A Positive Affective Neuroendocrinology Approach to Reward and Behavioral Dysregulation

Sex Differences in the Relationship Between Nucleus Accumbens Volume and Youth Tobacco or Marijuana Use Following Stressful Life Events

Background

Exposure to stressful life events (SLEs) can upset balance and affect the healthy brain development of children and youths. These events may influence substance use by altering brain reward systems, especially the nucleus accumbens (NAc), which plays a key role in motivated behaviors and reward processing. The interaction between sensitization to SLEs, depression, and substance use might vary between male and female youths, potentially due to differences in how each sex responds to SLEs.

Aims

This study aims to examine the effect of sex on the relationship between SLEs, Nucleus Accumbens activity, and substance use in a nationwide sample of young individuals.

Methods

We utilized data from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development study (ABCD), a longitudinal study of pre-adolescents aged 9-10 years, comprising 11,795 participants tracked over 36 months. Structured interviews measuring SLEs were conducted using the Kiddie Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia (K-SADS). Initial linear regression analyses explored if SLEs could predict volumes of the right and left NAc. Subsequently, Cox regression models were used to investigate how SLEs and NAc volume might predict the initiation of tobacco and marijuana use, with the analysis stratified by sex to address potential sex differences.

Results

Our findings reveal that SLEs significantly predicted marijuana use in males but not in females, and tobacco use was influenced by SLEs in both sexes. A higher number of SLEs was linked with decreased left NAc volume in males, a trend not seen in females. The right NAc volume did not predict substance use in either sex. However, volumes of both the right and left NAc were significant predictors of future tobacco use, with varying relationships across sexes. In females, an inverse relationship was observed between both NAc volumes and the risk of tobacco use. In contrast, a positive correlation existed between the left NAc volume and tobacco and marijuana use in males, with no such relationship for females.

Conclusion

This study underscores that the associations between SLEs, NAc volume, and subsequent substance use are influenced by a nuanced interplay of sex, brain hemisphere, and substance type.

Greater Ecologically Assessed Positive Experiences Predict Heightened Sex Hormone Concentrations Across Two Weeks in Older Adults

OBJECTIVES

Sex hormones are important components of healthy aging, with beneficial effects on physical and mental health. Positive experiences such as elevated mood, lowered stress, and higher well-being also contribute to health outcomes and, in younger adults, may be associated with elevated sex hormone levels. However, little is known about the association between positive experiences and sex hormones in older adults.

METHODS

In this study, older men and women (N = 224, 70+ years of age) provided blood samples before and after a 2-week period of ecological momentary assessment (EMA) of positive and negative experiences (assessed based on self-reporting items related to affect, stress, and well-being). Concentrations of a panel of steroid sex hormones and glucocorticoids were determined in blood.

RESULTS

Higher levels of positive experiences reported in daily life across 2 weeks were associated with increases in free (biologically active) levels of testosterone (B = 0.353 [0.106, 0.601], t(221.3) = 2.801, p = .006), estradiol (B = 0.373 [0.097, 0.649], t(225.1) = 2.645, p = .009), and estrone (B = 0.468 [0.208, 0.727], t(224.3) = 3.535, p < .001) between the start and the end of the 2-week EMA period.

DISCUSSION

These findings suggest that sex hormones may be a pathway linking positive experiences to health in older adults.

A comprehensive review on the role of testosterone on the neurobehavioral systems implicated in the reinforcement sensitivity theory of personality

OBJECTIVES

The Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory (RST) is a neuropsychological theory of personality emphasizing approach and avoidance as the two core behavioral aspects. Approach is represented by the behavioral approach system (BAS). Avoidance is represented by the behavioral inhibition system (BIS) and the fight-flight-freeze system (FFFS). Although the influence of testosterone on human behavior has been demonstrated, few studies have investigated the relation between testosterone and the RST. The aim of this narrative review was to decipher the possible role of testosterone on the biological systems involved in the RST in humans.

METHODS

Google scholar, PubMed, PsycARTICLES, PsycINFO, Scopus and Cochrane library databases were interrogated using keywords such as testosterone, BIS, BAS, FFFS, personality, reinforcement sensitivity theory.

