Quinoa for Marginal Environments: Toward Future Food and Nutritional Security in MENA and Central Asia Regions

The potential of young vegetative quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa) as a new sustainable protein-rich winter leafy crop under Mediterranean climate

The demand for protein products has significantly risen in the last few years. In western countries, animals are the primary source of protein; however, plants could take a share of this market due to lower production costs, among other advantages such as a lower environmental footprint. Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) is a well-known but under-utilized protein-rich crop, commonly cultivated for grain production. These plants were recently evaluated for their use as a non-traditional, green leafy crop. Here we assessed the potential of young vegetative quinoa as a new sustainable winter leafy crop in Israel-serving as a model for Mediterranean semi-arid regions, by evaluating yield, protein content and quality. Five quinoa accessions were sown on three winter sowing dates over two consecutive years. Plants were harvested when they reached 10% dry matter (DM). DM yield ranged between 574 and 1,982 kg ha-1 and was generally higher in the second year. Protein content ranged from 14.4-34% and was generally higher in the first year. Protein yield ranged from 111-471 kg ha-1 and was greatest on the December sowing date. DM and protein yields were positively correlated with plant density. Protein content was negatively correlated with plant density and DM yield. Our findings show that 200 g DM of young vegetative quinoa can meet the protein and most essential amino acid requirements for a 70 kg human adult. Prospects for cultivating young vegetative quinoa in Mediterranean countries as a new sustainable, protein-rich winter leafy crop are therefore high, as supported by its high protein yields and quality, and its requirement for only scant irrigation. Further studies should examine economic and other agrotechnical parameters toward the geographical distribution and expansion of young vegetative quinoa cultivation.

Field phenotyping for African crops: overview and perspectives

Improvements in crop productivity are required to meet the dietary demands of the rapidly-increasing African population. The development of key staple crop cultivars that are high-yielding and resilient to biotic and abiotic stresses is essential. To contribute to this objective, high-throughput plant phenotyping approaches are important enablers for the African plant science community to measure complex quantitative phenotypes and to establish the genetic basis of agriculturally relevant traits. These advances will facilitate the screening of germplasm for optimum performance and adaptation to low-input agriculture and resource-constrained environments. Increasing the capacity to investigate plant function and structure through non-invasive technologies is an effective strategy to aid plant breeding and additionally may contribute to precision agriculture. However, despite the significant global advances in basic knowledge and sensor technology for plant phenotyping, Africa still lags behind in the development and implementation of these systems due to several practical, financial, geographical and political barriers. Currently, field phenotyping is mostly carried out by manual methods that are prone to error, costly, labor-intensive and may come with adverse economic implications. Therefore, improvements in advanced field phenotyping capabilities and appropriate implementation are key factors for success in modern breeding and agricultural monitoring. In this review, we provide an overview of the current state of field phenotyping and the challenges limiting its implementation in some African countries. We suggest that the lack of appropriate field phenotyping infrastructures is impeding the development of improved crop cultivars and will have a detrimental impact on the agricultural sector and on food security. We highlight the prospects for integrating emerging and advanced low-cost phenotyping technologies into breeding protocols and characterizing crop responses to environmental challenges in field experimentation. Finally, we explore strategies for overcoming the barriers and maximizing the full potential of emerging field phenotyping technologies in African agriculture. This review paper will open new windows and provide new perspectives for breeders and the entire plant science community in Africa.

Genetic resources and breeding approaches for improvement of amaranth (Amaranthus spp.) and quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa)

Nowadays, the human population is more concerned about their diet and very specific in choosing their food sources to ensure a healthy lifestyle and avoid diseases. So people are shifting to more smart nutritious food choices other than regular cereals and staple foods they have been eating for a long time. Pseudocereals, especially, amaranth and quinoa, are important alternatives to traditional cereals due to comparatively higher nutrition, essential minerals, amino acids, and zero gluten. Both Amaranchaceae crops are low-input demanding and hardy plants tolerant to stress, drought, and salinity conditions. Thus, these crops may benefit developing countries that follow subsistence agriculture and have limited farming resources. However, these are underutilized orphan crops, and the efforts to improve them by reducing their saponin content remain ignored for a long time. Furthermore, these crops have very rich variability, but the progress of their genetic gain for getting high-yielding genotypes is slow. Realizing problems in traditional cereals and opting for crop diversification to tackle climate change, research should be focused on the genetic improvement for low saponin, nutritionally rich, tolerant to biotic and abiotic stresses, location-specific photoperiod, and high yielding varietal development of amaranth and quinoa to expand their commercial cultivation. The latest technologies that can accelerate the breeding to improve yield and quality in these crops are much behind and slower than the already established major crops of the world. We could learn from past mistakes and utilize the latest trends such as CRISPR/Cas, TILLING, and RNA interference (RNAi) technology to improve these pseudocereals genetically. Hence, the study reviewed important nutrition quality traits, morphological descriptors, their breeding behavior, available genetic resources, and breeding approaches for these crops to shed light on future breeding strategies to develop superior genotypes.

Optimization of macronutrients for improved grain yield of quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Wild.) crop under semi-arid conditions of Morocco

In the context of climate change, quinoa represents a potential alternative crop for increasing crops diversity, agricultural productivity, and farmer's income in semi-arid regions. However, appropriate crop management practices under limited water supply are still poorly documented. Quinoa, like other cultivated crops, needs optimum quantities of nutrients, especially nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K), for better growth and high grain yield. To determine the adequate levels of nutrient requirements and their effect on quinoa growth and productivity, a field experiment was conducted during two growing seasons (2020-2021 and 2021-2022). The experiment was conducted in Ben Guerir region, north-central Morocco, and consisted of a randomized complete block design (RCBD) with three replications. The treatments studied consist of a combination of four N rates (0, 40, 80, and 120 kg ha^-1), three P rates (0, 30, and 60 kg P₂O₅ ha^-1), and three K rates (0, 60, and 120 kg K₂O ha^-1). The physiological, nutritional, and production parameters of quinoa were collected and analyzed. The results showed that the highest total biomass (3.9 t ha^-1) and grain yield (0.8 t ha^-1) under semi-arid conditions were obtained with 40 kg N ha^-1, 60 kg P₂O₅ ha^-1, and 120 kg K₂O ha^-1. The application of 40-60-120 kg ha^-1 of N-P₂O₅-K₂O increased plant height by 44%, chlorophyll content index by 96%, total biomass by 134%, grain yield by 112%, and seed weight by 118%. Among the three macronutrients, N was the most limiting factor, followed by K and P. Nutrients uptake data showed that quinoa needs 60 kg N, 26 kg P₂O₅, and 205 kg K₂O to produce 1 t of grain yield. Our field results provide future recommendations for improving the agronomic and environmental sustainability of quinoa cultivation in dryland areas in Morocco.

Efficient detoxification of textile wastewater by applying Chenopodium album nanoparticles and its application in simulated metal-bearing effluents removal

Large-scale pollution of water and soils bodies is associated with the discharge of the untreated textile industry effluents. Halophytes grows on saline lands and accumulate secondary metabolites and other stress protective compounds. Utilization of Chenopodium album (halophytes) to synthesize zinc oxide (ZnO) and their efficiency to treat different concentrations of textile industry waste water is proposed in this study. Potential of nanoparticles textile industry waste water effluents was also analyzed by exposing different concentrations of nanoparticles (0 (control), 0.2, 0.5, 1 mg) and time intervals of 5, 10, and 15 days. The absorption peaks by UV region, FTIR and SEM analysis were used characterized on ZnO NPs for the first time. FTIR analysis showed the preens of various functional groups and vital phytochemicals that can play its role in the formation of nanoparticles that can be used for trace elements removal and bioremediation. SEM analysis indicated that the pure ZnO NPs synthesis ranged from 30 to 57 nm. Results shows that the green synthesis of halophytic nanoparticles presents maximum removal capacity after 15 days exposure to 1 mg of ZnO NPs. Hence, the prepared ZnO Nps from halophytes can be a viable solution for treating the textile industry effluents before they are discharged into water bodies for sustainable environmental growth and environmental safety.

