positive cells in CA1, CA3, and DG of the hippocampus was increased in the LPS group in comparison with the Con group, but they were decreased in the HG group in comparison with the LPS group (all P<0.05). Sholl analysis showed that the number of intersections at all radii between 8-38 µm from the microglial soma was decreased in the LPS group in comparison with the Con group (all P<0.05). Compared with the LPS group, the number of intersections at all radii between 14-20 µm was significantly increased in the HG group (all P<0.05). The protein levels of NR subunit NR1, NR2A, NR2B, and IGF-1 were downregulated in the hippocampus of the LPS group in comparison with the Con group, while the expression of phosphorylated CRTC1 (p-CRTC1) was increased. Compared with the LPS group, the levels of NR1, NR2A, NR2B, and IGF-1 were upregulated, while p-CRTC1 was downregulated in the HG group (all P<0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

SIK expression is upregulated in the hippocampus of septic mice. The SIK inhibitor HG-9-91-01 ameliorates sepsis-associated cognitive dysfunction in mice, and the mechanism may involve in the activation of the CRTC1/IGF-1 pathway, inhibition of neuroinflammation, and enhancement of synaptic plasticity.

Possible genetic cross-talk between Down syndrome and obstructive sleep apnea revealed by transcriptomic analysis

PURPOSE

Down syndrome (DS) is linked to a higher prevalence of obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) than in the general population, which in turn contributes to worse cognitive impairment in DS. However, the shared pathogenic mechanisms for DS and OSA remain incompletely illustrated. This study was designed to decipher the genetic cross-talk between DS and OSA by bioinformatics approach.

METHODS

Transcriptomic datasets of DS (GSE59630) and OSA (GSE135917) were accessed from the Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) repository. After screening out the common differentially expressed genes (DEGs) for DS and OSA, gene ontology (GO) functional enrichment analysis and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway analysis were carried out. A protein-protein interaction (PPI) network was then constructed to determine essential modules and hub genes. Finally, based on hub genes, transcriptional factor (TF)-gene interaction and TF-miRNA regulatory networks were constructed.

RESULTS

DS and OSA showed 229 DEGs. Functional analyses revealed how oxidative stress and inflammatory response were critical in the progression of DS and OSA. Ten significant hub genes were identified, including TLR4, SOD1, IGF1, FGF2, NFE2L2, PECAM1, S100A8, S100A9, FCGR3A, and KCNA1, which were candidate targets for DS and OSA.

CONCLUSIONS

We found that DS and OSA display similarities in their pathogenesis. Key genes and signaling pathways revealed to be in common between the two conditions could lead us to new therapeutic targets for DS and OSA.

Harnessing IGF-1 and IL-2 as biomarkers for calcineurin activity to tailor optimal FK506 dosage in α-synucleinopathies

Introduction: Rise in Calcium (Ca2+) and hyperactive Ca2+-dependent phosphatase calcineurin represent two key determinants of a-synuclein (a-syn) pathobiology implicated in Parkinson's Disease (PD) and other neurodegenerative diseases. Calcineurin activity can be inhibited with FK506, a Food and Drug Administration (FDA)-approved compound. Our previous work demonstrated a protective effect of low doses of FK506 against a-syn pathology in various models of a-syn related pathobiology. Methods: Control and a-syn-expressing mice (12-18 months old) were injected with vehicle or two single doses of FK506 administered 4 days apart. Cerebral cortex and serum from these mice were collected and assayed using a meso scale discovery quickplex SQ 120 for cytokines and Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for IGF-1. Results: In this study we present evidence that reducing calcineurin activity with FK506 in a-syn transgenic mice increased insulin growth factor (IGF-1), while simultaneously decreasing IL-2 levels in both cerebral cortex and serum. Discussion: The highly conserved Ca2+/calcineurin signaling pathway is known to be affected in a-syn-dependent human disease. FK506, an already approved drug for other uses, exhibits high brain penetrance and a proven safety profile. IL-2 and IGF-1 are produced throughout life and can be measured using standard clinical methods. Our findings provide two potential biomarkers that could guide a clinical trial of FK506 in PD patients, without posing significant logistical or regulatory challenges.

The Role of Insulin-like Growth Factor I in Mechanisms of Resilience and Vulnerability to Sporadic Alzheimer's Disease

Despite decades of intense research, disease-modifying therapeutic approaches for Alzheimer's disease (AD) are still very much needed. Apart from the extensively analyzed tau and amyloid pathological cascades, two promising avenues of research that may eventually identify new druggable targets for AD are based on a better understanding of the mechanisms of resilience and vulnerability to this condition. We argue that insulin-like growth factor I (IGF-I) activity in the brain provides a common substrate for the mechanisms of resilience and vulnerability to AD. We postulate that preserved brain IGF-I activity contributes to resilience to AD pathology as this growth factor intervenes in all the major pathological cascades considered to be involved in AD, including metabolic impairment, altered proteostasis, and inflammation, to name the three that are considered to be the most important ones. Conversely, disturbed IGF-I activity is found in many AD risk factors, such as old age, type 2 diabetes, imbalanced diet, sedentary life, sociality, stroke, stress, and low education, whereas the Apolipoprotein (Apo) E4 genotype and traumatic brain injury may also be influenced by brain IGF-I activity. Accordingly, IGF-I activity should be taken into consideration when analyzing these processes, while its preservation will predictably help prevent the progress of AD pathology. Thus, we need to define IGF-I activity in all these conditions and develop a means to preserve it. However, defining brain IGF-I activity cannot be solely based on humoral or tissue levels of this neurotrophic factor, and new functionally based assessments need to be developed.