RESULTS

Seven original articles, published between 2009 and 2022, assessing the relation between testosterone and the systems implicated in the RST, were included. The results of these studies suggested the presence of a possible positive relation between testosterone and the BAS. However, the impact of testosterone on the BIS and/or FFFS seems to be less clear.

DISCUSSION

The consistency in the results supporting the presence of a positive relation between testosterone and the BAS might lead to the consideration of testosterone as a potential correlate in the clinical assessment of several psychopathologies. The inconsistency in the conclusions regarding the impact of testosterone on the BIS and/or the FFFS might be attributed to the different questionnaires used as measurement tools. Additional research remains needed.

Testosterone, cortisol, and criminal behavior in men and women

Only two studies to date have considered the joint effects of testosterone and cortisol on direct measures of criminal behavior. The current study extends this earlier work by incorporating the direct and interactive effects of baseline hormone measures and hormone change scores in response to social stress. The current study also extends prior work by considering distinct measures of different criminal behavior types and sex differences. Analyses based on a large sample of undergraduates indicated that testosterone had a positive and statistically significant association with impulsive and violent criminal behavior. The interaction of testosterone with cortisol had a negative association with income generating crime. Simple slopes analyses of this interaction indicated testosterone had a positive association with income generating crime when cortisol was low (-1 SD). Associations between hormones and criminal behavior were not moderated by sex.

The causal effect of testosterone on men's competitive behavior is moderated by basal cortisol and cues to an opponent's status: Evidence for a context-dependent dual-hormone hypothesis

Testosterone has been theorized to direct status-seeking behaviors, including competitive behavior. However, most human studies to date have adopted correlational designs, and findings across studies are inconsistent. This experiment (n = 115) pharmacologically manipulated men's testosterone levels prior to a mixed-gender math competition and examined basal cortisol (a hormone implicated in stress and social avoidance) and context cues related to an opponent's perceived status (an opponent's gender or a win/loss in a prior competition) as factors that may moderate testosterone's impact on competitive behavior. We test and find support for the hypothesis that testosterone given to low-cortisol men evokes status-seeking behavior, whereas testosterone given to high-cortisol men evokes status-loss avoidance. In the initial rounds of competition, testosterone's influence on competitive decisions depended on basal cortisol and opponent gender. After providing opponent-specific win-lose feedback, testosterone's influence on decisions to reenter competitions depended on basal cortisol and this objective cue to status, not gender. Compared to placebo, men given exogenous testosterone who were low in basal cortisol showed an increased tendency to compete against male and high-status opponents relative to female and low-status opponents (status-seeking). Men given exogenous testosterone who were high in basal cortisol showed the opposite pattern-an increased tendency to compete against female and low-status opponents relative to male and high-status opponents (status-loss avoidance). These results provide support for a context-dependent dual-hormone hypothesis: Testosterone flexibly directs men's competitive behavior contingent on basal cortisol levels and cues that signal an opponent's status. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Sex Moderates Reward- and Loss-Related Neural Correlates of Triarchic-Model Traits and Antisocial Behavior

Abnormalities in responses to reward and loss are implicated in the etiology of antisocial behavior and psychopathic traits. While there is evidence for sex differences in neural response to reward and loss, it remains unclear how sex differences may moderate links between these neural responses and the phenotypic expression of antisocial behavior and psychopathic traits. This study examined sex differences in associations of neural response to reward and loss with antisocial personality symptoms and psychopathic traits. Functional neuroimaging data were collected during a monetary incentive delay task from 158 participants. Among males, during loss anticipation, activation in the left nucleus accumbens was negatively associated with antisocial behavior. Among females, during loss feedback, activation in the left nucleus accumbens and left amygdala was negatively associated with antisocial behavior. These results suggest that phenotypic sex differences in psychopathic traits and antisocial behavior may in part be attributable to different etiological pathways.

