Exploring the Dimensions of Smartphone Distraction: Development, Validation, Measurement Invariance, and Latent Mean Differences of the Smartphone Distraction Scale (SDS)

Smartphone overuse and distraction: which relationship with general well-being across different generations?

BACKGROUND

The appropriate use of smartphones is closely related to individual well-being. However, excessive use of smartphones can have detrimental effects on users. This study explores the relationship between problematic smartphone use, smartphone distraction, and well-being across four different generations.

METHOD

A total of 430 Italian participants ranging across four generations categorized by age groups, completed a comprehensive questionnaire. These groups included Baby Boomers (M = 63.76; SD = 4.50), Generation X (M = 50.94; SD = 4.41), Generation Y (35,88; SD = 2.29), and Generation Z (M = 24.23; SD = 2.73). The questionnaire included socio-demographic information, digital tools usage, digital activities, the Mobile Problematic Use Scale (MPPUS) and its subdimensions-withdrawal and social aspects (WITHD) and craving and escape from other problems (CRAV)-the Smartphone Distraction Scale (SDS) and its subdimensions-attention impulsiveness (ATT IMP), online vigilance (ON VIG), emotion regulation (EM REG), and multitasking (MULT)-and the I COPPE well-being scale. Analyses were conducted using ANOVA, correlations, and hierarchical regression to explore the relationships between these variables. Generational groups and weekly time spent on online activities were included as control variables in the hierarchical regression analysis.

RESULT

Results revealed a positive correlation between MPPS and SDS scores. The younger generation showed higher mean values for MPPS and SDS, except for ON VIG. No significant generational differences were found in well-being subdimensions. WITHD negatively affects interpersonal (β = -0.144; p < 0.05), community (β = -0.172; p < 0.01), psychological (β = -0.128; p < 0.05), general (β = -0.140; p < 0.05), and economic (β = -0.147; p < 0.05) well-being while EM REG negatively affect occupational (β =-0.158; p < 0.05) well-being. Conversely, MULT was positively related to occupational (β = 0.191; p < 0.01) physical (β = 0.131; p< 0.05), and economic (β = 0.124; p < 0.05) well-being.

CONCLUSION

This study illustrates how smartphones often function as an escape from the real word, underscoring the need to manage and educate their use.

Relationship Between Problematic Smartphone Use and Graduate Students' Research Self-Efficacy: A Moderated Mediation Model

As Generation Z youth grow up with the Internet, problematic smartphone use is growing more prevalent. This study administered questionnaires containing measures such as the Mobile Phone Addiction Index, the Research Self-Efficacy Scale, the Depression Anxiety Stress Scale, and the Stress Mindset Measure. The survey targeted 2278 graduate students and explored the mechanism through which problematic smartphone use affects research self-efficacy (RSE). The results reveal that problematic smartphone use has significant negative effects on self-efficacy, with mental stress playing a mediating role in this process; that is, problematic smartphone use lowers RSE by increasing mental stress. Meanwhile, the aforementioned negative impacts caused by problematic smartphone use are moderated by stress mindsets: the "stress-is-enhancing" mindset reduces the negative effects of smartphone use on RSE, whereas the "stress-is-debilitating" mindset amplifies these negative effects by enhancing the mediating effect of mental stress.

Smartphone Distraction and Academic Anxiety: The Mediating Role of Academic Procrastination and the Moderating Role of Time Management Disposition

The present study investigated the relationship between smartphone distraction, academic procrastination, academic anxiety, and time management disposition. A total of 474 college students were recruited to complete a survey comprising measures of smartphone distraction, academic procrastination, academic anxiety, and time management disposition. The hypothesised moderated mediation model was tested using Model 4 and Model 15 of the PROCESS macro for SPSS. Results showed that smartphone distraction was positively and significantly correlated with academic anxiety (r = 0.40, p < 0.001) and academic procrastination (r = 0.42, p < 0.001). Academic procrastination mediated the relationship between smartphone distraction and academic anxiety. Time management disposition moderated the paths from academic procrastination and smartphone distraction to academic anxiety. The present study suggests that smartphone distraction could predict increased levels of academic procrastination, which could then lead to higher academic anxiety. However, the predicting effects in this mediation model could fluctuate across individuals with different time management dispositions. Further studies are needed to explore the mechanism of smartphone distraction using different methods.

