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Tong Jia Ming S, Tan Yi Jun K, Carissimo G. Pathogenicity and virulence of O'nyong-nyong virus: A less studied Togaviridae with pandemic potential. Virulence 2024; 15:2355201. [PMID: 38797948 PMCID: PMC11135837 DOI: 10.1080/21505594.2024.2355201] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2023] [Accepted: 05/10/2024] [Indexed: 05/29/2024] Open
Abstract
O'nyong-nyong virus (ONNV) is a neglected mosquito-borne alphavirus belonging to the Togaviridae family. ONNV is known to be responsible for sporadic outbreaks of acute febrile disease and polyarthralgia in Africa. As climate change increases the geographical range of known and potential new vectors, recent data indicate a possibility for ONNV to spread outside of the African continent and grow into a greater public health concern. In this review, we summarise the current knowledge on ONNV epidemiology, host-pathogen interactions, vector-virus responses, and insights into possible avenues to control risk of further epidemics. In this review, the limited ONNV literature is compared and correlated to other findings on mainly Old World alphaviruses. We highlight and discuss studies that investigate viral and host factors that determine viral-vector specificity, along with important mechanisms that determine severity and disease outcome of ONNV infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuel Tong Jia Ming
- A*STAR Infectious Diseases Labs (A*STAR ID Labs), Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), Singapore, Singapore
| | - Katrina Tan Yi Jun
- A*STAR Infectious Diseases Labs (A*STAR ID Labs), Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), Singapore, Singapore
| | - Guillaume Carissimo
- A*STAR Infectious Diseases Labs (A*STAR ID Labs), Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), Singapore, Singapore
- Infectious Diseases Translational Research Programme, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
- Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine, Nanyang Technical University, Singapore, Singapore
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Naveed A, Eertink LG, Wang D, Li F. Lessons Learned from West Nile Virus Infection:Vaccinations in Equines and Their Implications for One Health Approaches. Viruses 2024; 16:781. [PMID: 38793662 PMCID: PMC11125849 DOI: 10.3390/v16050781] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2024] [Revised: 05/03/2024] [Accepted: 05/09/2024] [Indexed: 05/26/2024] Open
Abstract
Humans and equines are two dead-end hosts of the mosquito-borne West Nile virus (WNV) with similar susceptibility and pathogenesis. Since the introduction of WNV vaccines into equine populations of the United States of America (USA) in late 2002, there have been only sporadic cases of WNV infection in equines. These cases are generally attributed to unvaccinated and under-vaccinated equines. In contrast, due to the lack of a human WNV vaccine, WNV cases in humans have remained steadily high. An average of 115 deaths have been reported per year in the USA since the first reported case in 1999. Therefore, the characterization of protective immune responses to WNV and the identification of immune correlates of protection in vaccinated equines will provide new fundamental information about the successful development and evaluation of WNV vaccines in humans. This review discusses the comparative epidemiology, transmission, susceptibility to infection and disease, clinical manifestation and pathogenesis, and immune responses of WNV in humans and equines. Furthermore, prophylactic and therapeutic strategies that are currently available and under development are described. In addition, the successful vaccination of equines against WNV and the potential lessons for human vaccine development are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Feng Li
- Maxwell H. Gluck Equine Research Center, Department of Veterinary Science, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40546, USA; (A.N.); (L.G.E.); (D.W.)
