Structural Studies of GABAA Receptor Binding Sites: Which Experimental Structure Tells us What?

Molecular mechanisms of the GABA type A receptor function

The GABA type A receptor (GABAAR) belongs to the family of pentameric ligand-gated ion channels and plays a key role in inhibition in adult mammalian brains. Dysfunction of this macromolecule may lead to epilepsy, anxiety disorders, autism, depression, and schizophrenia. GABAAR is also a target for multiple physiologically and clinically relevant modulators, such as benzodiazepines (BDZs), general anesthetics, and neurosteroids. The first GABAAR structure appeared in 2014, but the past years have brought a particularly abundant surge in structural data for these receptors with various ligands and modulators. Although the open conformation remains elusive, this novel information has pushed the structure-function studies to an unprecedented level. Electrophysiology, mutagenesis, photolabeling, and in silico simulations, guided by novel structural information, shed new light on the molecular mechanisms of receptor functioning. The main goal of this review is to present the current knowledge of GABAAR functional and structural properties. The review begins with an outline of the functional and structural studies of GABAAR, accompanied by some methodological considerations, especially biophysical methods, enabling the reader to follow how major breakthroughs in characterizing GABAAR features have been achieved. The main section provides a comprehensive analysis of the functional significance of specific structural elements in GABAARs. We additionally summarize the current knowledge on the binding sites for major GABAAR modulators, referring to the molecular underpinnings of their action. The final chapter of the review moves beyond examining GABAAR as an isolated macromolecule and describes the interactions of the receptor with other proteins in a broader context of inhibitory plasticity. In the final section, we propose a general conclusion that agonist binding to the orthosteric binding sites appears to rely on local interactions, whereas conformational transitions of bound macromolecule (gating) and allosteric modulation seem to reflect more global phenomena involving vast portions of the macromolecule.

Modular Structure and Polymerization Status of GABAA Receptors Illustrated with EM Analysis and AlphaFold2 Prediction

Type-A γ-aminobutyric acid (GABAA) receptors are channel proteins crucial to mediating neuronal balance in the central nervous system (CNS). The structure of GABAA receptors allows for multiple binding sites and is key to drug development. Yet the formation mechanism of the receptor's distinctive pentameric structure is still unknown. This study aims to investigate the role of three predominant subunits of the human GABAA receptor in the formation of protein pentamers. Through purifying and refolding the protein fragments of the GABAA receptor α1, β2, and γ2 subunits, the particle structures were visualised with negative staining electron microscopy (EM). To aid the analysis, AlphaFold2 was used to compare the structures. Results show that α1 and β2 subunit fragments successfully formed homo-oligomers, particularly homopentameric structures, while the predominant heteropentameric GABAA receptor was also replicated through the combination of the three subunits. However, homopentameric structures were not observed with the γ2 subunit proteins. A comparison of the AlphaFold2 predictions and the previously obtained cryo-EM structures presents new insights into the subunits' modular structure and polymerization status. By performing experimental and computational studies, a deeper understanding of the complex structure of GABAA receptors is provided. Hopefully, this study can pave the way to developing novel therapeutics for neuropsychiatric diseases.

Synthesis and Psychotropic Properties of Novel Condensed Triazines for Drug Discovery

The exploration of heterocyclic compounds and their fused analogs, featuring key pharmacophore fragments like pyridine, thiophene, pyrimidine, and triazine rings, is pivotal in medicinal chemistry. These compounds possess a wide array of biological activities, making them an intriguing area of study. The quest for new neurotropic drugs among derivatives of these heterocycles with pharmacophore groups remains a significant research challenge. The aim of this research work was to develop a synthesis method for new heterocyclic compounds, evaluate their neurotropic and neuroprotective activities, study histological changes, and perform docking analysis. Classical organic synthesis methods were used in the creation of novel heterocyclic systems containing pharmacophore rings. To evaluate the neurotropic activity of these synthesized compounds, a range of biological assays were employed. Docking analysis was conducted using various software packages and methodologies. The neuroprotective activity of compound 13 was tested in seizures with and without pentylenetetrazole (PTZ) administration. Histopathological examinations were performed in different experimental groups in the hippocampus and the entorhinal cortex. As a result of chemical reactions, 16 new, tetra- and pentacyclic heterocyclic compounds were obtained. The biologically studied compounds exhibited protection against PTZ seizures as well as some psychotropic effects. The biological assays evidenced that 13 of the 16 studied compounds showed a high anticonvulsant activity by antagonism with PTZ. The toxicity of the compounds was low. According to the results of the study of psychotropic activity, it was found that the selected compounds have a sedative effect, except compound 13, which exhibited activating behavior and antianxiety effects (especially compound 13). The studied compounds exhibited antidepressant effects, especially compound 13, which is similar to diazepam. Histopathological examination showed that compound 13 produced moderate changes in the brain and exhibited neuroprotective effects in the entorhinal cortex against PTZ-induced damage, reducing gliosis and neuronal loss. Docking studies revealed that out of 16 compounds, 3 compounds bound to the γ-aminobutyric acid type A (GABAA) receptor. Thus, the selected compounds demonstrated anticonvulsant, sedative, and activating behavior, and at the same time exhibited antianxiety and antidepressant effects. Compound 13 bound to the GABAA receptor and exhibited antianxiety, antidepressant, and neuroprotective effects in the entorhinal cortex against PTZ-induced changes.

Phenols and GABAA receptors: from structure and molecular mechanisms action to neuropsychiatric sequelae

γ-Aminobutyric acid type A receptors (GABAARs) are members of the pentameric ligand-gated ion channel (pLGIC) family, which are widespread throughout the invertebrate and vertebrate central nervous system. GABAARs are engaged in short-term changes of the neuronal concentrations of chloride (Cl-) and bicarbonate (HCO3 -) ions by their passive permeability through the ion channel pore. GABAARs are regulated by various structurally diverse phenolic substances ranging from simple phenols to complex polyphenols. The wide chemical and structural variability of phenols suggest similar and different binding sites on GABAARs, allowing them to manifest themselves as activators, inhibitors, or allosteric ligands of GABAAR function. Interest in phenols is associated with their great potential for GABAAR modulation, but also with their subsequent negative or positive role in neurological and psychiatric disorders. This review focuses on the GABAergic deficit hypotheses during neurological and psychiatric disorders induced by various phenols. We summarize the structure-activity relationship of general phenol groups concerning their differential roles in the manifestation of neuropsychiatric symptoms. We describe and analyze the role of GABAAR subunits in manifesting various neuropathologies and the molecular mechanisms underlying their modulation by phenols. Finally, we discuss how phenol drugs can modulate GABAAR activity via desensitization and resensitization. We also demonstrate a novel pharmacological approach to treat neuropsychiatric disorders via regulation of receptor phosphorylation/dephosphorylation.

Pregnenolone sulfate analogues differentially modulate GABAA receptor closed/desensitised states

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

GABAA receptors are regulated by numerous classes of allosteric modulators. However, regulation of receptor macroscopic desensitisation remains largely unexplored and may offer new therapeutic opportunities. Here, we report the emerging potential for modulating desensitisation with analogues of the endogenous inhibitory neurosteroid, pregnenolone sulfate.

EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH

New pregnenolone sulfate analogues were synthesised incorporating various heterocyclic substitutions located at the C-21 position on ring D. The pharmacological profiles of these compounds were assessed using electrophysiology and recombinant GABAA receptors together with mutagenesis, molecular dynamics simulations, structural modelling and kinetic simulations.