Shotgun proteomics of quinoa seeds reveals chitinases enrichment under rainfed conditions

Quinoa is an Andean crop whose cultivation has been extended to many different parts of the world in the last decade. It shows a great capacity for adaptation to diverse climate conditions, including environmental stressors, and, moreover, the seeds are very nutritious in part due to their high protein content, which is rich in essential amino acids. They are gluten-free seeds and contain good amounts of other nutrients such as unsaturated fatty acids, vitamins, or minerals. Also, the use of quinoa hydrolysates and peptides has been linked to numerous health benefits. Altogether, these aspects have situated quinoa as a crop able to contribute to food security worldwide. Aiming to deepen our understanding of the protein quality and function of quinoa seeds and how they can vary when this crop is subjected to water-limiting conditions, a shotgun proteomics analysis was performed to obtain the proteomes of quinoa seeds harvested from two different water regimes in the field: rainfed and irrigated conditions. Differentially increased levels of proteins determined in seeds from each field condition were analysed, and the enrichment of chitinase-related proteins in seeds harvested from rainfed conditions was found. These proteins are described as pathogen-related proteins and can be accumulated under abiotic stress. Thus, our findings suggest that chitinase-like proteins in quinoa seeds can be potential biomarkers of drought. Also, this study points to the need for further research to unveil their role in conferring tolerance when coping with water-deficient conditions.

Yield, growth development and grain characteristics of seven Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) genotypes grown in open-field production systems under hot-arid climatic conditions

Quinoa is an important Andean crop that can play a strategic role in the development of degraded lands in hot arid regions due to its high nutritional value, genetic diversity and its high adaptability to stressful environments. The aim of this work was to evaluate the agronomic performance (growth development, grain yield and grain quality characteristics) of seven quinoa genotypes (Giza1, Sajama, Santa Maria, Q102, Q29, Q27 and Q18) cultivated under open field conditions in the Sahara Desert of Algeria. Using randomized complete block design (4 blocks), field trials were conducted during two cropping seasons (2017-2018 and 2018-2019) from November to April. The measured parameters included: plant height, number of panicles per plant, 1000-grain weight (TGW), grain yield (GYd), grain protein content (GPt), grain saponin content (GSC), and maturity indicators. The genotype effect was statistically the main source of variation in most parameters investigated as compared to the effect of cropping year. The Q102 genotype produced the highest GYd (2.87 t/ha) and GPt (16.7 g/100 g DM); and it required medium period (149 days) to reach harvest maturity as compared to other genotypes. The genotype Giza1 showed the lowest GYd and also low values for most of traits measured. However, it had the shortest harvest maturity (139 days) and the lowest GSC (0.62 g/100 g DM). The variety Santa Maria recorded the highest TGW (2.68 g), but it took 164 days to reach harvest maturity and it had high GSC (1.92 g/100 g DM). Though the best yield and grain quality characteristics were not reunited in single genotype, our findings showed that quinoa has multi-benefit potentials as a new crop for the arid agriculture in particular in hot-arid regions of North Africa.

Genomic Variation Underlying the Breeding Selection of Quinoa Varieties Longli-4 and CA3-1 in China

Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa) is a well-known climate-resilient crop and has been introduced into multiple marginal lands across the world, including China, to improve food security and/or balanced nutrient supplies. Conventional breeding has been widely applied in the selection and breeding of quinoa varieties in China since 1980s; however, few studies have been implemented on the genetic variances among different varieties developed by diversity breeding objectives. In this study, the phenotypic and genetic differences between two varieties (Longli-4 and CA3-1) from China were systematically analyzed. A total of 407,651 and 2,731,411 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and 212,724 and 587,935 small insertion and deletion (INDELs) were detected for Longli-4 and CA3-1, respectively, when compared with the reference genome of PI614886. The SNPs/INDELs were unevenly distributed across each chromosome for both varieties. There were 143,996 SNPs and 83,410 INDELs shared between Longli-4 and CA3-1, accounting for 4% of the total variances. The variation was then screened based on the SNP effects. There were 818 and 73 genes with the variety-specific non-synonymous and stop-gain variation in Longli-4, whereas there were 13,701 and 733 genes in CA3-1. Specifically, 3501 genes with the non-synonymous variation and 74 genes with the stop-gain variation were found in both Longli-4 and CA3-1. These results suggest that convergent selection occurred during the different breeding processes. A set of candidate genes related to agronomic traits and domestication were further selected to detect the genetic divergence in detail in the two varieties. Only one domestication gene was identified having Longli-4-specific stop-gain variation. Twelve candidate genes related to betalain (1), flowering (4), seed size (2), domestication (1), and saponin (4) were identified having CA3-1-specific stop-gain variation. Interestingly, one seed size gene homologous of CKX1 (cytokinin oxidase/dehydrogenase 1) had the stop-gain variation in both varieties. This research will therefore provide guidance for the molecular-assisted breeding in quinoa.

Adaptation of Some Quinoa Genotypes (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.), Grown in a Saharan Climate in Algeria

Agriculture in southern Algeria faces several challenges that hinder its development, including drought, high temperatures and the excessive salinity of soil and groundwater. The introduction of crops resistant to these factors is one of the solutions chosen to address these abiotic constraints. This research aimed to evaluate the behavior of quinoa (Chenopodium Quinoa Willd.) grown in the Ouargla region of southeastern Algeria. Five varieties of quinoa (Santa maria, Giza1, Amarilla Sacaca, Blanca de Junin and Kancolla) were tested at two sites that differed in terms of soil salinity (9.95 mS/cm and 0.85 mS/cm) during 2019 and 2020. A complete random block experimental design with four repetitions was used for the agronomic tests. Our results clearly show that higher grain yields were obtained at the high salinity site (site 1) compared to the low salinity site (site 2). However, plant height, grain yield per plant and harvest index differed between varieties and sites. In contrast, stem diameter was not greatly affected by salinity. The varieties that seem to be best adapted to the growing conditions of the Ouargla region are, in descending order: Santa Maria, Giza1, Amarilla Sacaca and Blanca de Junin. When testing quinoa in new environments, it is critical to adapt the cropping cycle of varieties to avoid very high temperatures. The choice to switch to winter cultivation instead of spring cultivation can be an essential criterion for success. The biogeographical approach conducted in this research opens up new perspectives for the adaptation and cultivation of quinoa outside its region of origin to satisfy the food security of the people of North Africa.

New Insights into the Phosphorus Acquisition Capacity of Chilean Lowland Quinoa Roots Grown under Low Phosphorus Availability

Reducing phosphate fertilizer inputs while increasing food nutritional quality has been posited as a major challenge to decrease human undernourishment and ensure food security. In this context, quinoa has emerged as a promising crop due to its ability to tolerate different stress conditions and grow in marginal soils with low nutrient content, in addition to the exceptional nutritional quality of its grains. However, there is scarce information about the phosphorus acquisition capacity of quinoa roots. This work aimed to provide new insights into P acquisition and functional root traits, such as root biomass, rhizosphere pH, carboxylate exudation, and acid phosphatase activity of thirty quinoa genotypes grown under P limiting conditions (7 mg P kg^-1). Significant genotypic variation was observed among genotypes, with average P accumulation ranging from 1.2 to 11.8 mg. The shoot biomass production varied more than 14 times among genotypes and was correlated with the P accumulation on shoots (r = 0.91). Despite showing high variability in root traits, only root biomass production highly correlated with P acquisition (r = 0.77), suggesting that root growth/morphology rather than the measured biochemical activity possesses a critical role in the P nutrition of quinoa.