Understanding the relationship between smartphone distraction, social withdrawal, digital stress, and depression among college students: A cross-sectional study in Wuhan, China

Background

Smartphone distraction considerably affects the depression level of college students. These two variables are highly associated with social withdrawal and digital distress. However, the underlying mechanisms of how social withdrawal and digital stress were involved in the relationship between smartphone distraction and depression remain unclear.

Methods

A cross-sectional survey was conducted in seven colleges of Wuhan, Hubei Province, from September to November 2021. Participants were selected using convenience sampling. Smartphone distraction, social withdrawal, digital stress, and depression level were assessed using the Smartphone Distraction Scale (SDS), 25-item Hikikomori Questionnaire (HQ-25), Multidimensional Digital Stress Scale (DSS), and the Patient Health Questionnaire-9 (PHQ-9), respectively. All scales demonstrated good reliability in this study, the reliability of each scale was 0.920, 0.884, 0.959, and 0.942.

Results

The final analysis included 1184 students (692 males and 492 females), aged between 17 and 37 years. Participants were from various academic disciplines, including medical and non-medical. The findings revealed that smartphone distraction had a significant direct effect on depression (c = 0.073, 95 % CI: 0.037 to 0.108, p < 0.001) and three significant indirect mediation effects: (1) social withdrawal (B = 0.083, 95 % CI: 0.066 to 0.101, p < 0.001), accounting for 27.76 % of the total effect; (2) digital stress (B = 0.109, 95 % CI: 0.088 to 0.132, p < 0.001), accounting for 36.45 % of the total effect; and (3) the chain mediating roles of social withdrawal and digital stress (B = 0.034, 95 % CI: 0.026 to 0.043, p < 0.001), accounting for 11.37 % of the total effect. The total mediating effect was 75.59 %.

Limitations

This study is based on cross-sectional data, which limits the causality inference.

Conclusions

These findings suggest that educational institutions should identify college students with excessive smartphone use early and provide timely interventions to minimize negative outcomes. It is also significant to reduce the risk of social withdrawal and digital stress to maintain the physical and mental health development of college students.

The chain mediating role of rumination and social withdrawal in the relationship between smartphone distraction and depression among Chinese nursing students

Smartphone distraction (SD) is closely related to depression, and the prevalence of SD among nursing students is gradually increasing. However, the potential mechanism of the effect of SD on nursing students' depression is unclear. A total of 574 nursing students were assessed using Smartphone Distraction Scale, Ruminative Response Scale, Hikikomori Questionnaire, and Patient Health Questionnaire-9. The results indicated that SD among nursing students had an impact on depression through four pathways: (1) SD was positively associated with depression (β = 0.353, P < 0.001); (2) Rumination (β = 0.199, 95% CI: 0.081 to 0.162) and social withdrawal (β = 0.061, 95% CI: 0.034 to 0.091) mediated the effects of SD on depression, respectively; and (3) Rumination and social withdrawal played a chain mediating role in the effect of SD on nursing students' depression (β = 0.027, 95% CI: 0.015 to 0.042). The negative impact of SD on nursing students' mental health should not be taken lightly. Schools and hospitals should guide nursing students to use smartphones correctly, including providing mental health education and professional psychological counselling; families could play a supervisory role and communicate regularly to understand the psychological state and learning of nursing students. These measures can help nursing students cope with stress and reduce the risk of depression.