KEY RESULTS

All seven analogues retained a negative allosteric modulatory capability whilst exhibiting diverse potencies. Interestingly, we observed differential effects on GABA current decay by compounds incorporating either a six- (compound 5) or five-membered heterocyclic ring (compound 6) on C-21, which was independent of their potencies as inhibitors. We propose that differences in molecular charges, and the targeted binding of analogues to specific states of the GABAA receptor, are the most likely cause of the distinctive functional profiles.

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

Our findings reveal that heterocyclic addition to inhibitory neurosteroids not only affected their potency and macroscopic efficacy but also affected innate receptor mechanisms that underlie desensitisation. Acute modulation of macroscopic desensitisation will determine the degree and duration of GABA inhibition, which are vital for the integration of neural circuit activity. Discovery of this form of modulation could present an opportunity for next-generation GABAA receptor drug design and development.

Structure-function Studies of GABA (A) Receptors and Related computer-aided Studies

The γ-aminobutyric acid type A receptor (GABA (A) receptor) is a membrane protein activated by the neurotransmitter GABA. Structurally, this major inhibitory neurotransmitter receptor in the human central nervous system is a pentamer that can be built from a selection of 19 subunits consisting of α(1,2,3,4,5 or 6), β (1,2 or 3), γ (1,2 or 3), ρ (1,2 or 3), and δ, π, θ, and ε. This creates several possible pentameric arrangements, which also influence the pharmacological and physiological properties of the receptor. The complexity and heterogeneity of the receptors are further increased by the addition of short and long splice variants in several subunits and the existence of multiple allosteric binding sites and expansive ligands that can bind to the receptors. Therefore, a comprehensive understanding of the structure and function of the receptors is required to gain novel insights into the consequences of receptor dysfunction and subsequent drug development studies. Notably, advancements in computational-aided studies have facilitated the elucidation of residual interactions and exploring energy binding, which may otherwise be challenging to investigate. In this review, we aim to summarize the current understanding of the structure and function of GABA (A) receptors obtained from advancements in computational-aided applications.

Utilizing Andrographis paniculata leaves and roots by effective usage of the bioactive andrographolide and its nanodelivery: investigation of antikindling and antioxidant activities through in silico and in vivo studies

To valorise the bioactive constituents abundant in leaves and other parts of medicinal plants with the objective to minimize the plant-based wastes, this study was undertaken. The main bioactive constituent of Andrographis paniculata, an Asian medicinal plant, is andrographolide (AG, a diterpenoid), which has shown promising results in the treatment of neurodegenerative illnesses. Continuous electrical activity in the brain is a hallmark of the abnormal neurological conditions such as epilepsy (EY). This can lead to neurological sequelae. In this study, we used GSE28674 as a microarray expression profiling dataset to identify DEGs associated with andrographolide and those with fold changes >1 and p-value <0.05 GEO2R. We obtained eight DEG datasets (two up and six down). There was marked enrichment under various Kyoto Encyclopaedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) and Gene Ontology (GO) terms for these DEGs (DUSP10, FN1, AR, PRKCE, CA12, RBP4, GABRG2, and GABRA2). Synaptic vesicles and plasma membranes were the predominant sites of DEG expression. AG acts as an antiepileptic agent by upregulating GABA levels. The low bioavailability of AG is a significant limitation of its application. To control these limitations, andrographolide nanoparticles (AGNPs) were prepared and their neuroprotective effect against pentylenetetrazol (PTZ)-induced kindling epilepsy was investigated using network pharmacology (NP) and docking studies to evaluate the antiepileptic multi-target mechanisms of AG. Andrographolide is associated with eight targets in the treatment of epilepsy. Nicotine addiction, GABAergic synapse, and morphine addiction were mainly related to epilepsy, according to KEGG pathway enrichment analysis (p < 0.05). A docking study showed that andrographolide interacted with the key targets. AG regulates epilepsy and exerts its therapeutic effects by stimulating GABA production. Rats received 80 mg/kg body weight of AG and AGNP, phenytoin and PTZ (30 mg/kg i.p. injection on alternate days), brain MDA, SOD, GSH, GABAand histological changes of hippocampus and cortex were observed. PTZ injected rats showed significantly (^***p < 0.001) increased kindling behavior, increased MDA, decreased GSH, SOD, GABA activities, compared with normal rats, while treatment AGNPs significantly reduced kindling score and reversed oxidative damage. Finally, we conclude that the leaves and roots of A. Paniculata can be effectively utilized for its major bioactive constituent, andrographolide as a potent anti-epileptic agent. Furthermore, the findings of novel nanotherapeutic approach claim that nano-andrographolide can be successfully in the management of kindling seizures and neurodegenerative disorders.

2-(4-Fluorophenyl)-1H-benzo[d]imidazole as a Promising Template for the Development of Metabolically Robust, α1β2γ2GABA-A Receptor-Positive Allosteric Modulators

Modulation of α1β2γ2GABA-A receptor subpopulation expressed in the basal ganglia region is a conceptually novel mode of pharmacological strategy that offers prospects to tackle a variety of neurological dysfunction. Although clinical findings provided compelling evidence for the validity of this strategy, the current chemical space of molecules able to modulate the α1/γ2 interface of the GABA-A receptor is limited to imidazo[1,2-a]pyridine derivatives that undergo rapid biotransformation. In response to a deficiency in the chemical repertoire of GABA-A receptors, we identified a series of 2-(4-fluorophenyl)-1H-benzo[d]imidazoles as positive allosteric modulators (PAMs) with improved metabolic stability and reduced potential for hepatotoxicity, where lead molecules 9 and 23 displayed interesting features in a preliminary investigation. We further disclose that the identified scaffold shows a preference for interaction with the α1/γ2 interface of the GABA-A receptor, delivering several PAMs of the GABA-A receptor. The present work provides useful chemical templates to further explore the therapeutic potential of GABA-A receptor ligands and enriches the chemical space of molecules suitable for the interaction with the α1/γ2 interface.

THC and CBD: Similarities and differences between siblings

Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and its sibling, cannabidiol (CBD), are produced by the same Cannabis plant and have similar chemical structures but differ dramatically in their mechanisms of action and effects on brain functions. Both THC and CBD exhibit promising therapeutic properties; however, impairments and increased incidence of mental health diseases are associated with acute and chronic THC use, respectively, and significant side effects are associated with chronic use of high-dose CBD. This review covers recent molecular and preclinical discoveries concerning the distinct mechanisms of action and bioactivities of THC and CBD and their impact on human behavior and diseases. These discoveries provide a foundation for the development of cannabinoid-based therapeutics for multiple devastating diseases and to assure their safe use in the growing legal market of Cannabis-based products.

Novel synthetic procedures for C2 substituted imidazoquinolines as ligands for the α/β-interface of the GABAA-receptor

A series of substituted imidazoquinolines, a structurally related chemotype to pyrazoloquinolinones, a well-known class of GABAA ligands, was prepared via two synthetic procedures and the efficiency of these procedures were compared. One method relies on classical heterocyclic synthesis, the other one aims at late-stage decoration of a truncated scaffold via direct C-H functionalization. A pharmacological evaluation disclosed that one of the synthesized derivatives showed interesting activity on a α1β3 containing receptor subtype.

Graphical abstract

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s00706-022-02988-8.