In Vivo Treatment with Insulin-like Growth Factor 1 Reduces CCR5 Expression on Vaccine-Induced Activated CD4+ T-Cells

At the heart of the DNA/ALVAC/gp120/alum vaccine's efficacy in the absence of neutralizing antibodies is a delicate balance of pro- and anti-inflammatory immune responses that effectively decreases the risk of SIVmac251 acquisition in macaques. Vaccine efficacy is linked to antibodies recognizing the V2 helical conformation, DC-10 tolerogenic dendritic cells eliciting the clearance of apoptotic cells via efferocytosis, and CCR5 downregulation on vaccine-induced gut homing CD4+ cells. RAS activation is also linked to vaccine efficacy, which prompted the testing of IGF-1, a potent inducer of RAS activation with vaccination. We found that IGF-1 changed the hierarchy of V1/V2 epitope recognition and decreased both ADCC specific for helical V2 and efferocytosis. Remarkably, IGF-1 also reduced the expression of CCR5 on vaccine-induced CD4+ gut-homing T-cells, compensating for its negative effect on ADCC and efferocytosis and resulting in equivalent vaccine efficacy (71% with IGF-1 and 69% without).

Cav3.2 T-Type calcium channels downregulation attenuates bone cancer pain induced by inhibiting IGF-1/HIF-1α signaling pathway in the rat spinal cord

Background

Bone cancer pain (BCP) is one of the most ubiquitous and refractory symptoms of cancer patients that needs to be urgently addressed. Substantial studies have revealed the pivotal role of Cav3.2 T-type calcium channels in chronic pain, however, its involvement in BCP and the specific molecular mechanism have not been fully elucidated.

Methods

The expression levels of Cav3.2, insulin-like growth factor 1(IGF-1), IGF-1 receptor (IGF-1R) and hypoxia-inducible factor-1α (HIF-1α) were detected by Western blot in tissues and cells. X-ray and Micro CT used to detect bone destruction in rats. Immunofluorescence was used to detect protein expression and spatial location in the spinal dorsal horn. Electrophoretic mobility shift assay used to verify the interaction between HIF-1α and Cav3.2.

Results

The results showed that the expression of Cav3.2 channel was upregulated and blockade of this channel alleviated mechanical allodynia and thermal hyperalgesia in BCP rats. Additionally, inhibition of IGF-1/IGF-1R signaling not only reversed the BCP-induced upregulation of Cav3.2 and HIF-1α, but also decreased nociceptive hypersensitivity in BCP rats. Inhibition of IGF-1 increased Cav3.2 expression levels, which were abolished by pretreatment with HIF-1α siRNA in PC12 cells. Furthermore, nuclear HIF-1α bound to the promoter of Cav3.2 to regulate the Cav3.2 transcription level, and knockdown of HIF-1α suppresses the IGF-1-induced upregulation of Cav3.2 and pain behaviors in rats with BCP.

Conclusion

These findings suggest that spinal Cav3.2 T-type calcium channels play a central role during the development of bone cancer pain in rats via regulation of the IGF-1/IGF-1R/HIF-1α pathway.

Modulation of neurotrophic factors in the treatment of dementia, stroke and TBI: Effects of Cerebrolysin

Neurotrophic factors (NTFs) are involved in the pathophysiology of neurological disorders such as dementia, stroke and traumatic brain injury (TBI), and constitute molecular targets of high interest for the therapy of these pathologies. In this review we provide an overview of current knowledge of the definition, discovery and mode of action of five NTFs, nerve growth factor, insulin-like growth factor 1, brain derived NTF, vascular endothelial growth factor and tumor necrosis factor alpha; as well as on their contribution to brain pathology and potential therapeutic use in dementia, stroke and TBI. Within the concept of NTFs in the treatment of these pathologies, we also review the neuropeptide preparation Cerebrolysin, which has been shown to resemble the activities of NTFs and to modulate the expression level of endogenous NTFs. Cerebrolysin has demonstrated beneficial treatment capabilities in vitro and in clinical studies, which are discussed within the context of the biochemistry of NTFs. The review focuses on the interactions of different NTFs, rather than addressing a single NTF, by outlining their signaling network and by reviewing their effect on clinical outcome in prevalent brain pathologies. The effects of the interactions of these NTFs and Cerebrolysin on neuroplasticity, neurogenesis, angiogenesis and inflammation, and their relevance for the treatment of dementia, stroke and TBI are summarized.

The role of IGF-1 in exercise to improve obesity-related cognitive dysfunction

Obesity is an important factor that threatens human health. The occurrence of many chronic diseases is related to obesity, and cognitive function decline often occurs with the onset of obesity. With the further prevalence of obesity, it is bound to lead to a wider range of cognitive dysfunction (ORCD). Therefore, it is crucial to suppress ORCD through intervention. In this regard, exercise has been shown to be effective in preventing obesity and improving cognitive function as a non-drug treatment. There is sufficient evidence that exercise has a regulatory effect on a growth factor closely related to cognitive function-insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1). IGF-1 may be an important mediator in improving ORCD through exercise. This article reviews the effects of obesity and IGF-1 on cognitive function and the regulation of exercise on IGF-1. It analyzes the mechanism by which exercise can improve ORCD by regulating IGF-1. Overall, this review provides evidence from relevant animal studies and human studies, showing that exercise plays a role in improving ORCD. It emphasizes the importance of IGF-1, which helps to understand the health effects of exercise and promotes research on the treatment of ORCD.

Single-cell sequencing of entorhinal cortex reveals widespread disruption of neuropeptide networks in Alzheimer's disease

INTRODUCTION

Abnormalities of neuropeptides (NPs) that play important roles in modulating neuronal activities are commonly observed in Alzheimer's disease (AD). We hypothesize that NP network disruption is widespread in AD brains.

METHODS

Single-cell transcriptomic data from the entorhinal cortex (EC) were used to investigate the NP network disruption in AD. Bulk RNA-sequencing data generated from the temporal cortex by independent groups and machine learning were employed to identify key NPs involved in AD. The relationship between aging and AD-associated NP (ADNP) expression was studied using GTEx data.