Effect of Testosterone on the Extinction Period of Morphine-induced CPP in Male Rats

Background: Sex-related differences in the incidence, prevalence, symptoms, and side effects of drug use, especially narcotics, have been previously shown in animal models and human studies. Objectives: In the presents study, the effects of different doses of testosterone on morphine extinction period were investigated in a rat model. Methods: Forty mature male Wistar rats were randomly allocated to four categories (10 in each group), including control (received intramuscular injection of vehicle) and testosterone (received intramuscular injection of testosterone at 1, 2.5 and 5 mg/kg) during the extinction period. Conditioned place preference (CPP) test was done to assess the psychological phenomena of drug craving and relapse. The CPP score was calculated in four stages, including the baseline (preconditioning), expression (postconditioning), extinction, and reinstatement. Results: Our results demonstrated that testosterone (1, 2.5 and 5 mg/kg) significantly extended morphine extinction duration compared to the control group. Conclution: It has been shown that dopamine neurotransmission in mesocorticolimbic system is affected by testosterone through androgen receptors in adolescence and alteration in testosterone level could affect drug use vulnerability. It seems that normalization of testosterone levels reduces the symptoms of opioid withdrawal syndrome and have important clinical implication for clinicians to understand the effects of testosterone dysregulation on the extinction and withdrawal periods.

Reward Dependence-Moderated Noradrenergic and Hormonal Responses During Noncompetitive and Competitive Physical Activities

The aim of this study was to reveal whether increased reward dependence (RD) plays a role in the catecholamine neurotransmitter release and testosterone hormone regulation during physical activities among healthy trained participants. Twenty-two male participants (mean age: 40.27 ± 5.4 years) participated in this study. Two conditions were constructed, namely, a noncompetitive and a competitive running task (RT), which were separated by a 2-week interval. Urine and blood samples were collected prior to and following the running tasks. Noradrenaline (NA), adrenaline (A), dopamine (D), and their metabolites, vanillylmandelic acid (VMA) and homovanillic acid (HVA), were measured from urine, while testosterone levels were analyzed from blood samples. RD was assessed using the Cloninger's Personality Inventory (PI). Mental health was evaluated using the WHO Well-Being, Beck Depression, and Perceived Life Stress Questionnaires. According to our findings, levels of NA, A, D, VMA, and testosterone released underwent an increase following physical exertion, independently from the competitive condition of the RT, while HVA levels experienced a decrease. However, we found that testosterone levels showed a significantly lower tendency to elevate in the competitive RT, compared with the noncompetitive condition (p = 0.02). In contrast, HVA values were higher in the competitive compared with the noncompetitive condition (p = 0.031), both before and after the exercise. Considering the factor RD, in noncompetitive RT, its higher values were associated with elevated NA levels (p = 0.007); however, this correlation could not be detected during the competitive condition (p = 0.233). Among male runners, the NA and testosterone levels could be predicted to the degree of RD by analyzing competitive and noncompetitive physical exercises.

Effects of Game Outcomes and Status Instability on Spectators' Status Consumption: The Moderating Role of Implicit Team Identification

This study explores the interaction effects of game outcomes and status instability and the moderating role of implicit team identification on spectators' status-seeking behavior (the pursuit and preservation of social status). The current study seeks to contribute to the existing consumer behavior and spectatorship literature by examining the counterintuitive outcomes of winner-loser effects through the application of the biosocial theory of status. In an online experiment, NFL fans' retrospective spectating experiences were captured and manipulated. This experiment used a 2 (game outcome: victory vs. loss) × 2 (status instability: decisive vs. close) × 2 (iTeam ID: high vs. low) between-subjects design. The findings indicated that decisive victories and close losses positively influenced spectators' future attendance as well as their intention to purchase luxury suites and merchandise featuring images of the team mascot. Conversely, decisive losses and close victories had a negative influence. Additionally, the more spectators implicitly identified with a particular team, the more they exhibited status-seeking behavior; even close victories positively influenced the outcomes. By applying a nascent theoretical approach in the field of consumer behavior (the hormonal account), our results provide fresh insight into explaining spectators' status-seeking behavior. Also, the findings identify specific conditions in which spectators' status-seeking behavior is enhanced, thus suggesting ways for managers to strategically allocate their resources.