β subunits of GABAA receptors form proton-gated chloride channels: Insights into the molecular basis

Gamma-aminobutyric acid type A receptors (GABAARs) are ligand gated channels mediating inhibition in the central nervous system. Here, we identify a so far undescribed function of β-subunit homomers as proton-gated anion channels. Mutation of a single H267A in β3 subunits completely abolishes channel activation by protons. In molecular dynamic simulations of the β3 crystal structure protonation of H267 increased the formation of hydrogen bonds between H267 and E270 of the adjacent subunit leading to a pore stabilising ring formation and accumulation of Cl- within the transmembrane pore. Conversion of these residues in proton insensitive ρ1 subunits transfers proton-dependent gating, thus highlighting the role of this interaction in proton sensitivity. Activation of chloride and bicarbonate currents at physiological pH changes (pH50 is in the range 6- 6.3) and kinetic studies suggest a physiological role in neuronal and non-neuronal tissues that express beta subunits, and thus as potential novel drug target.

Clerodane Diterpenes from Casearia corymbosa as Allosteric GABAA Receptor Modulators

An EtOAc extract of Casearia corymbosa leaves led to an allosteric potentiation of the GABA signal in a fluorometric imaging plate reader (FLIPR) assay on Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells stably expressing GABAA receptors with an α1β2γ2 subunit composition. The activity was tracked by HPLC-based activity profiling, and four known (2, 3, 4, and 8) and five new clerodane-type diterpenoids (1, 5-7, and 9) were isolated. Compounds 1-8 were obtained from the active time window. The absolute configuration of all compounds was established by ECD. Compounds 3, 7, and 8 exhibited EC50 values of 0.5, 4.6, and 1.4 μM, respectively. To explore possible binding sites at the receptor, the most abundant diterpenoid 8 was tested in combination with diazepam, etazolate, and allopregnanolone. An additive potentiation of the GABA signal was observed with these compounds, while the effect of 8 was not inhibited by flumazenil, a negative allosteric modulator at the benzodiazepine binding site. Finally, the activity was validated in voltage clamp studies on Xenopus laevis oocytes transiently expressing GABAA receptors of the α1β2γ2S and α1β2 subtypes. Compound 8 potentiated GABA-induced currents with both receptor subunit compositions [EC50 (α1β2γ2S) = 43.6 μM; Emax = 809% and EC50 (α1β2) = 57.6 μM; Emax = 534%]. The positive modulation of GABA-induced currents was not inhibited by flumazenil, thereby confirming an allosteric modulation independent of the benzodiazepine binding site.

Evaluation of Neurotropic Activity and Molecular Docking Study of New Derivatives of pyrano[4″,3″:4',5']pyrido[3',2':4,5]thieno[3,2-d]pyrimidines on the Basis of pyrano[3,4-c]pyridines

Background: Heterocyclic compounds and their fused analogs, which contain pharmacophore fragments such as pyridine, thiophene and pyrimidine rings, are of great interest due to their broad spectrum of biological activity. Chemical compounds containing two or more pharmacophore groups due to additional interactions with active receptor centers usually enhance biological activity and can even lead to a new type of activity. The search for new effective neurotropic drugs in the series of derivatives of heterocycles containing pharmacophore groups in organic, bioorganic and medical chemistry is a serious problem. Methods: Modern methodology of drugs involves synthesis, physicochemical study, molecular modeling and selection of active compounds through virtual screening and experimental evaluation of the biological activity of new chimeric compounds with pharmacophore fragments. For the synthesis of new compounds, classical organic methods were used and developed. For the evaluation of neurotropic activity of new synthesized compounds, some biological methods were used according to indicators characterizing anticonvulsant, sedative and antianxiety activity as well as side effects. For docking analysis, various soft ware packages and methods were used. Results: As a result of multistep reactions, 11 new, tri- and tetracyclic heterocyclic systems were obtained. The studied compounds exhibit protection against pentylenetetrazole (PTZ) seizures as well as some psychotropic effects. The biological assays evidenced that nine of the eleven studied compounds showed a high anticonvulsant activity by antagonism with pentylenetetrazole. The toxicity of the compounds is low, and they do not induce muscle relaxation in the studied doses. According to the study of psychotropic activity, it was found that the selected compounds have an activating behavior and anxiolytic effects on the “open field” and “elevated plus maze” (EPM) models. The data obtained indicate the anxiolytic (antianxiety) activity of the derivatives of tricyclic thieno[2,3-b]pyridines and tetracyclic pyridothieno[3,2-d]pyrimidin-8-ones, especially pronounced in compounds 3b–f and 4e. The studied compounds increase the latent time of first immobilization on the “forced swimming” (FS) model and exhibit antidepressant effects; compounds 3e and 3f especially exhibit these effects, similarly to diazepam. Docking studies revealed that compounds 3c and 4b bound tightly in the active site of γ-aminobutyric acid type A (GABA_A) receptors with a value of the scoring function that estimates free energy of binding (∆G) at −10.0 ± 5 kcal/mol. Compound 4e showed the best affinity ((∆G) at −11.0 ± 0.54 kcal/mol) and seems to be an inhibitor of serotonin (SERT) transporter. Compounds 3c–f and 4e practically bound with the groove of T4L of 5HT_1A and blocked it completely, while the best affinity observed was in compound 3f ((∆G) at −9.3 ± 0.46 kcal/mol). Conclusions: The selected compounds have an anticonvulsant, activating behavior and anxiolytic effects and at the same time exhibit antidepressant effects.

Molecular Mingling: Multimodal Predictions of Ligand Promiscuity in Pentameric Ligand-Gated Ion Channels

Background: Human pentameric ligand-gated ion channels (pLGICs) comprise nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs), 5-hydroxytryptamine type 3 receptors (5-HT3Rs), zinc-activated channels (ZAC), γ-aminobutyric acid type A receptors (GABAARs) and glycine receptors (GlyRs). They are recognized therapeutic targets of some of the most prescribed drugs like general anesthetics, anxiolytics, smoking cessation aids, antiemetics and many more. Currently, approximately 100 experimental structures of pLGICs with ligands bound exist in the protein data bank (PDB). These atomic-level 3D structures enable the generation of a comprehensive binding site inventory for the superfamily and the in silico prediction of binding site properties. Methods: A panel of high throughput in silico methods including pharmacophore screening, conformation analysis and descriptor calculation was applied to a selection of allosteric binding sites for which in vitro screens are lacking. Variant abundance near binding site forming regions and computational docking complement the approach. Results: The structural data reflects known and novel binding sites, some of which may be unique to individual receptors, while others are broadly conserved. The membrane spanning domain, comprising four highly conserved segments, contains ligand interaction sites for which in vitro assays suitable for high throughput screenings are critically lacking. This is also the case for structurally more variable novel sites in the extracellular domain. Our computational results suggest that the phytocannabinoid Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC) can utilize multiple pockets which are likely to exist on most superfamily members. Conclusion: With this study, we explore the potential for polypharmacology among pLGICs. Our data suggest that ligands can display two forms of promiscuity to an extent greater than what has been realized: 1) Ligands can interact with homologous sites in many members of the superfamily, which bears toxicological relevance. 2) Multiple pockets in distinct localizations of individual receptor subtypes share common ligands, which counteracts efforts to develop selective agents. Moreover, conformational states need to be considered for in silico drug screening, as certain binding sites display considerable flexibility. In total, this work contributes to a better understanding of polypharmacology across pLGICs and provides a basis for improved structure guided in silico drug development and drug derisking.