Diversity of quinoa genetic resources for sustainable production: A survey on nutritive characteristics as influenced by environmental conditions

Environmental extremes and climatic variability have enhanced the changes in numerous plant stressors. Researchers have been working to improve “major” crops for several decades to make them more adaptable and tolerant to environmental stresses. However, neglected and underutilized crop species that have the potential to ensure food and nutritional security for the ever-growing global population have received little or no research attention. Quinoa is one of these crops. It is a pseudocereal, considered a rich and balanced food resource due to its protein content and protein quality, high mineral content, and health benefits. This review provides currently available information on the genetic resources of quinoa and their quality in terms of variability of economically important traits such as yield, and the content of bioactive compounds, such as protein and amino acid composition. The influence of variety and environmental conditions on selected traits is also discussed. The various types of nutrients present in the different varieties form the basis and are key for future breeding efforts and for efficient, healthy, and sustainable food production.

Changes in nutritional quality-related traits of quinoa seeds under different storage conditions

Within the context of climate change and its impact on global food security, seed storage has become key, as it ensures long-term food and next-season seed preservation. Aiming at evaluating quality-related changes in quinoa seeds over storage time, different storage temperatures (–20, 4, 12, 25, and 37°C) and humidity conditions (use of silica gel or not) were studied and different seed nutritional parameters were evaluated at different points during a year of storage. Also, to determine if these variations could be conditioned by the genotype used, two quinoa cultivars were compared. The results proved that quinoa seed quality is highly dependent on the storage temperature but is not consistently affected by the use of silica gel if the seed moisture content (SMC) is kept between 5 and 12%. Furthermore, quality can be maintained and even improved by keeping SMC lower than 12% and storage temperatures low (4°C). Under these conditions (at 4°C in hermetic packaging with or without silica gel), and after 12 months of storage, there was an increase in amino acids like isoleucine, serine, arginine, glycine, and glutamic acid and in seed viability and germination. On the contrary, quinoa seeds stored at 37°C showed an accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) which was related to a lower antioxidant capacity and a reduction in the contents of essential amino acids like isoleucine, lysine, histidine, and threonine, resulting in a delayed and reduced germination capacity, and, therefore, lower seed quality. Besides, quality-related differences appeared between cultivars highlighting differences linked to the genotype. Overall, this work demonstrates that optimal storage temperatures and SMC can preserve or even improve quinoa seed nutritional quality, which in turn can impact food safety and agriculture.

Precipitation and local environment shape the geographic variation of seed size across natural populations of sand rice (Agriophyllum squarrosum)

Sand rice (Agriophyllum squarrosum) is widely distributed on dunes in the Asian interior arid zone, and its large intraspecific trait variation makes it a very good model for investigating the ecological processes underlying its adaptation to the desert environment. In this study, seed size variation across 68 natural populations was used to establish geographic patterns and to quantify the effects of the climate, soil, and collection-year weather variables. The length of the seed major axis and thousand seed weight (TSW) both showed significant longitudinal patterns. Long-term climate variables accounted for most of the explained variances for seed major axis (57.20%) and TSW (91.54%). Specifically, annual precipitation and minimum monthly precipitation had the most significantly positive and negative effects, indicating that longitudinal clines are driven by a precipitation gradient across the species' distribution range. A substantial unique effect of soil variables (27.27%) was found for seed major axis variation, but only 3.64% of TSW variation was explained by soil variables. Two extreme groups were selected to evaluate the genetic and plastic effects on seed size in a common garden experiment. Large-seeded individuals were more competitive in semi-arid regions, and had stronger adaptive plasticity as well as better performance in early seedling establishment, and hence they have potential for use in future domestication projects.

Preliminary Study on Growth and Yield Potential of Ten Elite Lines of Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa) Cultivated under Varying Sowing Dates

Optimization of agronomic practices for cultivation of quinoa, a super food and climate resilient crop, is critical to obtain its maximum grain yield under the current scenario of climate change. In the present experimentation, we evaluated the appropriate sowing time of ten elite lines of quinoa, already screened from USDA germplasm. Seeds of each line were sown in the experimental area at Square No. 22, Block No. 5, Directorate of Farm, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan on 15 November, 30 November and 15 December during quinoa cultivation season of 2019–2020. Sowing time significantly affected the emergence percentage, days taken to anthesis, chlorophyll contents, sodium and potassium concentrations in leaf, plant height, stem diameter, number of leaves and leaf area, panicle length, grain yield and 1000-grain weight. Lines; PIA-922, PIA-924, PIA-928 and PIA-929 performed better under first sowing and produced higher grain yield as compared to other lines. Similarly, PIA-921, PIA-922, PIA-925 and PIA-932 produced maximum biomass and grain yield under second sowing date while in case of third sowing date, PIA-926, PIA-928, PIA-930 and PIA-931 were observed more responsive regarding growth and yield attributes. A diversified pattern of agronomic, growth and yield contributing attributes of quinoa lines was observed when cultivated under varying sowing dates. The collected data will be very informative for the breeders and agronomists during selection and variety development process in future.

Irrigation Regimes and Nitrogen Rates as the Contributing Factors in Quinoa Yield to Increase Water and Nitrogen Efficiencies

Sustainable field crop management has been considered to reach the food security issue due to global warming and water scarcity. The effect of deficit irrigation and nitrogen rates on quinoa yield is a challenging issue in those areas. In this regard, the interaction effects of different N rates (0, 125, 250, and 375 kg N ha⁻¹) and irrigation regimes [full irrigation (FI) and deficit irrigation at 0.75 FI and 0.5 FI] on quinoa yield and water and nitrogen efficiencies were evaluated with a two-year field experiment. Increasing nitrogen fertilizer application levels from 250 to 375 kg N ha⁻¹ under FI and deficit irrigation did not cause a significant difference in seed yield and the total dry matter of quinoa. Furthermore, 20% and 34% reductions were observed for nitrogen use efficiency (NUE) and nitrogen yield efficiency with the application of 375 kg N ha⁻¹ compared with that obtained in 250 kg N ha⁻¹ nitrogen fertilizer, respectively. Therefore, a Nitrogen application rate of 250 kg ha⁻¹ and applying 0.75 FI is suggested as the optimum rate to reach the highest seed water use efficiency (0.7 kg m⁻³) and NUE (0.28 kg m⁻³) to gain 4.12 Mg ha⁻¹ quinoa seed yield. Under non–limited water resource conditions, an FI and N application rate of 375 kg ha⁻¹ could be used for higher seed yield; however, under water-deficit regimes, an N application rate of 250 kg ha⁻¹ could be adequate. However, questions about which environmental factors impressively restricted the quinoa growth for optimizing the potential yield need further investigation.

Trends and Limits for Quinoa Production and Promotion in Pakistan

Quinoa is known as a super food due to its extraordinary nutritional qualities and has the potential to ensure future global food and nutritional security. As a model plant with halophytic behavior, quinoa has potential to meet the challenges of climate change and salinization due to its capabilities for survival in harsh climatic conditions. The quinoa crop has received worldwide attention due to its adoption and production expanded in countries out of the native Andean region. Quinoa was introduced to Pakistan in 2009 and it is still a new crop in Pakistan. The first quinoa variety was registered in 2019, then afterward, its cultivation started on a larger scale. Weed pressure, terminal heat stress, stem lodging, bold grain size, and an unstructured market are the major challenges in the production and promotion of the crop. The potential of superior features of quinoa has not been fully explored and utilized. Hence, there is a need to acquire more diverse quinoa germplasm and to establish a strong breeding program to develop new lines with higher productivity and improved crop features for the Pakistan market. Mechanized production, processing practices, and a structured market are needed for further scaling of quinoa production in Pakistan. To achieve these objectives, there is a dire need to create an enabling environment for quinoa production and promotion through the involvement of policymakers, research institutions, farmers associations, and the private sector.