Validation of the Chinese version of the Smartphone Distraction Scale

The Smartphone Distraction Scale (SDS) is a novel assessment scale for smartphone distraction; it comprises 16 items that cover attention impulsiveness, online vigilance, multitasking, and emotion regulation. This study aimed to investigate the validity and reliability of the SDS in college students in China. After translating and culturally adapting the original version of the SDS into Chinese, the scale was tested on a sample of 1302 college students.The validity and reliability were assessed utilizing SPSS 25.0, AMOS 25.0 and Mplus 8.3. Parallel analysis, Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) and Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) were performed for the validity analysis. Criterion-related validity for the SDS was tested by correlation analysis with the mobile phone addiction scale (MPAI). The reliability analysis was tested by Cronbach's alpha coefficients and intraclass correlation coefficients (ICC). EFA and parallel analysis revealed a three-factor structure. The EFA identified factor loadings on three factors (14 items), explaining a total variance of 60.73 %. The CFA model fit was good (χ2/df = 4.644, RMSEA = 0.047, GFI = 0.930, CFI = 0.955, SRMR = 0.047), and the multigroup confirmatory factor analysis indicated measurement invariance for gender. Both convergent and discriminant validity were established. The criterion-related validity was established based on a significant correlation (r = 0.758) with the MPAI. The Cronbach's alpha coefficient was 0.916, and the split-half reliability was 0.769, demonstrating a satisfactory internal consistency. The score of ICC was 0.907, demonstrating the stability of the SDS. Based on these data, the Chinese version of the SDS demonstrated satisfactory validity and reliability in a sample of college students.

Emotional and Behavioural Factors Predisposing to Internet Addiction: The Smartphone Distraction among Italian High School Students

In a digitally oriented society, smartphones provide continual online accessibility to daily life while simultaneously predisposing adolescents to engage in prolonged connections for various purposes, thus escalating the risk of Internet addiction (IA). Cognitive processes such as multitasking and attentional shifting are frequently associated with smartphone activities. Additionally, online engagements may serve as emotional strategies for regulating negative states (e.g., boredom and distress), redirecting attention towards more gratifying activities, such as social media contents. This study delves into cognitive-emotional processes (i.e., emotion regulation, attention impulsiveness, online vigilance, and multitasking) and emotional/behavioural factors (i.e., emotional problems, conduct problems, hyperactivity/inattention, peer relationships, and prosocial behaviours) that may be implicated in smartphone activities and technology addiction among adolescents. A community sample of Italian high school students (N = 676; 42.2% females) completed the Smartphone Distraction Scale (SDS), the Strength and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) for internalising/externalising symptoms and the Internet Addiction Test (IAT) to assess the presence and severity of IA. The scores on the SDS were found to be positively associated with IA levels. Furthermore, students exhibiting higher internalising/externalising symptoms, particularly those with traits of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), are more likely to manifest problematic smartphone usage. The implications for screening adolescents more susceptible to developing IA symptoms and for implementing preventive interventions are discussed.

Exploring the Accuracy and Consistency of a School Readiness Assessment Tool for Preschoolers: Reliability, Validity and Measurement Invariance Analysis

This study focuses on examining the psychometric properties of the DIFER test, a widely used assessment tool for measuring school readiness. DIFER, which stands for Diagnostic Assessment Systems for Development, has gained prominence in Hungary and some European countries as an effective means of evaluating children's readiness for school. By investigating the reliability and validity of the DIFER test, this study aims to enhance the understanding of the suitability of the DIFER test for cross-cultural and longitudinal studies in assessing school readiness. Conducted as a survey study, the research involved 3050 Hungarian students from Slovakia and Hungary. Employing Rasch analysis and multi-group confirmatory factor analysis (MG-CFA) aid in verifying the precision of the DIFER test as a valuable assessment instrument for determining school readiness. The results revealed a strong alignment between the difficulty level of the test and students' actual abilities, demonstrating its reliability and validity. Importantly, the analysis found measurement invariance across various factors, including country, gender, and age. This indicates the consistent performance of the DIFER test in assessing school readiness across diverse groups. However, mean differences in latent abilities were observed among different age groups, indicating that older students exhibited notably higher proficiency in pre-mathematical skills compared to their younger counterparts. The findings offer valuable insights to educators, providing a reliable tool for assessing school readiness and identifying areas for improvement.

Smartphone Distraction: Italian Validation of the Smartphone Distraction Scale (SDS)

This work aimed to validate the use of the Smartphone Distraction Scale (SDS) in Italy. The SDS was devised to assess distraction related to smartphone use in adult populations. A cross-sectional study was conducted among n = 609 adults (females = 76.4%; mean age = 30.26; SD age = 9.90). An assessment of the factorial structure of the Italian version was carried out using exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). The four factors identified by Throuvala and colleagues were confirmed (i.e., attention impulsiveness, online vigilance, multitasking and emotion regulation). Reliability was assessed using Cronbach's alpha coefficient (0.703-0.889). The scale's scores showed significant linear correlations with validated instruments, including the Mobile Phone Problematic Use Scale (MPPUS)and the Cognitive Failures Questionnaire (CFQ). A multivariate analysis of variance showed significant differences in the means among participants belonging to different age groups (born before 1995 vs. born after 1996). In summary, the good psychometric properties observed led us to assume that this instrument can be applied and used in Italian studies to assess the cognitive dimension of distraction related to the use of smartphones.