The Case for Clinical Trials with Novel GABAergic Drugs in Diabetes Mellitus and Obesity

Obesity and diabetes mellitus have become the surprising menaces of relative economic well-being worldwide. Gamma amino butyric acid (GABA) has a prominent role in the control of blood glucose, energy homeostasis as well as food intake at several levels of regulation. The effects of GABA in the body are exerted through ionotropic GABAA and metabotropic GABAB receptors. This treatise will focus on the pharmacologic targeting of GABAA receptors to reap beneficial therapeutic effects in diabetes mellitus and obesity. A new crop of drugs selectively targeting GABAA receptors has been under investigation for efficacy in stroke recovery and cognitive deficits associated with schizophrenia. Although these trials have produced mixed outcomes the compounds are safe to use in humans. Preclinical evidence is summarized here to support the rationale of testing some of these compounds in diabetic patients receiving insulin in order to achieve better control of blood glucose levels and to combat the decline of cognitive performance. Potential therapeutic benefits could be achieved (i) By resetting the hypoglycemic counter-regulatory response; (ii) Through trophic actions on pancreatic islets, (iii) By the mobilization of antioxidant defence mechanisms in the brain. Furthermore, preclinical proof-of-concept work, as well as clinical trials that apply the novel GABAA compounds in eating disorders, e.g., olanzapine-induced weight-gain, also appear warranted.

Mechanisms of inhibition and activation of extrasynaptic αβ GABAA receptors

Type A GABA (γ-aminobutyric acid) receptors represent a diverse population in the mammalian brain, forming pentamers from combinations of α-, β-, γ-, δ-, ε-, ρ-, θ- and π-subunits¹. αβ, α4βδ, α6βδ and α5βγ receptors favour extrasynaptic localization, and mediate an essential persistent (tonic) inhibitory conductance in many regions of the mammalian brain^1,2. Mutations of these receptors in humans are linked to epilepsy and insomnia^3,4. Altered extrasynaptic receptor function is implicated in insomnia, stroke and Angelman and Fragile X syndromes^1,5, and drugs targeting these receptors are used to treat postpartum depression⁶. Tonic GABAergic responses are moderated to avoid excessive suppression of neuronal communication, and can exhibit high sensitivity to Zn²⁺ blockade, in contrast to synapse-preferring α1βγ, α2βγ and α3βγ receptor responses^5,7–12. Here, to resolve these distinctive features, we determined structures of the predominantly extrasynaptic αβ GABA_A receptor class. An inhibited state bound by both the lethal paralysing agent α-cobratoxin¹³ and Zn²⁺ was used in comparisons with GABA–Zn²⁺ and GABA-bound structures. Zn²⁺ nullifies the GABA response by non-competitively plugging the extracellular end of the pore to block chloride conductance. In the absence of Zn²⁺, the GABA signalling response initially follows the canonical route until it reaches the pore. In contrast to synaptic GABA_A receptors, expansion of the midway pore activation gate is limited and it remains closed, reflecting the intrinsic low efficacy that characterizes the extrasynaptic receptor. Overall, this study explains distinct traits adopted by αβ receptors that adapt them to a role in tonic signalling.

Cryo-electron microscopy structures are used to identify mechanisms underlying distinct features of extrasynaptic type A γ-aminobutyric acid receptors.

Tricyclic antipsychotics and antidepressants can inhibit α5-containing GABAA receptors by two distinct mechanisms

Background and Purpose

Many psychotherapeutic drugs, including clozapine, display polypharmacology and act on GABA_A receptors. Patients with schizophrenia show alterations in function, structure and molecular composition of the hippocampus, and a recent study demonstrated aberrant levels of hippocampal α5 subunit‐containing GABA_A receptors. The purpose of this study is to investigate the effects of tricyclic compounds on α5 subunit‐containing receptor subtypes.

Experimental Approach

Functional studies of effects by seven antipsychotic and antidepressant medications were performed in several GABA_A receptor subtypes by two‐electrode voltage‐clamp electrophysiology using Xenopus laevis oocytes. Computational structural analysis was employed to design mutated constructs of the α5 subunit, probing a novel binding site. Radioligand displacement data complemented the functional and mutational findings.

Key Results

The antipsychotic drugs clozapine and chlorpromazine exerted functional inhibition on multiple GABA_A receptor subtypes, including those containing α5‐subunits. Based on a chlorpromazine binding site observed in a GABA‐gated bacterial homologue, we identified a novel site in α5 GABA_A receptor subunits and demonstrate differential usage of this and the orthosteric sites by these ligands.

Conclusion and Implications

Despite high molecular and functional similarities among the tested ligands, they reduce GABA currents by differential usage of allosteric and orthosteric sites. The chlorpromazine site we describe here is a new potential target for optimizing antipsychotic medications with beneficial polypharmacology. Further studies in defined subtypes are needed to substantiate mechanistic links between the therapeutic effects of clozapine and its action on certain GABA_A receptor subtypes.

Insect RDL Receptor Models for Virtual Screening: Impact of the Template Conformational State in Pentameric Ligand-Gated Ion Channels

The RDL receptor is one of the most relevant protein targets for insecticide molecules. It belongs to the pentameric ligand-gated ion channel (pLGIC) family. Given that the experimental structures of pLGICs are difficult to obtain, homology modeling has been extensively used for these proteins, particularly for the RDL receptor. However, no detailed assessments of the usefulness of homology models for virtual screening (VS) have been carried out for pLGICs. The aim of this study was to evaluate which are the determinant factors for a good VS performance using RDL homology models, specially analyzing the impact of the template conformational state. Fifteen RDL homology models were obtained based on different pLGIC templates representing the closed, open, and desensitized states. A retrospective VS process was performed on each model, and their performance in the prioritization of active ligands was assessed. In addition, the three best-performing models among each of the conformations were subjected to molecular dynamics simulations (MDS) in complex with a representative active ligand. The models showed variations in their VS performance parameters that were related to the structural properties of the binding site. VS performance tended to improve in more constricted binding cavities. The best performance was obtained with a model based on a template in the closed conformation. MDS confirmed that the closed model was the one that best represented the interactions with an active ligand. These results imply that different templates should be evaluated and the structural variations between their channel conformational states should be specially examined, providing guidelines for the application of homology modeling for VS in other proteins of the pLGIC family.

α6-Containing GABAA Receptors: Functional Roles and Therapeutic Potentials

GABAA receptors containing the α6 subunit are highly expressed in cerebellar granule cells and less abundantly in many other neuronal and peripheral tissues. Here, we for the first time summarize their importance for the functions of the cerebellum and the nervous system. The cerebellum is not only involved in motor control but also in cognitive, emotional, and social behaviors. α6βγ2 GABAA receptors located at cerebellar Golgi cell/granule cell synapses enhance the precision of inputs required for cerebellar timing of motor activity and are thus involved in cognitive processing and adequate responses to our environment. Extrasynaptic α6βδ GABAA receptors regulate the amount of information entering the cerebellum by their tonic inhibition of granule cells, and their optimal functioning enhances input filtering or contrast. The complex roles of the cerebellum in multiple brain functions can be compromised by genetic or neurodevelopmental causes that lead to a hypofunction of cerebellar α6-containing GABAA receptors. Animal models mimicking neuropsychiatric phenotypes suggest that compounds selectively activating or positively modulating cerebellar α6-containing GABAA receptors can alleviate essential tremor and motor disturbances in Angelman and Down syndrome as well as impaired prepulse inhibition in neuropsychiatric disorders and reduce migraine and trigeminal-related pain via α6-containing GABAA receptors in trigeminal ganglia. Genetic studies in humans suggest an association of the human GABAA receptor α6 subunit gene with stress-associated disorders. Animal studies support this conclusion. Neuroimaging and post-mortem studies in humans further support an involvement of α6-containing GABAA receptors in various neuropsychiatric disorders, pointing to a broad therapeutic potential of drugs modulating α6-containing GABAA receptors. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: α6-Containing GABAA receptors are abundantly expressed in cerebellar granule cells, but their pathophysiological roles are widely unknown, and they are thus out of the mainstream of GABAA receptor research. Anatomical and electrophysiological evidence indicates that these receptors have a crucial function in neuronal circuits of the cerebellum and the nervous system, and experimental, genetic, post-mortem, and pharmacological studies indicate that selective modulation of these receptors offers therapeutic prospects for a variety of neuropsychiatric disorders and for stress and its consequences.