A protocol for Chenopodium quinoa pollen germination

BACKGROUND

Quinoa is an increasingly popular seed crop frequently studied for its tolerance to various abiotic stresses as well as its susceptibility to heat. Estimations of quinoa pollen viability through staining methods have resulted in conflicting results. A more effective alternative to stains is to estimate pollen viability through in vitro germination. Here we report a method for in vitro quinoa pollen germination that could be used to understand the impact of various stresses on quinoa fertility and therefore seed yield or to identify male-sterile lines for breeding.

RESULTS

A semi-automated method to count germinating pollen was developed in PlantCV, which can be widely used by the community. Pollen collected on day 4 after first anthesis at zeitgeber time 5 was optimum for pollen germination with an average germination of 68% for accession QQ74 (PI 614886). The optimal length of pollen incubation was found to be 48 h, because it maximizes germination rates while minimizing contamination. The pollen germination medium's pH, boric acid, and sucrose concentrations were optimized. The highest germination rates were obtained with 16% sucrose, 0.03% boric acid, 0.007% calcium nitrate, and pH 5.5. This medium was tested on quinoa accessions QQ74, and cherry vanilla with 68%, and 64% germination efficiencies, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

We provide an in vitro pollen germination method for quinoa with average germination rates of 64 and 68% on the two accessions tested. This method is a valuable tool to estimate pollen viability in quinoa, and to test how stress affects quinoa fertility. We also developed an image analysis tool to semi-automate the process of counting germinating pollen. Quinoa produces many new flowers during most of its panicle development period, leading to significant variation in pollen maturity and viability between different flowers of the same panicle. Therefore, collecting pollen at 4 days after first anthesis is very important to collect more uniformly developed pollen and to obtain high germination rates.

Phytochemical Composition, Antioxidant Activity, α-Glucosidase and Acetylcholinesterase Inhibitory Activity of Quinoa Extract and Its Fractions

This study is aimed to evaluate the chemical compositions and biological activities of quinoa, a novel and excellent food crop. Quinoa extract and its fractions were prepared by ethanol extraction and liquid-liquid extraction, including ethanol crude extract, and petroleum ether, chloroform, ethyl acetate (EAF), and n-butanol and water fractions. The total phenolic and flavonoid contents, antioxidant activities, α-glucosidase and acetylcholinesterase inhibitory abilities of the extract and fractions were further determined. Based on these foundations, the chemical composition of the EAF fraction exhibiting the strongest functional activity was analyzed by ultra-performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. The results showed the EAF fraction had the highest phenolic and flavonoid contents, and the highest antioxidant activities, as well as the strongest α-glucosidase and acetylcholinesterase inhibitory abilities, which is even better than the positive control. The phytochemical composition of the EAF fraction indicated that 661 and 243 metabolites were identified in positive and negative ion modes, which were classified into superclass, class and subclass levels, respectively. Phenolic acids and flavonoids were the major bioactive compounds in the EAF fraction. This study found that quinoa, especially its ethyl acetate fraction, had the potential for the development of natural antioxidants, acetylcholinesterase inhibitors, and hypoglycemic agents.

Assessment of Phenotypic Diversity in the USDA Collection of Quinoa Links Genotypic Adaptation to Germplasm Origin

Quinoa’s germplasm evaluation is the first step towards determining its suitability under new environmental conditions. The aim of this study was to introduce suitable germplasm to the lowland areas of the Faisalabad Plain that could then be used to introduce quinoa more effectively to that region. A set of 117 quinoa genotypes belonging to the USDA quinoa collection was evaluated for 11 phenotypic quantitative traits (grain yield (Y), its biological and numerical components plus phenological variables) in a RCBD during two consecutive growing seasons at the University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan under mid-autumn sowings. Genotypic performance changed across the years, however most phenotypic traits showed high heritability, from 0.75 for Harvest Index (HI) to 0.97 for aerial biomass (B) and Y. Ordination and cluster analyses differentiated four groups dominated by genotypes from: Peru and the Bolivian Highlands (G1); the Bolivian Highlands (G2); the Ballón collection (regarded as a cross between Bolivian and Sea Level (Chilean) genotypes) plus Bolivian Highlands (G3); and Ballón plus Sea Level (G4), this latter group being the most differentiated one. This genetic structure shared similarities with previous groups identified using SSR markers and G×E data from an international quinoa test. G4 genotypes showed the highest Y associated with higher B and seed numbers (SN), while HI made a significant contribution to yield determination in G2 and seed weight (SW) in G3. G1 and G2 showed the lowest Y associated with a lower B and SN. Moreover, SW showed a strongly negative association with SN in G2. Accordingly, G4 followed by G3 are better suited to the lowland areas of Faisalabad plain and the physiological traits underlying yield determination among genotypic groups should be considered in future breeding programs.

Heat stress changes mineral nutrient concentrations in Chenopodium quinoa seed

Quinoa is a popular seed crop, often consumed for its high nutritional quality. We studied how heat stress in the roots or the shoots of quinoa plants affected the concentrations of 20 elements (aluminum, arsenic, boron, calcium, cadmium, cobalt, copper, iron, potassium, magnesium, manganese, molybdenum, sodium, nickel, phosphorous, rubidium, sulfur, selenium, strontium, and zinc) in quinoa seed. Elemental concentrations in quinoa seed were significantly changed after an 11-day heat treatment during anthesis. The type of panicle (main, secondary, and tertiary) sampled and the type of heat treatment (root only, shoot only, or whole plants) significantly affected elemental profiles in quinoa seed. Plants were also divided into five sections from top to bottom to assess the effect of panicle position on seed elemental profiles. Plant section had an effect on the concentrations of arsenic, iron, and sodium under control conditions and on copper with heat treatment. Overall, the time of panicle development in relation to the time of heat exposure had the largest effect on seed elemental concentrations. Interestingly, the quinoa plants were exposed to heat only during anthesis of the main panicle, but the elemental concentrations of seeds produced after heat treatment ended were still significantly changed, indicating that heat stress has long-lasting effects on quinoa plants. These findings demonstrate how the nutritional quality of quinoa seeds can be changed significantly even by relatively short heat spells.

How Does Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) Respond to Phosphorus Fertilization and Irrigation Water Salinity?

Soil salinity is a major problem in arid and semi-arid regions, causing land degradation, desertification, and subsequently, food insecurity. Salt-affected soils and phosphorus (P) deficiency are the common problems in the sub-Sahara, including the Southern region of Morocco. Soil salinity limits plant growth by limiting water availability, causing a nutritional imbalance, and imparting osmotic stress in the plants. The objective of this study was to determine the positive effects of P on growth and productivity and understand the major leaf mineral nutrient content of quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) cv. "ICBA Q5" irrigated with saline water. A field experiment applying three salinity (Electrical Conductivity, EC) levels of irrigation water (ECw = 5, 12, and 17 dS·m^-1) and three P fertilizer rates (0, 60, and 70 kg of P₂O₅ ha^-1) were evaluated in a split-plot design with three replications. The experiment was conducted in Foum El Oued, South of Morocco on sandy loam soil during the period of March-July 2020. The results showed that irrigation with saline water significantly reduced the final dry biomass, seed yield, harvest index, and crop water productivity of quinoa; however, P application under saline conditions minimized the effect of salinity and improved the yield. The application of 60 and 70 kg of P₂O₅ ha^-1 increased (p < 0.05) the seed yield by 29 and 51% at low salinity (5 dS·m^-1), by 16 and 2% at medium salinity (12 dS·m^-1), and by 13 and 8% at high salinity (17 dS·m^-1), respectively. The leaf Na⁺ and K⁺ content and Na⁺/K⁺ ratio increased with irrigation water salinity. However, the leaf content of Mg, Ca, Zn, and Fe decreased under high salinity. It was also found that increasing P fertilization improved the essential nutrient content and nutrient uptake. Our finding suggests that P application minimizes the adverse effects of high soil salinity and can be adopted as a coping strategy under saline conditions.