Exploratory Analysis of the Relationship between Social Identification and Testosterone Reactivity to Vicarious Combat

Testosterone (T) fluctuates in response to competitive social interactions, with the direction of change typically depending on factors such as contest outcome. Watching a competition may be sufficient to activate T among fans and others who are invested in the outcome. This study explores the change in T associated with vicarious experiences of competition among combat sport athletes viewing a teammate win or lose and assesses how individual differences in social identification with one's team relates to these patterns of T reactivity. Twenty-six male combat athletes completed a social identity questionnaire on a neutral day. Later, salivary samples (assayed for T) were obtained before and after athletes viewed a video of a teammate engaged in a formal contest. T reactivity to viewing a teammate compete varied among participants in both the magnitude and direction of change, independent of contest outcome. Individual differences in cognitive centrality, a core feature of social identification, showed a strong positive relationship with T reactivity, particularly if their teammate won. Initial findings suggest that dominance-linked androgen responses associated with watching a teammate win a competition might depend on the belief that team membership is central to one's own identity. These exploratory results in a small sample of combat athletes should be interpreted with caution. Uncovering the role of social group dynamics in influencing T responses to competition is particularly important in light of the evolutionary history of coalitional combat in humans.

An exploratory analysis of testosterone, cortisol, and aggressive behavior type in men and women

Increasing evidence indicates that the interaction between testosterone and cortisol is associated with variation in aggressive behavior. However, results are mixed. The current study further explored the association between testosterone, cortisol, and both reactive and proactive aggression in a large sample of university students. Models considered direct and interactive effects between baseline measures of testosterone and cortisol as well as change in hormones in response to a social stressor. In women, baseline cortisol had a negative direct association with reactive aggression and was further associated with reactive aggression in interaction with baseline testosterone (positive interaction). Hormones were unrelated to reactive aggression in men. Baseline cortisol had a negative direct association with proactive aggression in women. In contrast, the association between change in cortisol and proactive aggression was positive. Cortisol was not associated with proactive aggression in men. In addition, testosterone was not related to proactive aggression either directly or in interaction with cortisol in either men or women. Collectively, these results show that the association between hormones and aggression varies across aggressive behavior type and across sex.

Beyond the challenge hypothesis: The emergence of the dual-hormone hypothesis and recommendations for future research

The challenge hypothesis makes specific predictions about the association between testosterone and status-seeking behaviors, but the findings linking testosterone to these behaviors are often inconsistent. The dual-hormone hypothesis was developed to help explain these inconsistencies. Specifically, according to this hypothesis, testosterone's association with status-seeking behavior depends on levels of cortisol. Here, we (1) describe the dual-hormone hypothesis in relation to the challenge hypothesis; (2) review recent studies that tested the dual-hormone hypothesis as well as meta-scientific evidence of heterogeneous dual-hormone findings across studies; (3) discuss potential explanations for this heterogeneity, including methodological considerations, contextual factors, and individual differences; and (4) provide recommendations for new work aimed at testing and extending the dual-hormone hypothesis.

Testosterone reactivity is associated with reduced neural response to reward in early adolescence

The marked increase in adolescent reward-seeking behavior has important implications for adaptive and maladaptive development. Reward-seeking is linked to increased testosterone and increased neural responses to reward cues. How acute testosterone changes modulate neural reward systems remains unclear. Based on previous work, adolescents, particularly males, showing an increase in endogenous testosterone reactivity were hypothesized to show increased neural response to reward in ventromedial prefrontal cortex, ventral striatum, and posterior cingulate cortex. Sixty-one healthy adolescents aged 10-13 (38 female, mean age = 12.01 [SD = 1.00]) completed a reward-cue processing task during fMRI. Saliva samples to be assayed for testosterone were collected immediately before and after scanning. Acute testosterone changes were not associated with variation in behavioral performance. Within ventromedial prefrontal and posterior cingulate cortices, increased acute testosterone change was associated with reduced discrimination between rewarded and un-rewarded trials. Results suggest that increasing levels of testosterone may result in reduced attention to/salience of task irrelevant information. In contrast to previous studies that found a positive association between testosterone and neural response to reward, the reward information in the current paradigm was irrelevant to success in task performance. These results are consistent with theoretical conceptualization of testosterone's role in reproduction, which involves a shift in salience to short-term relative to long-term goals. These data further emphasized the need to consider context in the study of hormones; specific behaviors will be up- or down-regulated by a hormone based on the fit of the behavior with the broader contextual goal being orchestrated by the hormone.