Synthesis of novel thiazolidinic-phthalimide derivatives evaluated as new multi-target antiepileptic agents

Epilepsy is a disease that affects millions of people around the globe and has a multifactorial cause. Inflammation is a process that can be involved in the development of seizures. Thus, the present study proposed the design and synthesis of new candidates for antiepileptic drugs that would also control the inflammatory process. Nine new derivatives of the substituted thiazophthalimide hybrid core were obtained with satisfactory purity ≥99% and yields between 27% and 87%. All compounds showed cell viability values greater than 90% in the culture of PBMC cells from healthy volunteers and, therefore, were not considered cytotoxic. These compounds modulated proinflammatory cytokines IFN-y and IL-17A and can mitigate inflammation. Acute toxicity studies of compound 7i in an animal model indicated that the compound has low toxicity and an LD50 greater than 2 g/kg in healthy adult rats. The same compound did not show positive results for anticonvulsant activity through the PTZ test. However, 7i demonstrates the interaction with the target GABA-A receptor in silico, indicating a possible activity as an agonist of that receptor. Thus, further studies are needed to investigate the anticonvulsant activity, in particular, using models in which the inflammatory process triggers epileptic seizures.

Photopharmacology of Ion Channels through the Light of the Computational Microscope

The optical control and investigation of neuronal activity can be achieved and carried out with photoswitchable ligands. Such compounds are designed in a modular fashion, combining a known ligand of the target protein and a photochromic group, as well as an additional electrophilic group for tethered ligands. Such a design strategy can be optimized by including structural data. In addition to experimental structures, computational methods (such as homology modeling, molecular docking, molecular dynamics and enhanced sampling techniques) can provide structural insights to guide photoswitch design and to understand the observed light-regulated effects. This review discusses the application of such structure-based computational methods to photoswitchable ligands targeting voltage- and ligand-gated ion channels. Structural mapping may help identify residues near the ligand binding pocket amenable for mutagenesis and covalent attachment. Modeling of the target protein in a complex with the photoswitchable ligand can shed light on the different activities of the two photoswitch isomers and the effect of site-directed mutations on photoswitch binding, as well as ion channel subtype selectivity. The examples presented here show how the integration of computational modeling with experimental data can greatly facilitate photoswitchable ligand design and optimization. Recent advances in structural biology, both experimental and computational, are expected to further strengthen this rational photopharmacology approach.

Nipecotic-Acid-Tethered, Naphthalene-Diimide-Based, Orange-Emitting Organic Nanoparticles as Targeted Delivery Vehicle and Diagnostic Probe toward GABAA-Receptor-Enriched Cancer Cells

This article demonstrates target-specific cellular imaging of GABA (γ-aminobutyric acid) receptor (GABA_AR)-enriched cells (SH-SY5Y and A549) with therapeutic efficacy by naphthalene diimide (NDI)-derived fluorescent organic nanoparticles (FONPs). Self-assembly-driven formation of spherical organic particles by nipecotic-acid-tethered l-aspartic acid appended NDI derivative (NDI-nip) took place in DMSO-water through J-type aggregation. NDI-nip having a naphthyl residue and a nipecotic acid unit at both terminals exhibited aggregation-induced emission (AIE) at and above 60% water content in DMSO because of excimer formation at λ_em = 579 nm. The orange-emitting NDI-nip FONPs (1:99 v/v DMSO-water) having excellent cell viability and high photostability were used for selective bioimaging and killing of GABA_AR-overexpressed cancer cells through target-specific delivery of the anticancer drug curcumin. The fluorescence intensity of NDI-nip FONPs were quenched in GABA_AR-enriched neuroblastoma cells (SH-SY5Y) and cancerous cells (A549). Notably, in the presence of GABA, the NDI-nip FONPs exhibited their native fluorescence within the same cell lines. Importantly, no such quenching and regaining of NDI-nip FONP emission in the presence of GABA was noted in the case of the noncancerous cell NIH3T3. The killing efficiency of curcumin-loaded NDI-nip FONPs ([curcumin] = 100 μM and [NDI-nip FONPs] = 50 μM) was significantly higher in the cases of SH-SY5Y (88 ± 3%) and A549 (72 ± 2%) than in NIH3T3 (37 ± 2). The presence of a nipecotic acid moiety facilitated the selective cellular internalization of NDI-nip FONPs into GABA_AR-overexpressing cells. Hence, these orange-emitting NDI-nip FONPs may be exploited as a targeted diagnostic probe as well as a drug delivery vehicle for GABA_AR-enriched cancer cells.

In silico Screening and Behavioral Validation of a Novel Peptide, LCGA-17, With Anxiolytic-Like Properties

The aim of the study was to develop better anxiolytics and antidepressants. We focused on GABA_A receptors and the α2δ auxiliary subunit of V-gated Ca²⁺ channels as putative targets because they are established as mediators of efficacious anxiolytics, antidepressants, and anticonvulsants. We further focused on short peptides as candidate ligands because of their high safety and tolerability profiles. We employed a structural bioinformatics approach to develop novel tetrapeptides with predicted affinity to GABA_A receptors and α2δ. In silico docking studies of one of these peptides, LCGA-17, showed a high binding score for both GABA_A receptors and α2δ, combined with anxiolytic-like properties in a Danio rerio behavioral screen. LCGA-17 showed anxiolytic-like effects in the novel tank test, the light–dark box, and the social preference test, with efficacy comparable to fluvoxamine and diazepam. In binding assays using rat brain membranes, [³H]-LCGA-17 was competed more effectively by gabapentinoid ligands of α2δ than ligands of GABA_A receptors, suggesting that α2δ represents a likely target for LCGA-17. [³H]-LCGA-17 binding to brain lysates was unaffected by competition with ligands for GABA_B, glutamate, dopamine, serotonin, and other receptors, suggesting specific interaction with α2δ. Dose-finding studies in mice using acute administration of LCGA-17 (i.p.) demonstrated anxiolytic-like effects in the open field test, elevated plus maze, and marble burying tests, as well as antidepressant-like properties in the forced swim test. The anxiolytic effects were effectively blocked by bicuculline. Therefore, LCGA-17 is a novel candidate anxiolytic and antidepressant that may act through α2δ, with possible synergism by GABA_A receptors.

Elephants in the Dark: Insights and Incongruities in Pentameric Ligand-gated Ion Channel Models

The superfamily of pentameric ligand-gated ion channels (pLGICs) comprises key players in electrochemical signal transduction across evolution, including historic model systems for receptor allostery and targets for drug development. Accordingly, structural studies of these channels have steadily increased, and now approach 250 depositions in the protein data bank. This review contextualizes currently available structures in the pLGIC family, focusing on morphology, ligand binding, and gating in three model subfamilies: the prokaryotic channel GLIC, the cation-selective nicotinic acetylcholine receptor, and the anion-selective glycine receptor. Common themes include the challenging process of capturing and annotating channels in distinct functional states; partially conserved gating mechanisms, including remodeling at the extracellular/transmembrane-domain interface; and diversity beyond the protein level, arising from posttranslational modifications, ligands, lipids, and signaling partners. Interpreting pLGIC structures can be compared to describing an elephant in the dark, relying on touch alone to comprehend the many parts of a monumental beast: each structure represents a snapshot in time under specific experimental conditions, which must be integrated with further structure, function, and simulations data to build a comprehensive model, and understand how one channel may fundamentally differ from another.