Transcriptional Regulation of Quinoa Seed Quality: Identification of Novel Candidate Genetic Markers for Increased Protein Content

Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) is a crop that has great potential for increased cultivation in diverse climate regions. The seed protein quality obtained from this crop is high concerning the requirements to meet human nutritional needs, but the seed protein content is relatively low if compared to crops such as grain legumes. Increased seed protein content is desirable for increasing the economic viability of this crop in order for it to be used as a protein crop. In this study, we characterized three genotypes of quinoa with different levels of seed protein content. By performing RNA sequencing of developing seeds, we determined the genotype differences in gene expression and identified genetic polymorphisms that could be associated with increased protein content. Storage nutrient analyses of seeds of three quinoa genotypes (Titicaca, Pasankalla, and Regalona) from different ecoregions grown under controlled climate conditions showed that Pasankalla had the highest protein content (20%) and the lowest starch content (46%). Our seed transcriptome analyses revealed highly differentially expressed transcripts (DETs) in Pasankalla as compared to the other genotypes. These DETs encoded functions in sugar transport, starch and protein synthesis, genes regulating embryo size, and seed transcription factors. We selected 60 genes that encode functions in the central carbon metabolism and transcription factors as potential targets for the development of high-precision markers. Genetic polymorphisms, such as single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and base insertions and deletions (InDels), were found in 19 of the 60 selected genes, which can be further evaluated for the development of genetic markers for high seed protein content in quinoa. Increased cultivation of quinoa can contribute to a more diversified agriculture and support the plant protein diet shift. The identification of quinoa genotypes with contrasting seed quality can help establish a model system that can be used for the identification of precise breeding targets to improve the seed quality of quinoa. The data presented in this study based on nutrient and transcriptome analyses contribute to an enhanced understanding of the genetic regulation of seed quality traits in quinoa and suggest high-precision candidate markers for such traits.

Techno-economic assessment of quinoa production and transformation in Morocco

Agriculture is facing many challenges as climate change, drought, and salinity which call for urgent interventions to fast adaptation and diversification such as the introduction of new climate smart and stress tolerant crops such as quinoa. This study aims to introduce new high yielding quinoa cultivars conducted under several agronomic practices (rainfed, irrigation, and organic amendment) and to assess the technical and economic aspects related to quinoa seed production, transformation, and quality. Results obtained from agronomic trials clearly showed that International Center for Biosaline Agriculture cultivars recorded higher yields than locally cultivated seeds. Irrigation and organic amendment had a tremendous effect on quinoa productivity as it increased most of cultivar's yield by more than three times compared with rainfed conditions. Production cost analysis showed that using mechanized production and processing practices combined with irrigation and organic amendment can reduce seed production and processing cost from 2.8 to 1.2 USD kg^-1 compared with manual production system under rainfed conditions. The diagnosis of the quinoa transformation pathways revealed different transformation levels, and the production cost increased with the level of transformation due to high cost of labor and raw material. Analysis of quinoa seeds showed that macronutrient content is mostly not affected by pearling process, while micronutrients content was significantly decreased in processed seeds. In addition, total saponin content was reduced to an acceptable level after using mechanical pearling compared with manual abrasion.

Quinoa value chain, adoption, and market assessment in Morocco

Agriculture faces many challenges such as climate change, droughts, and salinity, which requires urgent interventions for fast adaptation and diversification of the sector. In this context, introduction of new crops that tolerate stresses and generate high added value such as quinoa would allow simultaneously to address two interlinked challenges: abiotic stresses that limit agricultural production and poverty that impacts negatively the rural people. The quinoa Rehamna project funded by the International Development Research Centre aims to contribute to the development the quinoa value chain toward achieving food and nutritional security of rural poor communities. The obtained results from the farmer's survey show that 14% of surveyed farmers already grow quinoa and 2/3 never heard about quinoa, among them 96% are interested to grow quinoa. The marketing study reveals that the psychological price that satisfies most of consumers is ranging between 2 and 2.6 USD/500 g of processed quinoa seeds. The findings indicate that quinoa has a great potential for both producers and consumers in Morocco and can be a judicious solution toward achieving food and nutritional security.

Policies for Sustainable Agriculture and Livelihood in Marginal Lands: A Review

Despite the substantial improvements in agricultural productivity owing to technological progress, the poor in agriculturally marginal areas are overlooked and left behind. Nearly a billion people still live in poverty, the majority of whom happen to be in developing countries, with a larger share of those who are poor living on marginal lands. Food insecurity is a vicious reality in the everyday lives of these marginalized poor, and the threat of food insecurity and hunger is becoming even more serious and imminent, with increasing trends in population growth. Climate change is expected to add yet more weight to this equation and to pose greater risks for the livelihoods of these communities. In spite of the challenges faced, addressing marginal agriculture systems and poverty is vital to achieving the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). In this paper, we investigate the historical policy perspective towards marginal areas to pinpoint potential shortcomings in the policy environment. Subsequently, we present a roadmap to future research engagement and develop a policy framework, with instruments and strategies focusing on the food–poverty–environment nexus, to target poverty reduction, preserve biodiversity, and restore marginal lands. Our analysis of historical policies reveals that conventional policy approaches towards marginal agriculture have been conducive to favorable areas (specific to input-responsive crops only), neglecting marginal areas. Future policies to address the food–poverty–environment nexus within marginal environments must evolve around a framework that is all-inclusive but context-specific. Agricultural and other public investments should be prioritized geographically in accordance with the characteristics of marginality hotspots. Policy instruments should encourage long-term solutions to enhance productivity through regenerative production systems and preserve the environmental resource base.

Silicon mitigates nutritional stress in quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.)

Nutritional deficiency is common in several regions of quinoa cultivation. Silicon (Si) can attenuate the stress caused by nutritional deficiency, but studies on the effects of Si supply on quinoa plants are still scarce. Given this scenario, our objective was to evaluate the symptoms in terms of tissue, physiological and nutritional effects of quinoa plants submitted to nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), calcium (Ca), and magnesium (Mg) deficiencies under Si presence. The experiment consisted of a factorial scheme 6 × 2, using a complete solution (CS), -N, -P, -K, -Ca, -Mg combined with absence and presence of Si (1.5 mmol L-1). Symptomatic, physiological, nutritional and evaluation vegetative were performed in quinoa crop. The deficiencies of N, P, K, Ca and Mg in quinoa cultivation caused visual symptoms characteristic of the deficiency caused by respective nutrients, hence decreasing the plant dry mass. However, Si supply attenuated the deficiency effects by preserving the photosynthetic apparatus, increasing the chlorophyll production, increasing the membrane integrity, and decreasing the electrolyte leakage. Thus, the Si supply attenuated the visual effects provided by deficiency of all nutrients, but stood out for N and Ca, because it reflected in a higher dry mass production. This occurred because, the Si promoted higher synthesis and protection of chlorophylls, and lower electrolyte leakage under Ca restriction, as well as decreased electrolyte leakage under N restriction.