RESULTS

The proportion of cells expressing NPs but not their receptors decreased significantly in AD. Neurons expressing higher level and greater diversity of NPs were disproportionately absent in AD. Increased age coincides with decreased ADNP expression in the hippocampus.

DISCUSSION

NP network disruption is widespread in AD EC. Neurons expressing more NPs may be selectively vulnerable to AD. Decreased expression of NPs participates in early AD pathogenesis. We predict that the NP network can be harnessed for treatment and/or early diagnosis of AD.

Repositioning of Anti-Diabetic Drugs against Dementia: Insight from Molecular Perspectives to Clinical Trials

Insulin resistance as a hallmark of type 2 DM (T2DM) plays a role in dementia by promoting pathological lesions or enhancing the vulnerability of the brain. Numerous studies related to insulin/insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) signaling are linked with various types of dementia. Brain insulin resistance in dementia is linked to disturbances in Aβ production and clearance, Tau hyperphosphorylation, microglial activation causing increased neuroinflammation, and the breakdown of tight junctions in the blood-brain barrier (BBB). These mechanisms have been studied primarily in Alzheimer's disease (AD), but research on other forms of dementia like vascular dementia (VaD), Lewy body dementia (LBD), and frontotemporal dementia (FTD) has also explored overlapping mechanisms. Researchers are currently trying to repurpose anti-diabetic drugs to treat dementia, which are dominated by insulin sensitizers and insulin substrates. Although it seems promising and feasible, none of the trials have succeeded in ameliorating cognitive decline in late-onset dementia. We highlight the possibility of repositioning anti-diabetic drugs as a strategy for dementia therapy by reflecting on current and previous clinical trials. We also describe the molecular perspectives of various types of dementia through the insulin/IGF-1 signaling pathway.

Insulin-like growth factor 1 in heat stress-induced neuroinflammation: novel perspective about the neuroprotective role of chromium

Heat stress (HS) can cause a series of stress responses, resulting in numerous negative effects on the body, such as the diminished food intake, carcass quality and reproductive capacity. In addition to the negative effects on the peripheral system, HS leads to central nervous system (CNS) disorders given its toll on neuroinflammation. This neuroinflammatory process is mainly mediated by microglia and astrocytes, which are involved in the activation of glial cells and the secretion of cytokines. While the regulation of inflammatory signaling has a close relationship with the expression of heat shock protein 70 (Hsp70), HS-induced neuroinflammation is closely related to the activation of the TLR4/NF-κB pathway. Moreover, oxidative stress and endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress are key players in the development of neuroinflammation. Chromium (Cr) has been widely shown to have neuroprotective effects in both humans and animals, despite the lack of mechanistic evidence. Evidence has shown that Cr supplementation can increase the levels of insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1), a major neurotrophic factor with anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects. This review highlights recent advances in the attenuating effects and potential mechanisms of Cr-mediated IGF-1 actions on HS-induced neuroinflammation, providing presently existing evidence supporting the neuroprotective role of Cr.

The Effects of Obesity on the Inflammatory, Cardiovascular, and Neurobiological Responses to Exercise in Older Adults

Obesity with advancing age leads to increased health complications that are involved in various complex physiological processes. For example, inflammation is a critical cardiovascular disease risk factor that plays a role in the stages of atherosclerosis in both aging and obesity. Obesity can also induce profound changes to the neural circuitry that regulates food intake and energy homeostasis with advancing age. Here we discuss how obesity in older adults impacts inflammatory, cardiovascular, and neurobiological functions with an emphasis on how exercise mediates each topic. Although obesity is a reversible disorder through lifestyle changes, it is important to note that early interventions are crucial to prevent pathological changes seen in the aging obese population. Lifestyle modifications such as physical activity (including aerobic and resistance training) should be considered as a main intervention to minimize the synergistic effect of obesity on age-related conditions, such as cerebrovascular disease.

Resveratrol Mitigates Metabolism in Human Microglia Cells

The recognition of the role of microglia cells in neurodegenerative diseases has steadily increased over the past few years. There is growing evidence that the uncontrolled and persisting activation of microglial cells is involved in the progression of diseases such as Alzheimer's or Parkinson's disease. The inflammatory activation of microglia cells is often accompanied by a switch in metabolism to higher glucose consumption and aerobic glycolysis. In this study, we investigate the changes induced by the natural antioxidant resveratrol in a human microglia cell line. Resveratrol is renowned for its neuroprotective properties, but little is known about its direct effect on human microglia cells. By analyzing a variety of inflammatory, neuroprotective, and metabolic aspects, resveratrol was observed to reduce inflammasome activity, increase the release of insulin-like growth factor 1, decrease glucose uptake, lower mitochondrial activity, and attenuate cellular metabolism in a ¹H NMR-based analysis of whole-cell extracts. To this end, studies were mainly performed by analyzing the effect of exogenous stressors such as lipopolysaccharide or interferon gamma on the metabolic profile of microglial cells. Therefore, this study focuses on changes in metabolism without any exogenous stressors, demonstrating how resveratrol might provide protection from persisting neuroinflammation.

Relationship between insulin-like growth factor-1 and cerebral small vessel disease and its mechanisms: advances in the field

Insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) is an active polypeptide protein that closely resembles the structural sequence of insulin and is involved in a variety of metabolic processes in the body. Decreased IGF-1 circulation levels are associated with an increased risk of stroke and a poorer prognosis, but the relationship with cerebral small vessel disease (cSVD) is unclear. Some studies found that the level of IGF-1 in patients with cSVD was significantly reduced, but the clinical significance and underlying mechanisms are unknown. This article reviews the correlation between IGF-1 and cerebrovascular disease and explores the potential relationship and mechanism between IGF-1 and cSVD.