Molecular Determinants Underlying Delta Selective Compound 2 Activity at δ-Containing GABAA Receptors

Delta selective compound 2 (DS2; 4-chloro-N-[2-(2-thienyl)imidazo[1,2-a]pyridin-3-yl]benzamide) is one of the most widely used tools to study selective actions mediated by δ-subunit-containing GABAA receptors. DS2 was discovered over 10 years ago, but despite great efforts, the precise molecular site of action has remained elusive. Using a combination of computational modeling, site-directed mutagenesis, and cell-based pharmacological assays, we probed three potential binding sites for DS2 and analogs at α 4 β 1 δ receptors: an α 4 (+) δ (-) interface site in the extracellular domain (ECD), equivalent to the diazepam binding site in αβγ 2 receptors, and two sites in the transmembrane domain (TMD) - one in the α 4 (+) β 1 (-) and one in the α 4 (-) β 1 (+) interface, with the α 4 (-) β 1 (+) site corresponding to the binding site for etomidate and a recently disclosed low-affinity binding site for diazepam. We show that mutations in the ECD site did not abrogate DS2 modulation. However, mutations in the TMD α 4 (+) β 1 (-) interface, either α 4(S303L) of the α 4 (+) side or β 1(I289Q) of the β 1 (-) side, convincingly disrupted the positive allosteric modulation by DS2. This was consistently demonstrated both in an assay measuring membrane potential changes and by whole-cell patch-clamp electrophysiology and rationalized by docking studies. Importantly, general sensitivity to modulators was not compromised in the mutated receptors. This study sheds important light on the long-sought molecular recognition site for DS2, refutes the misconception that the selectivity of DS2 for δ-containing receptors is caused by a direct interaction with the δ-subunit, and instead points toward a functional selectivity of DS2 and its analogs via a surprisingly well conserved binding pocket in the TMD. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: δ-Containing GABAA receptors represent potential drug targets for the treatment of several neurological conditions with aberrant tonic inhibition, yet no drugs are currently in clinical use. With the identification of the molecular determinants responsible for positive modulation by the known compound delta selective compound 2, the ground is laid for design of ligands that selectively target δ-containing GABAA receptor subtypes, for better understanding of tonic inhibition, and ultimately, for rational development of novel drugs.

The ups and downs of alkyl-carbamates in epilepsy therapy: How does cenobamate differ?

Since 1955, several alkyl-carbamates have been developed for the treatment of anxiety and epilepsy, including meprobamate, flupirtine, felbamate, retigabine, carisbamate, and cenobamate. They have each enjoyed varying levels of success as antiseizure drugs; however, they have all been plagued by the emergence of serious and sometimes life-threatening adverse events. In this review, we compare and contrast their predominant molecular mechanisms of action, their antiseizure profile, and where possible, their clinical efficacy. The preclinical, clinical, and mechanistic profile of the prototypical γ-aminobutyric acidergic (GABAergic) modulator phenobarbital is included for comparison. Like phenobarbital, all of the clinically approved alkyl-carbamates share an ability to enhance inhibitory neurotransmission through modulation of the GABA_A receptor, although the specific mechanism of interaction differs among the different drugs discussed. In addition, several alkyl-carbamates have been shown to interact with voltage-gated ion channels. Flupirtine and retigabine share an ability to activate K⁺ currents mediated by KCNQ (Kv7) K⁺ channels, and felbamate, carisbamate, and cenobamate have been shown to block Na⁺ channels. In contrast to other alkyl-carbamates, cenobamate seems to be unique in its ability to preferentially attenuate the persistent rather than transient Na⁺ current. Results from recent randomized controlled clinical trials with cenobamate suggest that this newest antiseizure alkyl-carbamate possesses a degree of efficacy not witnessed since felbamate was approved in 1993. Given that ceno-bamate's mechanistic profile is unique among the alkyl-carbamates, it is not clear whether this impressive efficacy reflects an as yet undescribed mechanism of action or whether it possesses a unique synergy between its actions at the GABA_A receptor and on persistent Na⁺ currents. The high efficacy of cenobamate is, however, tempered by the risk of serious rash and low tolerability at higher doses, meaning that further safety studies and clinical experience are needed to determine the true clinical value of cenobamate.

Structure-Guided Computational Methods Predict Multiple Distinct Binding Modes for Pyrazoloquinolinones in GABAA Receptors

Pyrazoloquinolinones (PQs) are a versatile class of GABAA receptor ligands. It has been demonstrated that high functional selectivity for certain receptor subtypes can be obtained by specific substitution patterns, but so far, no clear SAR rules emerge from the studies. As is the case for many GABAA receptor targeting chemotypes, PQs can interact with distinct binding sites on a given receptor pentamer. In pentamers of αβγ composition, such as the most abundant α1β2γ2 subtype, many PQs are high affinity binders of the benzodiazepine binding site at the extracellular α+/γ2- interfaces. There they display a functionally near silent, flumazenil-like allosteric activity. More recently, interactions with extracellular α+/β- interfaces have been investigated, where strong positive modulation can be steered toward interesting subtype preferences. The most prominent examples are functionally α6-selective PQs. Similar to benzodiazepines, PQs also seem to interact with sites in the transmembrane domain, mainly the sites used by etomidate and barbiturates. This promiscuity leads to potential contributions from multiple sites to net modulation. Developing ligands that interact exclusively with the extracellular α+/β- interfaces would be desired. Correlating functional profiles with binding sites usage is hampered by scarce and heterogeneous experimental data, as shown in our meta-analysis of aggregated published data. In the absence of experimental structures, bound states can be predicted with pharmacophore matching methods and with computational docking. We thus performed pharmacophore matching studies for the unwanted sites, and computational docking for the extracellular α1,6+/β3- interfaces. The results suggest that PQs interact with their binding sites with diverse binding modes. As such, rational design of improved ligands needs to take a complex structure-activity landscape with branches between sub-series of derivatives into account. We present a workflow, which is suitable to identify and explore potential branching points on the structure-activity landscape of any small molecule chemotype.

Demystifying the Molecular Basis of Pyrazoloquinolinones Recognition at the Extracellular α1+/β3- Interface of the GABAA Receptor by Molecular Modeling

GABAA receptors are pentameric ligand-gated ion channels that serve as major inhibitory neurotransmitter receptors in the mammalian brain and the target of numerous clinically relevant drugs interacting with different ligand binding sites. Here, we report an in silico approach to investigate the binding of pyrazoloquinolinones (PQs) that mediate allosteric effects through the extracellular α+/β- interface of GABAA receptors. First, we docked a potent prototype of PQs into the α1+/β3- site of a homology model of the human α1β3γ2 subtype of the GABAA receptor. Next, for each docking pose, we computationally derived protein-ligand complexes for 18 PQ analogs with known experimental potency. Subsequently, binding energy was calculated for all complexes using the molecular mechanics-generalized Born surface area method. Finally, docking poses were quantitatively assessed in the light of experimental data to derive a binding hypothesis. Collectively, the results indicate that PQs at the α1+/β3- site likely exhibit a common binding mode that can be characterized by a hydrogen bond interaction with β3Q64 and hydrophobic interactions involving residues α1F99, β3Y62, β3M115, α1Y159, and α1Y209. Importantly, our results are in good agreement with the recently resolved cryo-Electron Microscopy structures of the human α1β3γ2 and α1β2γ2 subtypes of GABAA receptors.