The genotype-dependent phenotypic landscape of quinoa in salt tolerance and key growth traits

Cultivation of quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa), an annual pseudocereal crop that originated in the Andes, is spreading globally. Because quinoa is highly nutritious and resistant to multiple abiotic stresses, it is emerging as a valuable crop to provide food and nutrition security worldwide. However, molecular analyses have been hindered by the genetic heterogeneity resulting from partial outcrossing. In this study, we generated 136 inbred quinoa lines as a basis for the molecular identification and characterization of gene functions in quinoa through genotyping and phenotyping. Following genotyping-by-sequencing analysis of the inbred lines, we selected 5,753 single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in the quinoa genome. Based on these SNPs, we show that our quinoa inbred lines fall into three genetic sub-populations. Moreover, we measured phenotypes, such as salt tolerance and key growth traits in the inbred quinoa lines and generated a heatmap that provides a succinct overview of the genotype–phenotype relationship between inbred quinoa lines. We also demonstrate that, in contrast to northern highland lines, most lowland and southern highland lines can germinate even under high salinity conditions. These findings provide a basis for the molecular elucidation and genetic improvement of quinoa and improve our understanding of the evolutionary process underlying quinoa domestication.

How Does Mechanical Pearling Affect Quinoa Nutrients and Saponin Contents?

Agriculture is facing many challenges, such as climate change, drought, and salinity, which call for urgent interventions for fast adaptation and crop diversification. The introduction of high-value and stress tolerant crops such as quinoa would be a judicious solution to overcome constraints related to abiotic stress and to increase land productivity and farmers’ incomes. The implementation of quinoa in Morocco has not been supported by a full valorization program to control the quality of quinoa seeds. The novelty of this work is to assess the pearling operation as an efficient method of saponins removal as well as the determination of total residual saponins. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of several pearling durations on nutrient and saponin content of quinoa seeds of three tested varieties (Puno, Titicaca, and ICBA-Q5). Five pearling durations were tested (0, 2, 4, 6, 7, and 8 min) using a locally manufactured pearling machine. The results indicated that a pearling duration of two minutes was enough to reduce total saponin content from 0.49% to 0.09% for Puno variety, from 0.37% to 0.07% for Titicaca variety, and from 0.57% to 0.1% for ICBA-Q5 variety. Our results showed that pearling slightly reduced protein, total fat, and moisture contents for all varieties except for Puno, where total fat content slightly increased with the pearling. Puno variety had the highest seed content in terms of protein and total fat; the ICBA-Q5 variety had the lowest. Titicaca had the highest bran content in terms of protein and total fat, ICBA-Q5 had the highest bran content in terms of ash and the lowest bran content in terms of protein and total fat, and Puno had the lowest bran content in terms of ash. Pearling had no significant effect on macronutrient contents in the processed seed, but it resulted in a very highly significant difference for most of them in the bran except for Mg and S. Regarding seed content in terms of micro-nutrients, statistical analysis showed significant differences between varieties in terms of Zn, Cu, and Mn contents, but no significant difference was recorded for Fe or B. Pearling had no significant effect on seed micronutrient contents. Therefore, to retain maximum nutritional content in the quinoa and maintain quinoa integrity, it is necessary to limit the pearling duration of quinoa to two minutes, which is enough to reduce saponin content below the Codex Standard threshold (0.12%).

Studying the Impact of Different Field Environmental Conditions on Seed Quality of Quinoa: The Case of Three Different Years Changing Seed Nutritional Traits in Southern Europe

Chenopodium quinoa Willd (quinoa) has acquired an increased agronomical and nutritional relevance due to the capacity of adaptation to different environments and the exceptional nutritional properties of their seeds. These include high mineral and protein contents, a balanced amino acid composition, an elevated antioxidant capacity related to the high phenol content, and the absence of gluten. Although it is known that these properties can be determined by the environment, limited efforts have been made to determine the exact changes occurring at a nutritional level under changing environmental conditions in this crop. To shed light on this, this study aimed at characterizing variations in nutritional-related parameters associated with the year of cultivation and different genotypes. Various nutritional and physiological traits were analyzed in seeds of different quinoa cultivars grown in the field during three consecutive years. We found differences among cultivars for most of the nutritional parameters analyzed. It was observed that the year of cultivation was a determinant factor in every parameter studied, being 2018 the year with lower yields, germination rates, and antioxidant capacity, but higher seed weights and seed protein contents. Overall, this work will greatly contribute to increase our knowledge of the impact of the environment and genotype on the nutritional properties of quinoa seeds, especially in areas that share climatic conditions to Southern Europe.

Development of Quinoa Value Chain to Improve Food and Nutritional Security in Rural Communities in Rehamna, Morocco: Lessons Learned and Perspectives

Agricultural production in the Rehamna region, Morocco is limited with various challenges including drought and salinity. Introduction of climate resilient and rustic crops such as quinoa was an optimal solution to increase farmer’s income and improve food security. This study summarizes results obtained from a research project aiming to develop quinoa value chain in Morocco. The study tackled several aspects including agronomic traits (yield and growth), transformation, quality (nutritional and antinutritional traits) and economic analysis and, finally, a strength–weaknesses–opportunities–threats analysis, lessons learned and development perspectives were presented. From an agronomic point of view, introduced new quinoa cultivars showed higher performance than locally cultivated seeds and, furthermore, the use of irrigation and organic amendment has tremendously improved seed yield by double and three times, respectively, compared to rainfed conditions. Nutritional analysis revealed that protein and phosphorus content remained stable after seed pearling while most of the micronutrients content decreased after seed pearling. However, saponins content was reduced by 68% using mechanical pearling compared to 57% using both traditional abrasion and washing. The economic analysis showed that production cost of quinoa seeds could be further decreased using mechanized intensive tools along with irrigation and organic amendment supply. This study revealed several lessons learned from the field experience and proposed several development actions for each value chain component that can be implemented within a national quinoa program.

Agronomic Practices and Performances of Quinoa under Field Conditions: A Systematic Review

Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) is one of the most popular emerging food crops in the Andean region. It is tolerant to environmental stresses and characterized by interesting nutritional traits. Thus, it has the potential to contribute to food and nutrition security in marginal environments. In this study, we conducted a systematic review integrated with a bibliometric analysis of cropping practices of quinoa under field conditions. The analysis is based on published data from the literature relating to the period 2000–2020. A total of 33 publications were identified, revealing that scientific research on the agronomic practices and performances of quinoa under field conditions is still limited. Africa, Asia, and Europe were the leading research production sites in this field and together provided over 81% of the total scientific production. There were no papers from the Australian continent. The number of papers screened dealing with tillage and weed control management was very limited. The keyword co-occurrence network analyses revealed that the main topics addressed in the scientific literature related to the effect of “variety” and “deficit irrigation”, followed by “water quality”, “fertilization”, and “sowing date” on seed yield. Results from this study will permit us to identify knowledge gaps and limited collaboration among authors and institutions from different countries. Salinity, sowing density, and sowing date were the agronomic interventions affecting productive response the most.