Tocotrienol-rich fraction reduces retinal inflammation and angiogenesis in rats with streptozotocin-induced diabetes

BACKGROUND

Diabetic retinopathy (DR) is the second commonest microvascular complication of diabetes mellitus. It is characterized by chronic inflammation and angiogenesis. Palm oil-derived tocotrienol-rich fraction (TRF), a substance with anti-inflammatory and anti-angiogenic properties, may provide protection against DR development. Therefore, in this study, we investigated the effect of TRF on retinal vascular and morphological changes in diabetic rats. The effects of TRF on the retinal expression of inflammatory and angiogenic markers were also studied in the streptozotocin (STZ)-induced diabetic rats.

METHODS

Male Sprague Dawley rats weighing 200-250 g were grouped into normal rats (N) and diabetic rats. Diabetes was induced by intraperitoneal injection of streptozotocin (55 mg/kg body weight) whereas N similarly received citrate buffer. STZ-injected rats with blood glucose of more than 20 mmol/L were considered diabetic and were divided into vehicle-treated (DV) and TRF-treated (DT) groups. N and DV received vehicle, whereas DT received TRF (100 mg/kg body weight) via oral gavage once daily for 12 weeks. Fundus images were captured at week 0 (baseline), week 6 and week 12 post-STZ induction to estimate vascular diameters. At the end of experimental period, rats were euthanized, and retinal tissues were collected for morphometric analysis and measurement of NFκB, phospho-NFκB (Ser536), HIF-1α using immunohistochemistry (IHC) and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Retinal inflammatory and angiogenic cytokines expression were measured by ELISA and real-time quantitative PCR.

RESULTS

TRF preserved the retinal layer thickness (GCL, IPL, INL and OR; p < 0.05) and retinal venous diameter (p < 0.001). TRF also lowered the retinal NFκB activation (p < 0.05) as well as expressions of IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α, IFN-γ, iNOS and MCP-1 (p < 0.05) compared to vehicle-treated diabetic rats. Moreover, TRF also reduced retinal expression of VEGF (p < 0.001), IGF-1 (p < 0.001) and HIF-1α (p < 0.05) compared to vehicle-treated rats with diabetes.

CONCLUSION

Oral TRF provided protection against retinal inflammation and angiogenesis in rats with STZ-induced diabetes by suppressing the expression of the markers of retinal inflammation and angiogenesis.

Microglial CD11b Knockout Contributes to Axonal Debris Clearance and Axonal Degradation Attenuation via IGF-1 After Acute Optic Nerve Injury

Purpose

Microglial clearance of axonal debris is an essential response for management of traumatic optic neuropathy. Inadequate removal of axonal debris leads to increased inflammation and axonal degeneration after traumatic optic neuropathy. The present study investigated the role of CD11b (Itgam) in axonal debris clearance and axonal degeneration.

Methods

Western blot and immunofluorescence were used to detect CD11b expression in the mouse optic nerve crush (ONC) model. Bioinformatics analysis predicted the possible role of CD11b. Cholera toxin subunit B (CTB) and zymosan were used to assay phagocytosis by microglia in vivo and in vitro, respectively. CTB was also used to label functionally intact axons after ONC.

Results

CD11b is abundantly expressed after ONC and participates in phagocytosis. Microglia from Itgam-/- mice exhibited more significant phagocytosis of axonal debris than wild-type microglia. In vitro experiments confirmed that the CD11b gene defect in M2 microglia leads to increased insulin-like growth factor-1 secretion and thus promotes phagocytosis. Lastly, following ONC, Itgam-/- mice exhibited elevated expression of neurofilament heavy peptide and Tuj1, along with more intact CTB-labeled axons when compared with wild-type mice. Moreover, the inhibition of insulin-like growth factor-1 decreased CTB labeling in Itgam-/- mice after injury.

Conclusions

CD11b limits microglial phagocytosis of axonal debris in traumatic optic neuropathy, as demonstrated by increased phagocytosis with CD11b knockout. The inhibition of CD11b activity may be a novel approach to promote central nerve repair.

IGF1R expression by adult oligodendrocytes is not required in the steady-state but supports neuroinflammation

In the central nervous system (CNS), insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) regulates myelination by oligodendrocyte (ODC) precursor cells and shows anti-apoptotic properties in neuronal cells in different in vitro and in vivo systems. Previous work also suggests that IGF-1 protects ODCs from cell death and enhances remyelination in models of toxin-induced and autoimmune demyelination. However, since evidence remains controversial, the therapeutic potential of IGF-1 in demyelinating CNS conditions is unclear. To finally shed light on the function of IGF1-signaling for ODCs, we deleted insulin-like growth factor 1 receptor (IGF1R) specifically in mature ODCs of the mouse. We found that ODC survival and myelin status were unaffected by the absence of IGF1R until 15 months of age, indicating that IGF-1 signaling does not play a major role in post-mitotic ODCs during homeostasis. Notably, the absence of IGF1R did neither affect ODC survival nor myelin status upon cuprizone intoxication or induction of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), models for toxic and autoimmune demyelination, respectively. Surprisingly, however, the absence of IGF1R from ODCs protected against clinical neuroinflammation in the EAE model. Together, our data indicate that IGF-1 signaling is not required for the function and survival of mature ODCs in steady-state and disease.

Loss of brain energy metabolism control as a driver for memory impairment upon insulin resistance

The pathophysiological mechanisms intersecting metabolic and neurodegenerative disorders include insulin resistance, which has a strong involvement of environmental factors. Besides central regulation of whole-body homeostasis, insulin in the central nervous system controls molecular signalling that is critical for cognitive performance, namely signalling through pathways that modulate synaptic transmission and plasticity, and metabolism in neurons and astrocytes. This review provides an overview on how insulin signalling in the brain might regulate brain energy metabolism, and further identified molecular mechanisms by which brain insulin resistance might impair synaptic fuelling, and lead to cognitive deterioration.