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Khan MA, Adnan F, Khursheed N. From mosquitoes to menace: Unveiling the dangers of West Nile virus in Pakistan. Trop Doct 2024; 54:89-90. [PMID: 38225191 DOI: 10.1177/00494755231224095] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2024]
Abstract
Pakistan, a subtropical nation, has seen a rapid rise in Arboviral transmission in the past decade. Environmental hazards such as intense monsoon rains and yearly floods in addition to unsanitary living conditions pose an increased risk of arboviral infections. In recent years, the emergence and spread of West Nile virus (WNV), which can lead to a life-threatening meningoencephalitis, in Pakistan has alarmed the health care authorities of an impending outbreak. Health professionals and policymakers should give paramount importance to prevent its transmission across Pakistan as another arboviral outbreak would wreak havoc on the already fragile health infrastructure of the country. Proactive surveillance and prompt reporting are crucial for mitigating this threat as there are no vaccines available to prevent WNV infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Moiz Ahmed Khan
- Senior Registrar, Microbiology Department, The Indus Hospital, Karachi, Pakistan
| | - Fareeha Adnan
- Consultant, Microbiology Department, The Indus Hospital, Karachi, Pakistan
| | - Nazia Khursheed
- Consultant, Microbiology Department, The Indus Hospital, Karachi, Pakistan
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Shakoor S, Fatima T, Mir F, Shahid A, Shaheen N, Khan E, Jamil B. Etiology of Acute Infectious Meningitis and Meningoencephalitis in Karachi, Pakistan: Retrospective Observational Study from a Tertiary Care Center. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2023; 109:450-459. [PMID: 37460090 PMCID: PMC10397433 DOI: 10.4269/ajtmh.23-0182] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2023] [Accepted: 05/31/2023] [Indexed: 08/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Meningoencephalitis (ME) is potentially fatal and is caused by a wide array of pathogens. Diagnostic and health-care access gaps prevent accurate estimation of the pathogen-specific burden in low-resource settings. We present pathogen-specific etiologies among patients hospitalized with ME in Karachi, Pakistan. We performed a retrospective hospital database evaluation of pathogen etiology and outcomes of community-acquired infectious ME at a single tertiary care center in Karachi, Pakistan. Annual rates of hospitalization (ARH) were calculated by adjusting for missed cases and are reported per 100,000 population. From May 2017 to April 2020, 522 episodes of infectious ME were identified in 514 patients. The overall ARH from ME was 5.7/100,000 population (95% CI, 5.1-6.1). Among children younger than 5 years, the ARH was 9.8/100,000 population (95% CI, 8.1-11.8). Unknown causes of ME resulted in the greatest burden, with an ARH of 1.9/100,000 population (95% CI, 1.7-2.2). Among known causes, the greatest burden of hospitalizations resulted from tuberculous ME (0.8/100,000; 95% CI, 0.6-0.97), followed by pneumococcal and enteroviral ME (both 0.6/100,000 population; 95% CI, 0.5-0.8). The burden of ME caused by pathogens preventable through vaccination or public health measures outweighed that of ME from other causes (P = 0.0092, Fisher's exact test). We report a broad range of pathogens causing ME in southern Pakistan and show a high burden of preventable illness. Synergistic actions to improve diagnostic strategies, increase vaccinations, and introduce measures to reduce water-borne and vector-borne diseases are required to reduce the ME burden in Pakistan and prevent future outbreaks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sadia Shakoor
- Departments of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Pediatrics, and Medicine, Aga Khan University, Karachi, Pakistan
| | - Tazeen Fatima
- Departments of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Pediatrics, and Medicine, Aga Khan University, Karachi, Pakistan
| | - Fatima Mir
- Departments of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Pediatrics, and Medicine, Aga Khan University, Karachi, Pakistan
| | - Asima Shahid
- Departments of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Pediatrics, and Medicine, Aga Khan University, Karachi, Pakistan
| | - Najma Shaheen
- Departments of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Pediatrics, and Medicine, Aga Khan University, Karachi, Pakistan
| | - Erum Khan
- Departments of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Pediatrics, and Medicine, Aga Khan University, Karachi, Pakistan
| | - Bushra Jamil
- Departments of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Pediatrics, and Medicine, Aga Khan University, Karachi, Pakistan
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5
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Rasheed SB, Zaidi F. Species diversity pattern of mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae) breeding in different permanent, temporary and natural container habitats of Peshawar, KP Pakistan. BRAZ J BIOL 2023; 84:e271524. [PMID: 37194758 DOI: 10.1590/1519-6984.271524] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2023] [Accepted: 03/15/2023] [Indexed: 05/18/2023] Open
Abstract
To determine the species composition, relative abundance and seasonal variation of different mosquitoes Genera (Aedes, Anopheles, Armigeres, Culex, and Culiseta) in different habitats the present research work was carried out in Entomology Research Laboratory of The University of Peshawar. Sampling performed from variety of permanent and temporary breeding habitats was carried out on monthly basis from targeted breeding sites for two consecutive years through dipping method. Species diversity in the survey sites was noted. Collection from these seventeen various types of potential larval habitats, yielded a total of 42,430 immature constituting 41,556 larvae and 874 pupae. Among these only 19,651 adult mosquitoes emerged comprising 11,512 female and 8,139 male mosquitoes. 78% (n= 15333) of mosquito larvae were from permanent and 22% (n=4318) were from temporary breeding sites. This study showed that Peshawar valley harbours 15 species from the genera Aedes, Anopheles, Armigeres, Culex and Culiseta. When the density of each species was examined, Culex quinquifasciatus was found to be dominant (79%) and constant in distribution. Among the temporary habitats Aedes albopictus was found as the most prevalent species particularly from tree holes and water cisterns. The highest intensity of mosquitoes was in June (2243 emerged adults) and November (2667 emerged adults) while the lowest was in January (203 emerged adults). A perfect positive correlation (r = +0.8) was found between temperature and population of mosquitoes (df 10 and α 0.05). The species diversity index for mosquitoes remained between 0.12 and 1.76. The Margalef's richness components was noticeably low for bamboo traps (0.2) and fairly high for rice fields, Percolating water and Animal tracks (1.3) which shows the abundance of mosquito species in these habitats. Similarly Pielou's Evenness was highest for bamboo traps (E=1) showing species uniform distribution. Animal tracks were presumed not only the diverse habitat rather also possessed high value for species richness and species evenness. Temperature, rainfall, humidity and other related attributes responsible for species variation and abundance need to be analysed further to pave way for controlling vector species in their oviposition targeted sites.