A Review on Smartphone Keystroke Dynamics as a Digital Biomarker for Understanding Neurocognitive Functioning

Can digital technologies provide a passive unobtrusive means to observe and study cognition outside of the laboratory? Previously, cognitive assessments and monitoring were conducted in a laboratory or clinical setting, allowing for a cross-sectional glimpse of cognitive states. In the last decade, researchers have been utilizing technological advances and devices to explore ways of assessing cognition in the real world. We propose that the virtual keyboard of smartphones, an increasingly ubiquitous digital device, can provide the ideal conduit for passive data collection to study cognition. Passive data collection occurs without the active engagement of a participant and allows for near-continuous, objective data collection. Most importantly, this data collection can occur in the real world, capturing authentic datapoints. This method of data collection and its analyses provide a more comprehensive and potentially more suitable insight into cognitive states, as intra-individual cognitive fluctuations over time have shown to be an early manifestation of cognitive decline. We review different ways passive data, centered around keystroke dynamics, collected from smartphones, have been used to assess and evaluate cognition. We also discuss gaps in the literature where future directions of utilizing passive data can continue to provide inferences into cognition and elaborate on the importance of digital data privacy and consent.

The Influence of Smartphone Use on Tweens' Capacity for Complex Critical Thinking

The spread of modern technologies exposes many people to a high level of ambiguous and misleading information that can impact people's judgments and worldviews. This happens especially in a phase of life such as preadolescence when children are particularly sensitive to external conditioning. Critical thinking can be seen as the first line of defense against misleading information. However, little is known about the consequences of media use on the critical thinking skills of tweens. In this study, we evaluated the effects of problematic smartphone use on the various stages of critical thinking, comparing high and low tween smartphone users. The results confirm the main hypothesis, namely, that problematic smartphone use is related to the ability to think critically. There was a significant difference between high and low users in the third phase of critical thinking: evaluation of sources.

Smartphone use and daily cognitive failures: A critical examination using a daily diary approach with objective smartphone measures

While smartphones have brought many benefits and conveniences to users, there is continuing debate regarding their potential negative consequences on everyday cognition such as daily cognitive failures. A few cross-sectional studies have found positive associations between smartphone use and cognitive failures. However, several research gaps remain, such as the use of cross-sectional designs, confounds related to stable individual differences, the lack of validity in self-report measures of smartphone use, memory biases in retrospective self-reports, and the lack of differentiation between smartphone checking and smartphone screen time. To simultaneously address the aforementioned shortcomings, the current study examined the within-person associations between various objective indicators of smartphone use and daily cognitive failures using a 7-day daily diary study. Multilevel modelling revealed that smartphone checking, but not total smartphone screen time, predicted a greater occurrence of daily cognitive failures at the within-person level. Surprisingly, we also found negative within-person associations between smartphone screen time for social- and tools-related applications and daily cognitive failures, suggesting that some types of smartphone use may temporarily benefit one's cognitive functioning. This finding demonstrates the importance of studying the specific functions of smartphone use and their differential cognitive consequences, as well as highlights the complex relations between smartphone use and cognition.

Digital distraction levels of university students in emergency remote teaching

The main objective of this study is to investigate the relationships between digital distraction, perceived learning, and general satisfaction in emergency remote teaching. Correlational design, one of the quantitative research methods, was used for the study. The study sample consists of 1532 university students in a Turkish university during Covid-19. The study results show a significant relationship between digital distraction, general satisfaction, and perceived learning. Digital distraction is negatively related to general satisfaction and perceived learning, and general satisfaction is positively related to perceived learning. When the independent demographic variables were analyzed, digital distraction scores were higher for females, those not working in any job, not participate orientation training, and not following the live class and watching it later. In addition, it was revealed that as the age of the students decreased, the digital distraction scores increased. It was found that digital distraction variables, the amount of digital distraction, sending instant messages, checking the time, boredom, sharing social media, and system usability were significant predictors of digital distraction.