Role of neurotrophic and growth factors in the rapid and sustained antidepressant actions of ketamine

The neurotrophic hypothesis of depression proposes that reduced levels of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) contribute to neuronal atrophy or loss in the prefrontal cortex (PFC) and hippocampus and impaired hippocampal adult neurogenesis, which are associated with depressive symptoms. Chronic, but acute, treatment with typical monoaminergic antidepressants can at least partially reverse these deficits, in part via induction of BDNF and/or VEGF expression, consistent with their delayed onset of action. Ketamine, an N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor antagonist, exerts rapid and sustained antidepressant effects. Rodent studies have revealed that ketamine rapidly increases BDNF and VEGF release and/or expression in the PFC and hippocampus, which in turn increases the number and function of spine synapses in the PFC and hippocampal neurogenesis. Ketamine also induces the persistent release of insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) in the PFC of male mice. These neurotrophic effects of ketamine are associated with its rapid and sustained antidepressant effects. In this review, we first provide an overview of the neurotrophic hypothesis of depression and then discuss the role of BDNF, VEGF, IGF-1, and other growth factors (IGF-2 and transforming growth factor-β1) in the antidepressant effects of ketamine and its enantiomers. This article is part of the Special Issue on 'Ketamine and its Metabolites'.

Bacteria commonly associated with central nervous system catheter infections elicit distinct CSF proteome signatures

Background

Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) shunt infection is a common and devastating complication of the treatment of hydrocephalus. Timely and accurate diagnosis is essential as these infections can lead to long-term neurologic consequences including seizures, decreased intelligence quotient (IQ) and impaired school performance in children. Currently the diagnosis of shunt infection relies on bacterial culture; however, culture is not always accurate since these infections are frequently caused by bacteria capable of forming biofilms, such as Staphylococcus epidermidis, Cutibacterium acnes, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa resulting in few planktonic bacteria detectable in the CSF. Therefore, there is a critical need to identify a new rapid, and accurate method for diagnosis of CSF shunt infection with broad bacterial species coverage to improve the long-term outcomes of children suffering from these infections.

Methods

To investigate potential biomarkers that would discriminate S. epidermidis, C. acnes and P. aeruginosa central nervous system (CNS) catheter infection we leveraged our previously published rat model of CNS catheter infection to perform serial CSF sampling to characterize the CSF proteome during these infections compared to sterile catheter placement.

Results

P. aeruginosa infection demonstrated a far greater number of differentially expressed proteins when compared to S. epidermidis and C. acnes infection and sterile catheters, and these changes persisted throughout the 56-day time course. S. epidermidis demonstrated an intermediate number of differentially expressed proteins, primarily at early time points that dissipated over the course of infection. C. acnes induced the least amount of change in the CSF proteome when compared to the other pathogens.

Conclusions

Despite the differences in the CSF proteome with each organism compared to sterile injury, several proteins were common across all bacterial species, especially at day 5 post-infection, which are candidate diagnostic biomarkers.

Biochemical mechanisms in pathogenesis of infantile epileptic spasm syndrome

The molecular mechanisms leading to infantile epileptic spasm syndrome (IESS) remain obscure. The only common factor seems to be that the spasms are restricted to a limited period of infancy, during a certain maturational state. Here the current literature regarding the biochemical mechanisms of brain maturation in IESS is reviewed, and various hypotheses of the pathophysiology are put together. They include: (1) imbalance of inhibitory (NGF, IGF-1, ACTH, GABA) and excitatory factors (glutamate, nitrites) which distinguishes the different etiological subgroups, (2) abnormality of the hypothalamic pituitary adrenal (HPA) axis linking insults and early life stress, (3) inflammation (4) yet poorly known genetic and epigenetic factors, and (5) glucocorticoid and vigabatrin action on brain development, pinpointing at molecular targets of the pathophysiology from another angle. An altered maturational process may explain why so many, seemingly independent etiological factors lead to the same clinical syndrome and frequently to developmental delay. Understanding these factors can provide ideas for novel therapies.

Cell non-autonomous regulation of cerebrovascular aging processes by the somatotropic axis

Age-related cerebrovascular pathologies, ranging from cerebromicrovascular functional and structural alterations to large vessel atherosclerosis, promote the genesis of vascular cognitive impairment and dementia (VCID) and exacerbate Alzheimer's disease. Recent advances in geroscience, including results from studies on heterochronic parabiosis models, reinforce the hypothesis that cell non-autonomous mechanisms play a key role in regulating cerebrovascular aging processes. Growth hormone (GH) and insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) exert multifaceted vasoprotective effects and production of both hormones is significantly reduced in aging. This brief overview focuses on the role of age-related GH/IGF-1 deficiency in the development of cerebrovascular pathologies and VCID. It explores the mechanistic links among alterations in the somatotropic axis, specific macrovascular and microvascular pathologies (including capillary rarefaction, microhemorrhages, impaired endothelial regulation of cerebral blood flow, disruption of the blood brain barrier, decreased neurovascular coupling, and atherogenesis) and cognitive impairment. Improved understanding of cell non-autonomous mechanisms of vascular aging is crucial to identify targets for intervention to promote cerebrovascular and brain health in older adults.

Identification of the molecular mechanism of insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1): a promising therapeutic target for neurodegenerative diseases associated with metabolic syndrome

Neurodegenerative disorders are accompanied by neuronal degeneration and glial dysfunction, resulting in cognitive, psychomotor, and behavioral impairment. Multiple factors including genetic, environmental, metabolic, and oxidant overload contribute to disease progression. Recent evidences suggest that metabolic syndrome is linked to various neurodegenerative diseases. Metabolic syndrome (MetS) is known to be accompanied by symptoms such as hyperglycemia, abdominal obesity, hypertriglyceridemia, and hypertension. Despite advances in knowledge about the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative disorders, effective treatments to combat neurodegenerative disorders caused by MetS have not been developed to date. Insulin growth factor-1 (IGF-1) deficiency has been associated with MetS-related pathologies both in-vivo and in-vitro. IGF-1 is essential for embryonic and adult neurogenesis, neuronal plasticity, neurotropism, angiogenesis, metabolic function, and protein clearance in the brain. Here, we review the evidence for the potential therapeutic effects of IGF-1 in the neurodegeneration related to metabolic syndrome. We elucidate how IGF-1 may be involved in molecular signaling defects that occurs in MetS-related neurodegenerative disorders and highlight the importance of IGF-1 as a potential therapeutic target in MetS-related neurological diseases.