Positive Affect Moderates the Relationship Between Salivary Testosterone and a Health Behavior Composite in University Females

Background

Testosterone is released in both men and women and plays an important role in social functioning and motivation. Greater testosterone in women has been associated with negative physical health outcomes, while lower testosterone has been associated with psychological disorders. The following cross-sectional study examined the contribution of salivary testosterone, positive and negative affect, and demographic variables in predicting a composite health behavior score (cigarette use, hours of sleep, fruit/vegetable intake, following an exercise routine).

Method

The sample (mean age 21.17, SD = 6.13) consisted of 87 female university students asked to complete a demographic and lifestyle behavior questionnaire, the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule, and provide a saliva sample. Participants self-identified as Latina (37.9%), European American (32.2%), Asian American (5.7%), African American (4.6%), or Mixed/other (19.5%). Hierarchical regression analyses were used to examine whether positive and negative affect served as a moderator between salivary testosterone and a health behavior composite.

Results

Results indicated that positive affect moderated the relationship between salivary testosterone and the composite health behavior score (t = − 2.42, p = .018, Adj. R² = .21, F (5, 81) = 5.07, p < .001) such that the healthiest behaviors were observed in participants with high positive affect and low salivary testosterone. Findings remained after adjusting for oral contraceptive use, income level, relationship status, and ethnicity.

Conclusions

These results provide a preliminary foundation for future research examining the interplay of neuroendocrine function, psychological factors (i.e., positive affect), and behavior. Further empirical studies can focus on expanding this research in larger, representative samples.

Anabolic androgenic steroid dependence is associated with impaired emotion recognition

RATIONALE

Illicit use of anabolic androgenic steroids (AAS) has grown into a serious public health concern throughout the Western World. AAS use is associated with adverse medical, psychological, and social consequences. Around 30% of AAS users develop a dependence syndrome with sustained use despite adverse side effects. AAS dependence is associated with a high frequency of intra- and interpersonal problems, and it is central to identify factors related to the development and maintenance of dependence.

METHODS

The present study investigated the ability to recognize emotion from biological motion. The emotional biological motion task was administered to male AAS dependent users (AAS dependents; n = 45), AAS non-dependent users (AAS non-dependents; n = 38) and a comparison-group of non-using weightlifters (non-users; n = 69).

RESULTS

Multivariate analysis of variance showed a general impairment in emotion recognition in AAS dependents, compared to the non-using weightlifters, whereas no significant impairment was observed in AAS non-dependents. Furthermore, AAS dependents showed impaired recognition of fearful stimuli compared to both AAS non-dependents and non-using weightlifters. The between-group effect remained significant after controlling for Intelligence Quotient (IQ), past 6 months of non-AAS drug use, antisocial personality problems, anxiety, and depression.

CONCLUSION

AAS dependents show impaired emotion recognition from body movement, fear in particular, which could potentially contribute to higher frequency of interpersonal problems and antisocial behaviors in this population.

Cortisol awakening response and emotion at extreme altitudes on Mount Kangchenjunga

The cortisol awakening response (CAR) was examined over a 45days stay at extreme altitudes (above of about 5500m) on Mount Kangchenjunga. The CAR refers to a peak cortisol response during the waking period that is superimposed to the diurnal rhythmicity in cortisol secretion, whose function has been proposed to be the anticipation of demands of the upcoming day (the CAR anticipation hypothesis). According to this hypothesis, we distinguished between resting days on which the expedition team engaged in routine activities in the base camp, and ascent days on which it planned to climb up a very demanding track. We were also interested in examining the association of testosterone with emotional anticipation, given the role of this steroid hormone in reward-related processes in challenge situations. Results showed that the climber group had a bigger CAR on ascent days, relative to the Sherpa group at the same altitude and the non-climber group at sea level. Several methodological issues, however, made it difficult to interpret these group differences in terms of the CAR anticipation hypothesis (e.g. a seemingly influential covariate was awakening time). Although based on tentative results, correlational and regression analyses controlling for awakening time coherently showed that the CAR was associated with anticipation of a hard day and feelings of fear, and testosterone was associated with feelings of energy and positive affect. Whether or not the anticipation of a hard day played a key role in regulation of the CAR, the observation of an intact CAR in the climber group under hypobaric hypoxia conditions would require in-depth reflection from the perspective of human adaptive evolution.