Turkish adaptation of the Smartphone Distraction Scale (SDS)

The aim of this study is to adapt the Smartphone Distraction Scale to Turkish and to examine its psychometric properties. The participants of the study consisted of a community sample of 399 people, 288 (72.2%) women and 111 (27.8%) men, aged between 18-60 (27.14±10.89). In data collection, Sociodemographic Form (SF), Smartphone Distraction Scale-Turkish Version (SDS), Bergen Social Media Scale (BSMS), Emotion Regulation Questionnaire (ERQ), Current Symptoms Scale (CSS), and Perceived Multitasking Scale (PMS) were used. The data were analyzed through Cronbach alpha internal consistency coefficient, Pearson product-moment correlation test, item-total score correlation coefficients, confirmatory factor analysis to estimate the construct validity of the scale. Considering the internal consistency reliability of the scale, the Cronbach alpha reliability coefficient was found to be .88 for attention/impulsivity, .80 for alertness, .76 for multitasking, and .76 for emotion regulation. The item and total score correlation coefficients of the scale items were found to be between 0.49 and 0.76. Confirmatory factor analysis supported the 16-item and four-factor structure of the scale. The correlation of SDS with BSMAS, ERQ, CSS, and PMS was found to be statistically significant. The results of the research show that the SDS adapted to Turkish culture is a valid and reliable measurement tool that can be used in academic studies and clinical settings.

Adolescent Anxiety and TikTok: An Exploratory Study

Introduction Social media is ubiquitous in adolescents' lives. TikTok is a medium primarily used by adolescents and young adults under 30 years. TikTok is thus an appropriate social media platform with which to examine discussions of anxiety among this age cohort. In this exploratory mixed-methods study we aimed to evaluate the scope of anxiety content available on TikTok in English in December 2021, and to further develop methods for analysing TikTok content. Methods We analysed a data set of 147 TikToks with the hashtag #anxiety. The data set consisted both of metadata and TikTok videos. This data set represented 18% of all TikToks featuring the hashtag #anxiety in December 2021. We examined the following research questions (RQs). RQ1: What are the creator identities reflected in the final data set in this study?; RQ2: What are the metadata characteristics of the TikToks in the final data set?; RQ3: What are the anxiety content themes in the final data set?; and RQ4: What are the characteristics of the data set based on an anxiety management reference checklist? This study involves public data that can reasonably be observed by strangers. This study does not include any identifiable human participants. Results Influencers were the most frequent creator identity in our data set. Influencers comprised 85.5% of the 147 TikToks in our final data set. We coded 79 female (54%) and 45 male (31%) influencers. We found male influencers created the most played (mean 8,114,706), and most liked (mean 1,510,585) TikToks. We found content themes varied by influencer gender. The notable findings were (a) the greater use of humour by males (22.7% males; n=10, and females 12.6%; n=10); and (b) inspiration (38.7%; males n=17; and 13.9%; females n=11). Among female influencers, we identified self-disclosure as the most common theme (n= 40 and 50.7% compared with n=11 and 25% male influencers). Overall, we found limited references to evidence-based anxiety self-care content in our final data set. Discussion We suggest that the TikToks in our data set were primarily directed at raising awareness of and de-stigmatising anxiety symptoms. TikTok anxiety content may be viewed by adolescents for emotional self-regulation beyond evidence-based health information seeking. Self-disclosure on TikTok may also provide symptomatic relief to adolescents with anxiety. We suggest that gender is a salient consideration when considering TikTok content. Conclusions Our findings are consistent with existing literature on adolescent social media use and epidemiological data on anxiety. This research also provides methodological insights for researchers and clinicians seeking to understand TikTok, and to develop engaging content targeted at the specific concerns and preferences of adolescent TikTok consumers.