Culture Protocol and Transcriptomic Analysis of Murine SVZ NPCs and OPCs

The mammalian adult brain contains two neural stem and precursor (NPC) niches: the subventricular zone [SVZ] lining the lateral ventricles and the subgranular zone [SGZ] in the hippocampus. From these, SVZ NPCs represent the largest NPC pool. While SGZ NPCs typically only produce neurons and astrocytes, SVZ NPCs produce neurons, astrocytes and oligodendrocytes throughout life. Of particular importance is the generation and replacement of oligodendrocytes, the only myelinating cells of the central nervous system (CNS). SVZ NPCs contribute to myelination by regenerating the parenchymal oligodendrocyte precursor cell (OPC) pool and by differentiating into oligodendrocytes in the developing and demyelinated brain. The neurosphere assay has been widely adopted by the scientific community to facilitate the study of NPCs in vitro. Here, we present a streamlined protocol for culturing postnatal and adult SVZ NPCs and OPCs from primary neurosphere cells. We characterize the purity and differentiation potential as well as provide RNA-sequencing profiles of postnatal SVZ NPCs, postnatal SVZ OPCs and adult SVZ NPCs. We show that primary neurospheres cells generated from postnatal and adult SVZ differentiate into neurons, astrocytes and oligodendrocytes concurrently and at comparable levels. SVZ OPCs are generated by subjecting primary neurosphere cells to OPC growth factors fibroblast growth factor (FGF) and platelet-derived growth factor-AA (PDGF-AA). We further show SVZ OPCs can differentiate into oligodendrocytes in the absence and presence of thyroid hormone T3. Transcriptomic analysis confirmed the identities of each cell population and revealed novel immune and signalling pathways expressed in an age and cell type specific manner.

Brain and spinal cord trauma: what we know about the therapeutic potential of insulin growth factor 1 gene therapy

Although little attention has been paid to cognitive and emotional dysfunctions observed in patients after spinal cord injury, several reports have described impairments in cognitive abilities. Our group also has contributed significantly to the study of cognitive impairments in a rat model of spinal cord injury. These findings are very significant because they demonstrate that cognitive and mood deficits are not induced by lifestyle changes, drugs of abuse, and combined medication. They are related to changes in brain structures involved in cognition and emotion, such as the hippocampus. Chronic spinal cord injury decreases neurogenesis, enhances glial reactivity leading to hippocampal neuroinflammation, and triggers cognitive deficits. These brain distal abnormalities are recently called tertiary damage. Given that there is no treatment for Tertiary Damage, insulin growth factor 1 gene therapy emerges as a good candidate. Insulin growth factor 1 gene therapy recovers neurogenesis and induces the polarization from pro-inflammatory towards anti-inflammatory microglial phenotypes, which represents a potential strategy to treat the neuroinflammation that supports tertiary damage. Insulin growth factor 1 gene therapy can be extended to other central nervous system pathologies such as traumatic brain injury where the neuroinflammatory component is crucial. Insulin growth factor 1 gene therapy could emerge as a new therapeutic strategy for treating traumatic brain injury and spinal cord injury.

The Role of Insulin-like Growth Factor-1 and Its Receptor in the Eye: A Review and Implications for IGF-1R Inhibition

PURPOSE

FDA approval of teprotumumab for thyroid eye disease in January 2020 reinforced interest in the pharmacologic potential of insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) and its receptor, IGF-1R. Despite recent approval and adaptation for ophthalmic use, IGF-1R inhibitors are not a new therapeutic class. In 1986, Yamashita described aIR3, a monoclonal antibody to IGF-1R (anti-IGF-1R), that inhibited the effect of IGF-1 on growth hormone release. Given the widespread presence of IGF-1R, interrupting this receptor can lead to systemic physiologic effects, some adverse. We aim to review what is known about IGF-1/IGF-1R in the eye and consider the possible local side effects, unintended consequences, and potential uses of this medication class.

METHODS

A PubMed database search utilizing the keywords "insulin-like growth factor-1, eye, inhibitor, antibody, side effect" was performed to identify publications discussing IGF-1 in the human eye from January 2011 to August 2021. Criteria for acceptance included studies discussing human subjects or human tissue specifically related to the eye.

RESULTS

Out of a total of 230 articles, 47 were organized in 3 subject groups for discussion: thyroid-associated orbitopathy, cornea and the ocular surface, and the retina and neovascularization. Review of the literature demonstrated that IGF-1 affects growth and development of the eye, epithelial proliferation, retinal angiogenesis, inflammation, and is associated with thyroid-associated orbitopathy.

CONCLUSIONS

IGF-1R exists throughout in the human body, including the cornea, retina, and orbit. Research regarding ocular effects of IGF-1/IGF-1R outside thyroid eye disease is limited. Carefully designed studies and clinical assessments of patients undergoing treatment with anti-IGF-1R may identify ocular side effects and foster consideration of the role of anti-IGF-1R in ocular therapeutics. Given the increasing use of anti-IGF-1R antibodies, understanding their ocular effects, side effects, and potential systemic implications for use in disease is critical.