Coronaridine congeners potentiate GABAA receptors and induce sedative activity in mice in a benzodiazepine-insensitive manner

To determine whether (+)-catharanthine induces sedative- or anxiolytic/anxiogenic-like activity in male mice, proper animal paradigms were used. The results showed that (+)-catharanthine induces sedative-like activity in the 63-72 mg/Kg dose range in a flumazenil-insensitive manner, but neither this effect nor anxiolytic/anxiogenic-like activity was observed at lower doses. To determine the underlying molecular mechanism of the sedative-like activity, electrophysiological and radioligand binding experiments were performed with (+)-catharanthine and (±)-18-methoxycoronaridine [(±)-18-MC] on GABA_A (GABA_ARs) and glycine receptors (GlyRs). Coronaridine congeners both activated and potentiated a variety of human (h) GABA_ARs, except hρ1. (+)-Catharanthine-induced potentiation followed this receptor selectivity (EC₅₀'s in μM): hα1β2 (4.6 ± 0.8) > hα2β2γ2 (12.6 ± 3.8) ~ hα1β2γ2 (14.4 ± 4.6) indicating that both α1 and α2 are equally important, whereas γ2 is not necessary. (+)-Catharanthine was >2-fold more potent and efficient than (±)-18-MC at hα1β2γ2. (+)-Catharanthine also potentiated, whereas (±)-18-MC inhibited, hα1 GlyRs with very low potency. Additional [³H]-flunitrazepam competition binding experiments using rat cerebellum membranes clearly demonstrated that these ligands do not bind to the benzodiazepine site. This is supported by the observed activity at hα1β2 (lacking the BDZ site) and similar effects between α1- and α2-containing GABA_ARs. Our study shows, for the first time, that (+)-catharanthine induced sedative-like effects in mice, and coronaridine congeners potentiated human α1β2γ2, α1β2, and hα2β2γ2, but not ρ1, GABA_ARs, both in a benzodiazepine-insensitive fashion, whereas only (+)-catharanthine slightly potentiated GlyRs.

Allosteric GABAA Receptor Modulators-A Review on the Most Recent Heterocyclic Chemotypes and Their Synthetic Accessibility

GABAA receptor modulators are structurally almost as diverse as their target protein. A plethora of heterocyclic scaffolds has been described as modulating this extremely important receptor family. Some made it into clinical trials and, even on the market, some were dismissed. This review focuses on the synthetic accessibility and potential for library synthesis of GABAA receptor modulators containing at least one heterocyclic scaffold, which were disclosed within the last 10 years.

A novel de novo variant of GABRA1 causes increased sensitivity for GABA in vitro

The GABRA1 gene encodes one of the most conserved and highly expressed subunits of the GABA_A receptor family. Variants in this gene are causatively implicated in different forms of epilepsy and also more severe epilepsy-related neurodevelopmental syndromes. Here we study functional consequences of a novel de novo missense GABRA1 variant, p.(Ala332Val), identified through exome sequencing in an individual affected by early-onset syndromic epileptic encephalopathy. The variant is localised within the transmembrane domain helix 3 (TM3) and in silico prediction algorithms suggested this variant to be likely pathogenic. In vitro assessment revealed unchanged protein levels, regular assembly and forward trafficking to the cell surface. On the functional level a significant left shift of the apparent GABA potency in two-electrode voltage clamp electrophysiology experiments was observed, as well as changes in the extent of desensitization. Additionally, apparent diazepam potency was left shifted in radioligand displacement assays. During prenatal development mainly alpha2/3 subunits are expressed, whereas after birth a switch to alpha1 occurs. The expression of alpha1 in humans is upregulated during the first years. Thus, the molecular change of function reported here supports pathogenicity and could explain early-onset of seizures in the affected individual.

GABAA Receptor Ligands Often Interact with Binding Sites in the Transmembrane Domain and in the Extracellular Domain-Can the Promiscuity Code Be Cracked?

Many allosteric binding sites that modulate gamma aminobutyric acid (GABA) effects have been described in heteropentameric GABA type A (GABA_A) receptors, among them sites for benzodiazepines, pyrazoloquinolinones and etomidate. Diazepam not only binds at the high affinity extracellular “canonical” site, but also at sites in the transmembrane domain. Many ligands of the benzodiazepine binding site interact also with homologous sites in the extracellular domain, among them the pyrazoloquinolinones that exert modulation at extracellular α+/β− sites. Additional interaction of this chemotype with the sites for etomidate has also been described. We have recently described a new indole-based scaffold with pharmacophore features highly similar to pyrazoloquinolinones as a novel class of GABA_A receptor modulators. Contrary to what the pharmacophore overlap suggests, the ligand presented here behaves very differently from the identically substituted pyrazoloquinolinone. Structural evidence demonstrates that small changes in pharmacophore features can induce radical changes in ligand binding properties. Analysis of published data reveals that many chemotypes display a strong tendency to interact promiscuously with binding sites in the transmembrane domain and others in the extracellular domain of the same receptor. Further structural investigations of this phenomenon should enable a more targeted path to less promiscuous ligands, potentially reducing side effect liabilities.

Development of 1,3-thiazole analogues of imidazopyridines as potent positive allosteric modulators of GABAA receptors

Structure-activity relationship studies were conducted in the search for 1,3-thiazole isosteric analogs of imidazopyridine drugs (Zolpidem, Alpidem). Three series of novel γ-aminobutyric acid receptor (GABA_AR) ligands belonging to imidazo[2,1-b]thiazoles, imidazo[2,1-b][1,3,4]thiadiazoles, and benzo[d]imidazo[2,1-b]thiazoles were synthesized and characterized as active agents against GABA_AR benzodiazepine-binding site. In each of these series, potent compounds were discovered using a radioligand competition binding assay. The functional properties of highest-affinity compounds 28 and 37 as GABA_AR positive allosteric modulators (PAMs) were determined by electrophysiological measurements. In vivo studies on zebrafish demonstrated their potential for the further development of anxiolytics. Using the OECD "Fish, Acute Toxicity Test" active compounds were found safe and non-toxic. Structural bases for activity of benzo[d]imidazo[2,1-b]thiazoles were proposed using molecular docking studies. The isosteric replacement of the pyridine nuclei by 1,3-thiazole, 1,3,4-thiadiazole, or 1,3-benzothiazole in the ring-fused imidazole class of GABA_AR PAMs was shown to be promising for the development of novel hypnotics, anxiolytics, anticonvulsants, and sedatives drug-candidates.

GABA Receptors and the Pharmacology of Sleep

Current GABAergic sleep-promoting medications were developed pragmatically, without making use of the immense diversity of GABA_A receptors. Pharmacogenetic experiments are leading to an understanding of the circuit mechanisms in the hypothalamus by which zolpidem and similar compounds induce sleep at α2βγ2-type GABA_A receptors. Drugs acting at more selective receptor types, for example, at receptors containing the α2 and/or α3 subunits expressed in hypothalamic and brain stem areas, could in principle be useful as hypnotics/anxiolytics. A highly promising sleep-promoting drug, gaboxadol, which activates αβδ-type receptors failed in clinical trials. Thus, for the time being, drugs such as zolpidem, which work as positive allosteric modulators at GABA_A receptors, continue to be some of the most effective compounds to treat primary insomnia.