Developmental differences in reward sensitivity and sensation seeking in adolescence: Testing sex-specific associations with gonadal hormones and pubertal development

Sensation seeking has been found to increase, on average, from childhood to adolescence. Developmental scientists have hypothesized that this change could be driven by the rise of gonadal hormones at puberty, which affect reward-related processing in the brain. In a large, age-heterogeneous, population-based sample of adolescents and young adults (N = 810; ages 13-20 years), we tested for sex-specific associations between age, self-reported pubertal development, gonadal hormones (estradiol and testosterone) as measured in saliva, reward sensitivity as measured by a multivariate battery of in-laboratory tasks (including the Iowa gambling task, balloon analogue risk task, and stoplight task), and self-reported sensation seeking. Reward sensitivity was more strongly associated with sensation seeking in males than females. For both males and females, reward sensitivity was unrelated to age but was higher among those who reported more advanced pubertal development. There were significant sex differences in the effects of self-reported pubertal development on sensation seeking, with a positive association evident in males but a negative association in females. Moreover, gonadal hormones also showed diverging associations with sensation seeking-positive with testosterone but negative with estradiol. Overall, the results indicate that sensation seeking among adolescents and young adults depends on a complex constellation of developmental influences that operate via sex-specific mechanisms. (PsycINFO Database Record

CSF and plasma testosterone in attempted suicide

Very few studies have assessed testosterone levels in the cerebrospinal fluid in suicide attempters. Aggressiveness and impulsivity are common behavioural traits in suicide attempters. Dual-hormone serotonergic theory on human impulsive aggression implies high testosterone/cortisol ratio acting on the amygdala and low serotonin in the prefrontal cortex. Our aim was to examine the CSF and plasma testosterone levels in suicide attempters and in healthy volunteers. We also assessed the relationship between the testosterone/cortisol ratio, aggressiveness and impulsivity in suicide attempters. 28 medication-free suicide attempters and 19 healthy volunteers participated in the study. CSF and plasma testosterone sulfate and cortisol levels were assessed with specific radio-immunoassays. The Karolinska Scales of Personality was used to assess impulsivity and aggressiveness. All patients were followed up for cause of death. The mean follow-up period was 21 years. Male suicide attempters had higher CSF and plasma testosterone levels than age- matched male healthy volunteers. There were no significant differences in CSF testosterone levels in female suicide attempters and healthy female volunteers. Testosterone levels did not differ significantly in suicide victims compared to survivors. In male suicide attempters, the CSF testosterone/cortisol ratio showed a significant positive correlation with both impulsivity and aggressiveness. Higher CSF testosterone levels may be associated with attempted suicide in young men through association with both aggressiveness and impulsivity, a key endophenotype in young male suicide attempters.

Sensitive Periods for Developing a Robust Trait of Appetitive Aggression

Violent behavior can be intrinsically rewarding; especially combatants fighting in current civil wars present with elevated traits of appetitive aggression. The majority of these fighters were recruited as children or adolescents. In the present study, we test whether there is a developmental period where combatants are sensitive for developing a robust trait of appetitive aggression. We investigated 95 combatants in their demobilization process that were recruited at different ages in the Kivu regions of the eastern Democratic Republic of Congo. Using random forest with conditional inference trees, we identified recruitment at the ages from 16 and 17 years as being predictive of the level of appetitive aggression; the number of lifetime, perpetrated acts was the most important predictor. We conclude that high levels of appetitive aggression develop in ex-combatants, especially in those recruited during their middle to late teenage, which is a developmental period marked by a natural inclination to exercise physical force. Consequently, ex-combatants may remain vulnerable for aggressive behavior patterns and re-recruitment unless they are provided alternative strategies for dealing with their aggression.