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Affiliation(s)
- S B Rasheed
- University of Peshawar, Department of Zoology, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan
| | - F Zaidi
- University of Peshawar, Department of Zoology, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan
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Rahmat ZS, Sadiq M, Vohra LI, Ullah H, Essar MY. The impact of COVID-19 followed by extreme flooding on vector borne diseases in Pakistan: A mini narrative review. New Microbes New Infect 2022; 51:101075. [PMID: 36589270 PMCID: PMC9792184 DOI: 10.1016/j.nmni.2022.101075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2022] [Revised: 12/15/2022] [Accepted: 12/20/2022] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
While the Coronavirus pandemic continues to spread havoc across the world, countries like Pakistan are faced with another challenge: the steady rise of vector borne diseases alongside a spike in COVID-19 cases. Moreover, signs and clinical manifestations of multiple arbovirus infections mimic those experienced in COVID-19, causing further complications in management and diagnosis. Without urgent adequate management and testing equipment, the recent surge of COVID-19 along with the steady rise in Vector Borne Diseases (VBDs) could collapse the exhausted Pakistani healthcare system. This article explores the impact of COVID-19 on the management, diagnosis, and treatment of the common arbovirus infections of Pakistan, including dengue (DENV), malaria, chikungunya (CHIKV), and other foreign infections that are on a hazardous rise.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zainab Syyeda Rahmat
- Faculty of Medicine, Dow Medical College, Dow University of Health Sciences, Pakistan
| | - Mahnoor Sadiq
- Faculty of Medicine, Dow Medical College, Dow University of Health Sciences, Pakistan
| | | | - Hamid Ullah
- Faculty of Medicine, Dow Medical College, Dow University of Health Sciences, Pakistan
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Abstract
Purpose of Review West Nile virus (WNV) is an arbovirus transmitted by mosquitos of the genus Culex. Manifestations of WNV infection range from asymptomatic to devastating neuroinvasive disease leading to flaccid paralysis and death. This review examines WNV epidemiology and ecology, with an emphasis on travel-associated infection. Recent Findings WNV is widespread, including North America and Europe, where its range has expanded in the past decade. Rising temperatures in temperate regions are predicted to lead to an increased abundance of Culex mosquitoes and an increase in their ability to transmit WNV. Although the epidemiologic patterns of WNV appear variable, its geographic distribution most certainly will continue to increase. Travelers are at risk for WNV infection and its complications. Literature review identified 39 cases of documented travel-related WNV disease, the majority of which resulted in adverse outcomes, such as neuroinvasive disease, prolonged recovery period, or death. Summary The prediction of WNV risk is challenging due to the complex interactions of vector, pathogen, host, and environment. Travelers planning to visit endemic areas should be advised regarding WNV risk and mosquito bite prevention. Evaluation of ill travelers with compatible symptoms should consider the diagnosis of WNV for those visiting in endemic areas as well as for those returning from destinations with known WNV circulation.
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Khan MA, Imtiaz K, Shafaq H, Farooqi J, Hassan M, Zafar A, Long MT, Barr KL, Khan E. Screening for Arboviruses in Healthy Blood Donors: Experience from Karachi, Pakistan (Jul-Dec 2018). Virol Sin 2022; 37:774-777. [PMID: 35863605 PMCID: PMC9583101 DOI: 10.1016/j.virs.2022.07.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2021] [Accepted: 07/13/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
DENV, WNV and JEV status was investigated in healthy blood donors at the Aga Khan University July to December 2018. ELISA for IgM antibodies and RT-PCR for viral RNA detection were performed. IgM antibodies for DENV and WNV were positive in 3.9% and JEV in 0.28% of the blood donors. Blood donors aged 19 and 30 years and residents of urban areas, of Karachi City were most frequent. DENV and WNV seropositivity were significantly associated with residence in Malir District of Karachi.