An Early Enriched Experience Drives an Activated Microglial Profile at Site of Corrective Neuroplasticity in Ten-m3 Knock-Out Mice

Environmental enrichment (EE) is beneficial for brain development and function, but our understanding of its capacity to drive circuit repair, the underlying mechanisms, and how this might vary with age remains limited. Ten-m3 knock-out (KO) mice exhibit a dramatic and stereotyped mistargeting of ipsilateral retinal inputs to the thalamus, resulting in visual deficits. We have recently shown a previously unexpected capacity for EE during early postnatal life (from birth for six weeks) to drive the partial elimination of miswired axonal projections, along with a recovery of visually mediated behavior, but the timeline of this repair was unclear. Here, we reveal that with just 3.5 weeks of EE from birth, Ten-m3 KOs exhibit a partial behavioral rescue, accompanied by pruning of the most profoundly miswired retinogeniculate terminals. Analysis suggests that the pruning is underway at this time point, providing an ideal opportunity to probe potential mechanisms. With the shorter EE-period, we found a localized increase in microglial density and activation profile within the identified geniculate region where corrective pruning was observed. No comparable response to EE was found in age-matched wild-type (WT) mice. These findings identify microglia as a potential mechanistic link through which EE drives the elimination of miswired neural circuits during early postnatal development. Activity driven, atypical recruitment of microglia to prune aberrant connectivity and restore function may have important therapeutic implications for neurodevelopmental disorders such as autistic spectrum disorder.

Associations Between Insulin-Like Growth Factor-1 and Resting-State Functional Connectivity in Cognitively Unimpaired Midlife Adults

BACKGROUND

Insulin-like growth factor (IGF)-1 plays an important role in Alzheimer's disease (AD) pathogenesis and increases disease risk. However, prior research examining IGF-1 levels and brain neural network activity is mixed.

OBJECTIVE

The present study investigated the relationship between IGF-1 levels and 21 neural networks, as measured by functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) in 13,235 UK Biobank participants.

METHODS

Linear mixed models were used to regress IGF-1 against the intrinsic functional connectivity (i.e., degree of network activity) for each neural network. Interactions between IGF-1 and AD risk factors such as Apolipoprotein E4 (APOE4) genotype, sex, AD family history, and age were also tested.

RESULTS

Higher IGF-1 was associated with more network activity in the right Executive Function neural network. IGF-1 interactions with APOE4 or sex implicated motor, primary/extrastriate visual, and executive function related neural networks. Neural network activity trends with increasing IGF-1 were different in different age groups. Higher IGF-1 levels relate to much more network activity in the Sensorimotor Network and Cerebellum Network in early-life participants (40-52 years old), compared with mid-life (52-59 years old) and late-life (59-70 years old) participants.

CONCLUSION

These findings suggest that sex and APOE4 genotype may modify the relationship between IGF-1 and brain network activities related to visual, motor, and cognitive processing. Additionally, IGF-1 may have an age-dependent effect on neural network connectivity.

Stereological Evidence of Non-Selective Hippocampal Neurodegeneration, IGF-1 Depletion, and Behavioral Deficit following Short Term Bilateral Adrenalectomy in Wistar Rats

The development of animal models to study cell death in the brain is a delicate task. One of the models, that was discovered in the late eighties, is the induction of neurodegeneration through glucocorticoid withdrawal by adrenalectomy in albino rats. Such a model is one of the few noninvasive models for studying neurodegeneration. In the present study, using stereological technique and ultrastructural examination, we aimed to investigate the impact of short-term adrenalectomy (2 weeks) on different hippocampal neuronal populations in Wistar rats. In addition, the underlying mechanism(s) of degeneration in these neurons were investigated by measuring the levels of insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) and β-nerve growth factor (β-NGF). Moreover, we examined whether the biochemical and histological changes in the hippocampus, after short-term adrenalectomy, have an impact on the cognitive behavior of Wistar rats. Stereological counting in the hippocampus revealed significant neuronal deaths in the dentate gyrus and CA4/CA3, but not in the CA2 and CA1 areas, 7 and 14 days post adrenalectomy. The ultrastructural examinations revealed degenerated and degenerating neurons in the dentate, as well as CA4, and CA3 areas, over the course of 3, 7 and 14 days. The levels of IGF-1 were significantly decreased in the hippocampus of ADX rats 24 h post adrenalectomy, and lasted over the course of two weeks. However, β-NGF was not affected in rats. Using a passive avoidance task, we found a cognitive deficit in the ADX compared to the SHAM operated rats over time (3, 7, and 14 days). In conclusion, both granule and pyramidal cells were degenerated in the hippocampus following short-term adrenalectomy. The early depletion of IGF-1 might play a role in hippocampal neuronal degeneration. Consequently, the loss of the hippocampal neurons after adrenalectomy leads to cognitive deficits.

Age-related decline in circulating IGF-1 associates with impaired neurovascular coupling responses in older adults

Impairment of moment-to-moment adjustment of cerebral blood flow (CBF) to the increased oxygen and energy requirements of active brain regions via neurovascular coupling (NVC) contributes to the genesis of age-related cognitive impairment. Aging is associated with marked deficiency in the vasoprotective hormone insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1). Preclinical studies on animal models of aging suggest that circulating IGF-1 deficiency is causally linked to impairment of NVC responses. The present study was designed to test the hypotheses that decreases in circulating IGF-1 levels in older adults also predict the magnitude of age-related decline of NVC responses. In a single-center cross-sectional study, we enrolled healthy young (n = 31, 11 female, 20 male, mean age: 28.4 + / - 4.2 years) and aged volunteers (n = 32, 18 female, 14 male, mean age: 67.9 + / - 4.1 years). Serum IGF-1 level, basal CBF (phase contrast magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)), and NVC responses during the trail making task (with transcranial Doppler sonography) were assessed. We found that circulating IGF-1 levels were significantly decreased with age and associated with decreased basal CBF. Age-related decline in IGF-1 levels predicted the magnitude of age-related decline in NVC responses. In conclusion, our study provides additional evidence in support of the concept that age-related circulating IGF-1 deficiency contributes to neurovascular aging, impairing CBF and functional hyperemia in older adults.