Fear of missing out and fear of not being up to date: investigating different pathways towards social and process problematic smartphone use

The present study introduces a new construct potentially associated with problematic smartphone use, that is the fear of not being up to date, and tests two serial mediation models, in which it was hypothesised that: (i) metacognitions and social smartphone use would be serial mediators of the relationship between the fear of missing out (FoMO) and problematic smartphone use (PSU); and (ii) metacognitions and process smartphone use would be serial mediators of the relationship between and the fear of not being up to date and PSU. A sample of 364 participants (F = 72.8%; mean age = 36.80 ± 15.32 years; age range: 18–75 years), recruited online, were administered a battery of self-report measures assessing FoMO, the fear of not being up to date, metacognitions about smartphone use, process and social smartphone use, and PSU. The serial mediation effect of metacognitions about smartphone use and process use on the relationship between the fear of not being up to date and PSU was significant (indirect effect = 0.004; 95% CI: [0.0006, 0.009]). Conversely, the serial mediation effect of metacognitions about smartphone use and social use on the relationship between FoMO and PSU was not significant (indirect effect = 0.002; 95% CI: [-0.003, 0.009]). Smartphone social use did not predict PSU. The current study highlights a possible pathway towards process smartphone use via a relatively new phenomenon termed “fear of not being up to date” within a metacognitive framework.

Fear of Missing Out (FOMO): The Effects of the Need to Belong, Perceived Centrality, and Fear of Social Exclusion

“Fear of Missing Out” (FOMO) is an all-consuming feeling that is associated with mental and emotional stress. Such strains are caused by a compulsive concern that one is missing an opportunity for a socially rewarding experience often spotted on social media networks. While several personality and psychological factors have been empirically validated as correlated with FOMO, so far, little research has examined the effects of perceived group centrality (i.e., the extent to which group members feel included in the group) and fear of social exclusion on FOMO. Therefore, this study is aimed at examining the mechanism that links these socially driven factors and the need to belong with social media use and, consequently, FOMO, using structural equation modeling. A total of 490 college students ( $\text{mean}\text{age}=20.56,\text{SD}=1.44$ ) completed a self-reported questionnaire that included measures of FOMO, the need to belong, social media use, perceived centrality, and fear of social exclusion. The need to belong emerged as the best predictor of FOMO, increasing it both directly and indirectly through the significant mediation of social media use. Females reported a greater need to belong and consequently more FOMO. Females also reported greater use of social media and greater perceived group centrality. Perceived centrality increased FOMO through social media use, but this indirect effect was not significant.

Psychometric Properties of the Smartphone Distraction Scale in Chinese College Students: Validity, Reliability and Influencing Factors

AIM

The objective of this study was to evaluate the Chinese version of the Smartphone Distraction Scale (C-SDS), which is an easy-to-use tool for screening the risk of smartphone distraction in Chinese college students.

METHODS

The C-SDS, Smartphone Addiction Scale - Short Version (SAS-SV), Fear of Missing Out scale (FoMO) and Metacognition about Smartphone Use Questionnaire (MSUQ) were used in a sample of 1,002 Chinese college students to test smartphone distraction and its influencing factors. Exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) were performed to test measurement properties and factor structures of the C-SDS. Multi-variable linear regressions examined the relationships of sex, age, education level, the purpose of using a smartphone, usage of smartphone (hours per day), fear of missing out, smartphone addiction and positive and negative metacognitions about smartphone use with the C-SDS.

RESULTS

The EFA showed a 3-factor structure, which consisted of attention impulsiveness, multitasking and emotion regulation. The CFA showed that the 3-factor demonstrated an overall better model fit (RMSEA = 0.07, SRMR = 0.05, CFI = 0.94, TLI = 0.93). The C-SDS showed internal consistency (Cronbach's α = 0.88, McDonald's Omega ω = 0.88). Findings included that negative metacognition about smartphone use was most correlated with the C-SDS (b = 0.73; p < 0.001). Smartphone addiction, positive metacognition about smartphone use and fear of missing out also correlated with the C-SDS (b = 0.66, p < 0.001; b = 0.53, p < 0.001; b = 0.40, p < 0.001, respectively). The study shows that males compared to females (b = -1.65; p = 0.003), had a higher C-SDS score.

CONCLUSION

The C-SDS was valid and reliable for assessing the distraction of using smartphones in the Chinese context. Being female, the purpose of using a smartphone, smartphone usage (hours per day), fear of missing out, smartphone addiction and positive and negative metacognitions about smartphone use were positively correlated to the C-SDS.