Prospects for the accelerated improvement of the resilient crop quinoa

Crops tolerant to drought and salt stress may be developed by two approaches. First, major crops may be improved by introducing genes from tolerant plants. For example, many major crops have wild relatives that are more tolerant to drought and high salinity than the cultivated crops, and, once deciphered, the underlying resilience mechanisms could be genetically manipulated to produce crops with improved tolerance. Secondly, some minor (orphan) crops cultivated in marginal areas are already drought and salt tolerant. Improving the agronomic performance of these crops may be an effective way to increase crop and food diversity, and an alternative to engineering tolerance in major crops. Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.), a nutritious minor crop that tolerates drought and salinity better than most other crops, is an ideal candidate for both of these approaches. Although quinoa has yet to reach its potential as a fully domesticated crop, breeding efforts to improve the plant have been limited. Molecular and genetic techniques combined with traditional breeding are likely to change this picture. Here we analyse protein-coding sequences in the quinoa genome that are orthologous to domestication genes in established crops. Mutating only a limited number of such genes by targeted mutagenesis appears to be a promising route for accelerating the improvement of quinoa and generating a nutritious high-yielding crop that can meet the future demand for food production in a changing climate.

Heating quinoa shoots results in yield loss by inhibiting fruit production and delaying maturity

Increasing global temperatures and a growing world population create the need to develop crop varieties that provide higher yields in warmer climates. There is growing interest in expanding quinoa cultivation, because of the ability of quinoa to produce nutritious grain in poor soils, with little water and at high salinity. The main limitation to expanding quinoa cultivation, however, is the susceptibility of quinoa to temperatures above approximately 32°C. This study investigates the phenotypes, genes and mechanisms that may affect quinoa seed yield at high temperatures. Using a differential heating system where only roots or only shoots were heated, quinoa yield losses were attributed to shoot heating. Plants with heated shoots lost 60-85% yield as compared with control plants. Yield losses were the result of lower fruit production, which lowered the number of seeds produced per plant. Furthermore, plants with heated shoots had delayed maturity and greater non-reproductive shoot biomass, whereas plants with both heated roots and heated shoots produced higher yields from the panicles that had escaped the heat, compared with the control. This suggests that quinoa uses a type of avoidance strategy to survive heat. Gene expression analysis identified transcription factors differentially expressed in plants with heated shoots and low yield that had been previously associated with flower development and flower opening. Interestingly, in plants with heated shoots, flowers stayed closed during the day while the control flowers were open. Although a closed flower may protect the floral structures, this could also cause yield losses by limiting pollen dispersal, which is necessary to produce fruit in the mostly female flowers of quinoa.

Healthy and Resilient Cereals and Pseudo-Cereals for Marginal Agriculture: Molecular Advances for Improving Nutrient Bioavailability

With the ever-increasing world population, an extra 1.5 billion mouths need to be fed by 2050 with continuously dwindling arable land. Hence, it is imperative that extra food come from the marginal lands that are expected to be unsuitable for growing major staple crops under the adverse climate change scenario. Crop diversity provides right alternatives for marginal environments to improve food, feed, and nutritional security. Well-adapted and climate-resilient crops will be the best fit for such a scenario to produce seed and biomass. The minor millets are known for their high nutritional profile and better resilience for several abiotic stresses that make them the suitable crops for arid and salt-affected soils and poor-quality waters. Finger millet (Eleucine coracana) and foxtail millet (Setaria italica), also considered as orphan crops, are highly tolerant grass crop species that grow well in marginal and degraded lands of Africa and Asia with better nutritional profile. Another category of grains, called pseudo-cereals, is considered as rich foods because of their protein quality and content, high mineral content, and healthy and balance food quality. Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa), amaranth (Amaranthus sp.), and buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum) fall under this category. Nevertheless, both minor millets and pseudo-cereals are morphologically different, although similar for micronutrient bioavailability, and their grains are gluten-free. The cultivation of these millets can make dry lands productive and ensure future food as well as nutritional security. Although the natural nutrient profile of these crop plant species is remarkably good, little development has occurred in advances in molecular genetics and breeding efforts to improve the bioavailability of nutrients. Recent advances in NGS have enabled the genome and transcriptome sequencing of these millets and pseudo-cereals for the faster development of molecular markers and application in molecular breeding. Genomic information on finger millet (1,196 Mb with 85,243 genes); S. italica, a model small millet (well-annotated draft genome of 420 Mb with 38,801 protein-coding genes); amaranth (466 Mb genome and 23,059 protein-coding genes); buckwheat (genome size of 1.12 Gb with 35,816 annotated genes); and quinoa (genome size of 1.5 Gb containing 54,438 protein-coding genes) could pave the way for the genetic improvement of these grains. These genomic resources are an important first step toward genetic improvement of these crops. This review highlights the current advances and available resources on genomics to improve nutrient bioavailability in these five suitable crops for the sustained healthy livelihood.

First adaptation of quinoa in the Bhutanese mountain agriculture systems

Bhutan represents typical mountain agriculture farming systems with unique challenges. The agriculture production systems under environmental constraints are typical of small-scale agricultural subsistence systems related to family farming in the Himalayan Mountains with very low level of mechanization, numerous abiotic stresses influenced by climate and other socio-economic constraints. Quinoa was first introduced in 2015 through FAO's support to Bhutan as a new crop to enhance the food and nutritional security of the Bhutanese people. The main objective was to adapt this versatile crop to the local mountain agriculture conditions as a climate resilient crop for diversifying the farmer's traditional potato and maize based cropping systems. Ten quinoa varieties were evaluated at two different sites representing contrasted mountain agroecologies in Bhutan and were tested during the two agricultural campaigns 2016 and 2017. Yusipang (2600 masl) represents the cool temperate agroecological zone, and Lingmethang (640 masl) the dry subtropical agroecological zone. The sowing time differed depending on the growing season and elevation of the sites. Results indicate that quinoa can be successfully grown in Bhutan for the two different agroecological zones. The grain yields varied from 0.61 to 2.68 t.ha-1 in the high altitude areas where quinoa was seeded in spring and harvested in autumn season. The grain yield in the lower elevation ranged from 1.59 to 2.98 t.ha-1 where the crop was sown in autumn and harvested in winter season. Depending on genotypes' characteristics and agroecological zones, crop maturity significantly varied from 92 to 197 days with all genotypes maturing much earlier in the lower elevations where mean minimum and maximum temperatures during the growing season were higher. Quinoa is rapidly promoted across different agroecological contexts in the country as a new climate resilient and nutrient dense pseudo cereal to diversify the traditional existing cropping system with some necessary adjustments in sowing time, suitable varieties and crop management practices. To fast track the rapid promotion of this new crop in Bhutan, four varieties have been released in 2018. In just over three years, the cultivation of quinoa as a new cereal has been demonstrated and partially adapted to the maize and potato based traditional cropping systems under the Himalayan mountain agriculture. Quinoa is also being adapted to the rice based cropping system and rapidly promoted as an alternative food security crop in the current 12th Five Year national development plan of Bhutan. To rapidly promote quinoa cultivation, the Royal Government of Bhutan is supporting the supply of free quinoa seeds, cultivation technologies and milling machines to the rural communities. To promote the consumption and utilization of quinoa at national level, consumer awareness are created by preparing and serving local Bhutanese dishes from quinoa during local food fairs and farmer's field days. In addition, the Royal Government of Bhutan has included quinoa in the school feeding programme recognizing the high nutrient value of the crop for enhancing and securing the nutritional needs of the young children.