The molecular determinants of neurosteroid binding in the GABA(A) receptor

Neurosteroids positively modulate GABA-A receptor (GABAAR) channel activity by binding to a transmembrane domain intersubunit site. Understanding the interactions in this site that determine neurosteroid binding and its effect is essential for the design of neurosteroid-based therapeutics. Using photo-affinity labeling and an ELIC-α1GABAAR chimera, we investigated the impact of mutations (Q242L, Q242W and W246L) within the intersubunit site on neurosteroid binding. These mutations, which abolish the thermal stabilizing effect of allopregnanolone on the chimera, reduce neither photolabeling within the intersubunit site nor competitive prevention of labeling by allopregnanolone. Instead, these mutations change the orientation of neurosteroid photolabeling. Molecular docking of allopregnanolone in WT and Q242W receptors confirms that the mutation favors re-orientation of allopregnanolone within the binding pocket. Collectively, the data indicate that mutations at Gln242 or Trp246 that eliminate neurosteroid effects do not eliminate neurosteroid binding within the intersubunit site, but significantly alter the preferred orientation of the neurosteroid within the site. The interactions formed by Gln242 and Trp246 within this pocket play a vital role in determining the orientation of the neurosteroid that may be necessary for its functional effect.

Variations on a scaffold - Novel GABAA receptor modulators

Allosteric ligands of GABA_A receptors exist in many different chemotypes owing to their great usefulness as therapeutics, with benzodiazepines being among the best known examples. Many allosteric binding sites have been described, among them a site at the extracellular interface between the alpha principal face and the beta complementary face (α+/β-). Pyrazoloquinolinones have been shown to bind at α+/β-binding sites of GABA_A receptors, exerting chiefly positive allosteric modulation at this location. In order to further explore molecular determinants of this type of allosteric modulation, we synthesized a library of ligands based on the PQ pharmacophore employing a ring-chain bioisosteric approach. In this study we analyzed the structure-activity-relationship (SAR) of these novel ligands based on an azo-biaryl structural motif in α1β3 GABA_A receptors, indicating interesting novel properties of the compound class.

The α5-Containing GABAA Receptors-a Brief Summary

GABA_A receptors are the major inhibitory neurotransmitter receptor in the human brain. The receptors are assembled from combination of protein subunits in pentameric complex which may consist of α1-6, β1-3, γ1-3, ρ1-3, δ, ε, θ, or π subunits. There are a theoretical > 150,000 possible assemblies and arrangements of GABA_A subunits, although only a few combinations have been found in human with the most dominant consists of 2α1, 2β2, and 1γ2 in a counterclockwise arrangement as seen from the synaptic cleft. The receptors also possess binding sites for various unrelated substances including benzodiazepines, barbiturates, and anesthetics. The α5-containing GABA_ARs only make up ≤ 5% of the entire receptor population, but up to 25% of the receptor subtype is located in the crucial learning and memory-associated area of the brain-the hippocampus, which has ignited myriads of hypotheses and theories in regard to its role. As well as exhibiting synaptic phasic inhibition, the α5-containing receptors are also extrasynaptic and mediate tonic inhibition with continuously occurring smaller amplitude. Studies on negative-allosteric modulators for reducing this tonic inhibition have been shown to enhance learning and memory in neurological disorders such as schizophrenia, Down syndrome, and autism with a possible alternative benzodiazepine binding site. Therefore, a few α5 subunit-specific compounds have been developed to address these pharmacological needs. With its small population, the α5-containing receptors could be the key and also the answer for many untreated cognitive dysfunctions and disorders.

In Search of GABAA Receptor's Neurosteroid Binding Sites

Neurosteroids (NS) are the main modulators of γ-aminobutyric acid type A receptors (GABA_ARs), which are the ligand-gated channels target of the major inhibitory neurotransmitter in vertebrates. As a consequence of their ability to modify inhibitory functions in the brain, NS have high physiological and clinical relevance. Accumulated evidence has strongly suggested that NS binding sites were located in the GABA_AR transmembrane domain; however the specific localization of these sites has remained an enigma for decades. Fortunately, recent resolution of GABA_ARs crystal structures, together with computational strategies applied to investigate the NS binding, has paved the way to rationalizing the molecular basis of NS modulation. This work reviews from a historical perspective the road followed for establishing the GABA_AR/NS binding mode, from their initial molecular modeling to the latest findings. Furthermore, a comparative analysis describing the NS binding is provided, plus a preliminary analysis of putative NS sites in other assemblies.

Structure and dynamics of neurosteroid binding to the α1β2γ2 GABAA receptor

Neurosteroids are the principal endogenous modulators of the γ-Aminobutyric acid receptors (GABA_ARs), pentameric membrane-bound proteins that can be assembled from at least 19 subunits. In the most abundant GABA_AR arrangement (α₁β₂γ₂), neurosteroids can potentiate the GABA action as well as produce a direct activation of the channel. The recent crystal structures of neurosteroids bound to α homopentameric GABA_AR reveal binding to five equivalent sites. However, these results have been obtained using receptors that are not physiologically relevant, suggesting a need to investigate neurosteroid binding to heteropentameric receptors that exist in the central nervous system. In a previous work, we predicted the neurosteroid binding site by applying molecular modeling methods on the β₃ homopentamer. Here we construct a homology model of the transmembrane domain of the heteropentameric α₁β₂γ₂ receptor and then, by combining docking and molecular dynamics simulations, we analyzed neurosteroid binding. Results show that the five neurosteroid cavities are conserved in the α₁β₂γ₂ receptor and all of them are able to bind neurosteroids. Two different binding modes were detected depending on the identity of the residue at position 241 in the transmembrane helix 1. These theoretical findings provide microscopic insights into neurosteroid binding at the heteropentameric GABA_AR. The existence of two classes of sites may be associated with how neurosteroids modulate GABA_AR. Our finding would represent the essential first step to reach a comprehensive understanding of how these endogenous molecules regulate the central nervous system.

Different Benzodiazepines Bind with Distinct Binding Modes to GABAA Receptors

Benzodiazepines are clinically relevant drugs that bind to GABAA neurotransmitter receptors at the α+/γ2- interfaces and thereby enhance GABA-induced chloride ion flux leading to neuronal hyperpolarization. However, the structural basis of benzodiazepine interactions with their high-affinity site at GABAA receptors is controversially debated in the literature, and in silico studies led to discrepant binding mode hypotheses. In this study, computational docking of diazepam into α+/γ2- homology models suggested that a chiral methyl group, which is known to promote preferred binding to α5-containing GABAA receptors (position 3 of the seven-membered diazepine ring), could possibly provide experimental evidence that supports or contradicts the proposed binding modes. Thus, we investigated three pairs of R and S isomers of structurally different chemotypes, namely, diazepam, imidazobenzodiazepine, and triazolam derivatives. We used radioligand displacement studies as well as two-electrode voltage clamp electrophysiology in α1β3γ2-, α2β3γ2-, α3β3γ2-, and α5β3γ2-containing GABAA receptors to determine the ligand binding and functional activity of the three chemotypes. Interestingly, both imidazobenzodiazepine isomers displayed comparable binding affinities, while for the other two chemotypes, a discrepancy in binding affinities of the different isomers was observed. Specifically, the R isomers displayed a loss of binding, whereas the S isomers remained active. These findings are in accordance with the results of our in silico studies suggesting the usage of a different binding mode of imidazobenzodiazepines compared to those of the other two tested chemotypes. Hence, we conclude that different chemically related benzodiazepine ligands interact via distinct binding modes rather than by using a common binding mode.