Modelling the contribution of metacognitions and expectancies to problematic smartphone use

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

In the current study we have sought to clarify the contribution of metacognitions concerning smartphone use relative to smartphone use expectancies in the relationship between well-established predisposing psychological factors and problematic smartphone use (PSU). We tested a model where psychological distress, impulsivity, and proneness to boredom predict metacognitions about smartphone use and smartphone use expectancies, which in turn predict PSU.

METHODS

A sample of 535 participants (F = 71.2%; mean age = 27.38 ± 9.05 years) was recruited.

RESULTS

The model accounted for 64% of the PSU variance and showed good fit indices (χ 2 = 16.01, df = 13, P = 0.24; RMSEA [90%CI] = 0.02 [0-0.05], CFI = 0.99; SRMR = 0.03). We found that: (i) when it comes to psychological distress and boredom proneness, negative metacognitions, and both positive and negative expectancies play a mediating role in the association with PSU, with negative metacognitions showing a dominant role; (ii) there is no overlap between positive expectancies and positive metacognitions, especially when it comes to smartphone use as a means for socializing; (iii) impulsivity did not show a significant effect on PSU Direct effects of the predictors on PSU were not found.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

The current study found additional support for applying metacognitive theory to the understanding of PSU and highlight the dominant role of negative metacognitions about smartphone in predicting PSU.

Policy Recommendations for Preventing Problematic Internet Use in Schools: A Qualitative Study of Parental Perspectives

Parenting in the digital age has been characterized as one of the most challenging tasks of the modern era. Parents are ambivalent about their mediating role. However, problematic aspects of adolescent online use have not been adequately addressed in education. The present study investigated parental perceptions of intervention needs within schools to prevent excessive/problematic use, enhance parent-child communication, and reduce family conflicts. Nine interviews with parents of adolescents residing in the UK were carried out and analyzed utilizing thematic analysis. Three main themes emerged as parental proposals: (i) schools as digital education providers and prevention hubs, (ii) provision of mental health literacy to raise awareness, resolve ambiguity regarding impacts and mitigate excessive use and impacts, and (iii) psychoeducation and upskilling. The third theme related to impacts from time spent on screens (time displacement), content-related impacts, and context-related impacts. The present study offers recommendations for media literacy during adolescence beyond e-safety (i.e., addressing interpersonal communication problems, privacy vs. disclosure issues), based on parents' views, and provides new insights for media and emotional health literacy collaboration efforts. Future work should investigate the feasibility and effectiveness of such interventions to support the emotional health of young people and prevent problematic internet use escalation.

Perceived Challenges and Online Harms from Social Media Use on a Severity Continuum: A Qualitative Psychological Stakeholder Perspective

Evidence suggests that problematic use of gaming, the internet, and social media among adolescents is on the rise, affecting multiple psycho-emotional domains. However, research providing a comprehensive and triangulated stakeholder perspective of perceived harms is lacking. How are adolescent online harms experienced and conceptualized by students, parents, and teachers? The present study comprised part of a qualitative needs assessment investigation with the use of focus groups and individual interviews among key stakeholder groups assessing perceived impacts with a focus on the negative consequences and perceived harms. The study’s sample consisted of students (N = 42, M_age = 13.5, SD = 2.3), parents (N = 9, M_age = 37, SD = 5.6) and teachers (N = 9, M_age = 34, SD = 4.9) from the UK. Data were analysed with thematic analysis. Findings focused primarily on social media use impacts and indicated that processes underlying impacts experienced by adolescents may be conceptualized on a severity continuum. Stakeholder consensus on perceptions of challenges and perceived harms formed the second theme, with impacts further analysed as relating to time displacement, peer judgement, sensory overload and context of the adolescent with functional (performance, task switching, use of multiple devices), cognitive (loss or deterioration of attentional focus, attention deficit), and emotional consequences (stress, anxiety, obsessive-compulsive/checking behaviours). A third theme formed was individual vulnerabilities predisposing poor mental health outcomes. The final theme related to impacts dependent on context and meaning attached. Findings suggest a consideration of a spectrum approach encompassing a broader range of potential psychological challenges and perceived harms beyond safety concerns and addiction in understanding problematic adolescent online experiences. Understanding perceived harms can aid the objective setting of interventions and consideration of mental health literacy in school curricula.