Differential Impact of Salinity Stress on Seeds Minerals, Storage Proteins, Fatty Acids, and Squalene Composition of New Quinoa Genotype, Grown in Hyper-Arid Desert Environments

The effects of climate change and soil salinization on dryland ecosystems are already widespread, and ensuring food security is a crucial challenge. In this article, we demonstrate changes in growth performance and seed quality of a new high-yielding quinoa genotype (Q5) exposed to sodium chloride (NaCl), sodium sulfate (Na₂SO₄), and mixed salts (NaCl + Na₂SO₄). Differential responses to salt stress in growth performance, seed yield, and seed quality were identified. High salinity (mixed Na₂SO₄ + NaCl) reduces plant height by ∼30%, shoot and root dry weights by ∼29%, head panicle length and panicle weight by 36-43%, and seed yield by 37%, compared with control conditions. However, the 1,000-seed weight changes insignificantly under salinity. High content of essential minerals, such as Fe, Zn, and Ca in quinoa Q5 seeds produced under salinity, gives the Q5 genotype a remarkable advantage for human consumption. Biomarkers detected in our studies show that the content of most essential amino acids is unchanged under salinity. The content of amino acids Pro, Gly, and Ile positively correlates with Na⁺ concentration in soil and seeds, whereas the content of squalene and most fatty acids negatively correlates. Variation in squalene content under increasing salinity is most likely due to toxic effects of sodium and chlorine ions as a result of the decrease in membrane permeability for ion movement as a protective reaction to an increase in the sodium ion concentration. Low squalene accumulation might also occur to redirect the NADPH cofactor to enhance the biosynthesis of proline in response to salinity, as both syntheses (squalene and proline) require NADPH. This evidence can potentially be used by the food and pharmaceutical industries in the development of new food and health products.

Quinoa Abiotic Stress Responses: A Review

Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) is a genetically diverse Andean crop that has earned special attention worldwide due to its nutritional and health benefits and its ability to adapt to contrasting environments, including nutrient-poor and saline soils and drought stressed marginal agroecosystems. Drought and salinity are the abiotic stresses most studied in quinoa; however, studies of other important stress factors, such as heat, cold, heavy metals, and UV-B light irradiance, are severely limited. In the last few decades, the incidence of abiotic stress has been accentuated by the increase in unpredictable weather patterns. Furthermore, stresses habitually occur as combinations of two or more. The goals of this review are to: (1) provide an in-depth description of the existing knowledge of quinoa's tolerance to different abiotic stressors; (2) summarize quinoa's physiological responses to these stressors; and (3) describe novel advances in molecular tools that can aid our understanding of the mechanisms underlying quinoa's abiotic stress tolerance.

Quinoa bitterness: causes and solutions for improving product acceptability

Awareness of the several agronomic, environmental, and health benefits of quinoa has led to a constant increase in its production and consumption not only in South America, where it is a native crop, but also in Europe and the USA. However, producing wheat or gluten-free based products enriched with quinoa alters some quality characteristics, including sensory acceptance. Several anti-nutritional factors such as saponins are concentrated in the grain pericarp. These bitter and astringent substances may interfere with the digestion and absorption of various nutrients. Developing processes to decrease or modify the bitterness of quinoa can enhance palatability, and thus consumption, of quinoa. In addition to the production of sweet varieties of quinoa, other processes have been proposed. Some of them (i.e. washing, pearling and the combination of the two) have a direct effect on saponins, either by solubilization and/or the mechanical removal of seed layers. Others, such as fermentation or germination, are able to mask the bitterness with aroma compounds and/or sugar formation. This review presents the major sources of the undesirable sensory attributes of quinoa, including bitterness, and various ways of counteracting the negative characteristics of quinoa. © 2018 Society of Chemical Industry.

The impact of different agroecological conditions on the nutritional composition of quinoa seeds

Quinoa cultivation has been expanded around the world in the last decade and is considered an exceptional crop with the potential of contributing to food security worldwide. The exceptional nutritional value of quinoa seeds relies on their high protein content, their amino acid profile that includes a good balance of essential amino acids, the mineral composition and the presence of antioxidants and other important nutrients such as fiber or vitamins. Although several studies have pointed to the influence of different environmental stresses in certain nutritional components little attention has been paid to the effect of the agroecological context on the nutritional properties of the seeds what may strongly impact on the consumer food’s quality. Thus, aiming to evaluate the effect of the agroecological conditions on the nutritional profile of quinoa seeds we analyzed three quinoa cultivars (Salcedo-INIA, Titicaca and Regalona) at different locations (Spain, Peru and Chile). The results revealed that several nutritional parameters such as the amino acid profile, the protein content, the mineral composition and the phytate amount in the seeds depend on the location and cultivar while other parameters such as saponin or fiber were more stable across locations. Our results support the notion that nutritional characteristics of seeds may be determined by seed’s origin and further analysis are needed to define the exact mechanisms that control the changes in the seeds nutritional properties.

Complete Chloroplast Genome Sequences and Comparative Analysis of Chenopodium quinoa and C. album

The Chenopodium genus comprises ~150 species, including Chenopodium quinoa and Chenopodium album, two important crops with high nutritional value. To elucidate the phylogenetic relationship between the two species, the complete chloroplast (cp) genomes of these species were obtained by next generation sequencing. We performed comparative analysis of the sequences and, using InDel markers, inferred phylogeny and genetic diversity of the Chenopodium genus. The cp genome is 152,099 bp (C. quinoa) and 152,167 bp (C. album) long. In total, 119 genes (78 protein-coding, 37 tRNA, and 4 rRNA) were identified. We found 14 (C. quinoa) and 15 (C. album) tandem repeats (TRs); 14 TRs were present in both species and C. album and C. quinoa each had one species-specific TR. The trnI-GAU intron sequences contained one (C. quinoa) or two (C. album) copies of TRs (66 bp); the InDel marker was designed based on the copy number variation in TRs. Using the InDel markers, we detected this variation in the TR copy number in four species, Chenopodium hybridum, Chenopodium pumilio, Chenopodium ficifolium, and Chenopodium koraiense, but not in Chenopodium glaucum. A comparison of coding and non-coding regions between C. quinoa and C. album revealed divergent sites. Nucleotide diversity >0.025 was found in 17 regions-14 were located in the large single copy region (LSC), one in the inverted repeats, and two in the small single copy region (SSC). A phylogenetic analysis based on 59 protein-coding genes from 25 taxa resolved Chenopodioideae monophyletic and sister to Betoideae. The complete plastid genome sequences and molecular markers based on divergence hotspot regions in the two Chenopodium taxa will help to resolve the phylogenetic relationships of Chenopodium.

Worldwide Evaluations of Quinoa: Preliminary Results from Post International Year of Quinoa FAO Projects in Nine Countries

Chenopodium quinoa Willd., a high quality grain crop, is resistant to abiotic stresses (drought, cold, and salt) and offers an optimal source of protein. Quinoa represents a symbol of crop genetic diversity across the Andean region. In recent years, this crop has undergone a major expansion outside its countries of origin. The activities carried out within the framework of the International Year of Quinoa provided a great contribution to raise awareness on the multiple benefits of quinoa as well as to its wider cultivation at the global level. FAO is actively involved in promoting and evaluating the cultivation of quinoa in 26 countries outside the Andean region with the aim to strengthen food and nutrition security. The main goal of this research is to evaluate the adaptability of selected quinoa genotypes under different environments outside the Andean region. This paper presents the preliminary results from nine countries. Field evaluations were conducted during 2013/2014 and 2014/2015 in Asia (Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan), and the Near East and North African countries (Algeria, Egypt, Iraq, Iran, Lebanon, Mauritania, and Yemen). In each country, the trials were carried out in different locations that globally represent the diversity of 19 agrarian systems under different agro-ecological conditions. Twenty-one genotypes of quinoa were tested using the same experimental protocol in all locations consisting in a randomized complete block design (RCBD) with three replicates. Some genotypes showed higher yields and the Q18 and Q12 landraces displayed greater adaptation than others to new environmental conditions. The Q21 and Q26 landraces were evaluated with stable and satisfactory levels of yield (>1 t.ha(-1)) in each of the different trial sites. This production stability is of considerable importance especially under climate change uncertainty. While these results suggest that this Andean crop is able to grow in many different environments, social, and cultural considerations remain crucial regarding its possible introduction as a staple food in new cropping systems around the world.