Role of neuroinflammation mediated potential alterations in adult neurogenesis as a factor for neuropsychiatric symptoms in Post-Acute COVID-19 syndrome-A narrative review

Persistence of symptoms beyond the initial 3 to 4 weeks after infection is defined as post-acute COVID-19 syndrome (PACS). A wide range of neuropsychiatric symptoms like anxiety, depression, post-traumatic stress disorder, sleep disorders and cognitive disturbances have been observed in PACS. The review was conducted based on PRISMA-S guidelines for literature search strategy for systematic reviews. A cytokine storm in COVID-19 may cause a breach in the blood brain barrier leading to cytokine and SARS-CoV-2 entry into the brain. This triggers an immune response in the brain by activating microglia, astrocytes, and other immune cells leading to neuroinflammation. Various inflammatory biomarkers like inflammatory cytokines, chemokines, acute phase proteins and adhesion molecules have been implicated in psychiatric disorders and play a major role in the precipitation of neuropsychiatric symptoms. Impaired adult neurogenesis has been linked with a variety of disorders like depression, anxiety, cognitive decline, and dementia. Persistence of neuroinflammation was observed in COVID-19 survivors 3 months after recovery. Chronic neuroinflammation alters adult neurogenesis with pro-inflammatory cytokines supressing anti-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines favouring adult neurogenesis. Based on the prevalence of neuropsychiatric symptoms/disorders in PACS, there is more possibility for a potential impairment in adult neurogenesis in COVID-19 survivors. This narrative review aims to discuss the various neuroinflammatory processes during PACS and its effect on adult neurogenesis.

Network Pharmacology and Molecular Docking Analyses Unveil the Mechanisms of Yiguanjian Decoction against Parkinson’s Disease from Inner/Outer Brain Perspective

Objective

This study aims to explore the pharmacodynamic mechanism of Yiguanjian (YGJ) decoction against Parkinson's disease (PD) through integrating the central nervous (inner brain) and peripheral system (outer brain) relationship spectrum.

Methods

The active components of YGJ were achieved from the TCMSP, TCMID, and TCM@Taiwan databases. The blood-brain barrier (BBB) permeability of the active components along with their corresponding targets was evaluated utilizing the existing website, namely, SwissADME and SwissTargetPrediction. The targets of PD were determined through database retrieval. The interaction network was constructed upon the STRING database, followed by the visualization using Cytoscape software. Then, we performed Gene Ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) enrichment analyses on potential targets. Finally, the molecular docking approach was employed to assess the binding affinity between key components and key targets.

Results

Overall, we identified 79 active components, 128 potential targets of YGJ, and 97 potential targets of YGJ-BBB potentially suitable for the treatment of PD. GO and KEGG analyses showed that the YGJ treatment of PD mainly relied on PI3K-Akt pathway while the YGJ-BBB was mostly involved in endocrine resistance. The molecular docking results displayed high affinity between multiple compounds and targets in accordance with previous observations.

Conclusions

Our study unveiled the potential mechanisms of YGJ against PD from a systemic perspective: (1) for the YGJ, they have potential exerting effects on the peripheral system and inhibiting neuronal apoptosis through regulating the PI3K-Akt pathway; (2) for the YGJ-BBB, they can directly modulate endocrine resistance of the central nervous and holistically enhance body resistance to PD along with YGJ on PI3K-Akt pathway.

Time and age dependent regulation of neuroinflammation in a rat model of mesial temporal lobe epilepsy: Correlation with human data

Acute brain insults trigger diverse cellular and signaling responses and often precipitate epilepsy. The cellular, molecular and signaling events relevant to the emergence of the epileptic brain, however, remain poorly understood. These multiplex structural and functional alterations tend also to be opposing - some homeostatic and reparative while others disruptive; some associated with growth and proliferation while others, with cell death. To differentiate pathological from protective consequences, we compared seizure-induced changes in gene expression hours and days following kainic acid (KA)-induced status epilepticus (SE) in postnatal day (P) 30 and P15 rats by capitalizing on age-dependent differential physiologic responses to KA-SE; only mature rats, not immature rats, have been shown to develop spontaneous recurrent seizures after KA-SE. To correlate gene expression profiles in epileptic rats with epilepsy patients and demonstrate the clinical relevance of our findings, we performed gene analysis on four patient samples obtained from temporal lobectomy and compared to four control brains from NICHD Brain Bank. Pro-inflammatory gene expressions were at higher magnitudes and more sustained in P30. The inflammatory response was driven by the cytokines IL-1β, IL-6, and IL-18 in the acute period up to 72 h and by IL-18 in the subacute period through the 10-day time point. In addition, a panoply of other immune system genes was upregulated, including chemokines, glia markers and adhesion molecules. Genes associated with the mitogen activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathways comprised the largest functional group identified. Through the integration of multiple ontological databases, we analyzed genes belonging to 13 separate pathways linked to Classical MAPK ERK, as well as stress activated protein kinases (SAPKs) p38 and JNK. Interestingly, genes belonging to the Classical MAPK pathways were mostly transiently activated within the first 24 h, while genes in the SAPK pathways had divergent time courses of expression, showing sustained activation only in P30. Genes in P30 also had different regulatory functions than in P15: P30 animals showed marked increases in positive regulators of transcription, of signaling pathways as well as of MAPKKK cascades. Many of the same inflammation-related genes as in epileptic rats were significantly upregulated in human hippocampus, higher than in lateral temporal neocortex. They included glia-associated genes, cytokines, chemokines and adhesion molecules and MAPK pathway genes. Uniquely expressed in human hippocampus were adaptive immune system genes including immune receptors CDs and MHC II HLAs. In the brain, many immune molecules have additional roles in synaptic plasticity and the promotion of neurite outgrowth. We propose that persistent changes in inflammatory gene expression after SE leads not only to structural damage but also to aberrant synaptogenesis that may lead to epileptogenesis. Furthermore, the sustained pattern of inflammatory genes upregulated in the epileptic mature brain was distinct from that of the immature brain that show transient changes and are resistant to cell death and neuropathologic changes. Our data suggest that the epileptogenic process may be a result of failed cellular signaling mechanisms, where insults overwhelm the system beyond a homeostatic threshold.