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Affiliation(s)
- Moiz Ahmed Khan
- Clinical Microbiology Laboratory, Department of Pathology & Lab Medicine, Aga Khan University, Karachi 74800, Pakistan
| | - Kehkashan Imtiaz
- Clinical Microbiology Laboratory, Department of Pathology & Lab Medicine, Aga Khan University, Karachi 74800, Pakistan
| | - Humaira Shafaq
- Clinical Microbiology Laboratory, Department of Pathology & Lab Medicine, Aga Khan University, Karachi 74800, Pakistan
| | - Joveria Farooqi
- Clinical Microbiology Laboratory, Department of Pathology & Lab Medicine, Aga Khan University, Karachi 74800, Pakistan
| | - Mohammad Hassan
- Blood Bank, Haematology & Transfusion Medicine, Department of Pathology & Lab Medicine, Aga Khan University, Karachi 74800, Pakistan
| | - Afia Zafar
- Clinical Microbiology Laboratory, Department of Pathology & Lab Medicine, Aga Khan University, Karachi 74800, Pakistan
| | - Maureen T Long
- Comparative Diagnostic and Population Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville FL32611, USA
| | - Kelli L Barr
- Center for Global Health and Infectious Disease Research, University of South Florida, Tampa FL33620, USA
| | - Erum Khan
- Clinical Microbiology Laboratory, Department of Pathology & Lab Medicine, Aga Khan University, Karachi 74800, Pakistan.
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Waseem S, Shaikh TG, Ahmed SH, Usama RM, Asghar MS, Tahir MJ. West Nile virus outbreak in Pakistan: Another potential public health threat in the pipeline? Ann Med Surg (Lond) 2022; 77:103663. [PMID: 35638065 PMCID: PMC9142610 DOI: 10.1016/j.amsu.2022.103663] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2022] [Accepted: 04/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
West Nile virus (WNV), a single-stranded RNA virus belonging to the family of Flaviviridae, is an arbovirus transmitted to humans predominantly by mosquito bites. It exhibits a wide range of clinical findings ranging from asymptomatic presentation to severe several neurological disorders. WNV has afflicted several countries around the globe including Pakistan. News of yet another outbreak in the country by WNV is circulating again. Concerned authorities should act vigilantly before the endemic takes over completely and bring down the already bereaving healthcare of Pakistan.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Muhammad Sohaib Asghar
- Dow University of Health Sciences–Ojha Campus, 75300, Karachi, Pakistan
- Corresponding author. Resident Physician at Dow University of Health Sciences–Ojha Campus, Karachi, Pakistan.
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10
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The value of West Nile virus RNA detection by real-time RT-PCR in urine samples from patients with neuroinvasive forms. Arch Microbiol 2022; 204:238. [DOI: 10.1007/s00203-022-02829-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2021] [Accepted: 03/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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11
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Imran M, Ye J, Saleemi MK, Shaheen I, Zohaib A, Chen Z, Cao S. Epidemiological trends of mosquito-borne viral diseases in Pakistan. ANIMAL DISEASES 2022. [DOI: 10.1186/s44149-021-00034-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
AbstractGlobally, arboviruses are public health problems. Pakistan has seen a fast-paced increase in mosquito-borne Flavivirus diseases such as dengue because of deforestation, climate change, urbanization, poor sanitation and natural disasters. The magnitude and distribution of these diseases are poorly understood due to the lack of a competitive nationwide surveillance system. In dengue-endemic countries, the recent epidemics of chikungunya (CHIKV) and human West Nile virus (WNV) have created panic among the public and are thought to provoke an outbreak of Zika virus (ZIKV) in Pakistan. Recently, hospital-based surveillance has indicated the presence of Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), which is deeply concerned by developing countries such as Pakistan. The situation could become more devastating because of poorly developed diagnostic infrastructure. To date, no licensed vaccine has been used in Pakistan, and preventive measures are mainly based on vector control. This review provides comprehensive information concerning the association of risk factors with disease occurrence, epidemiological trends, and prediction of the spread of mosquito-borne diseases, attention to new threats of ZIKV, and future perspectives by benchmarking global health policies.
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12
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Attaullah M, Gul S, Bibi D, Andaleeb A, Ilahi I, Siraj M, Ahmad M, Ullah I, Ali M, Ahmad S, Ullah Z. Diversity, distribution and relative abundance of the mosquito fauna (Diptera: Culicidae) of Malakand and Dir Lower, Pakistan. BRAZ J BIOL 2021; 83:e247374. [PMID: 34431916 DOI: 10.1590/1519-6984.247374] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2021] [Accepted: 02/16/2021] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The present study was conducted to evaluate the diversity, distribution (C) and relative abundance (RA) of the mosquito fauna (Diptera: Culicidae) of Malakand and Dir Lower, Pakistan. Collection of specimens (n = 1087) was made during September 2018 to July 2019 at six different habitats including freshwater bodies, rice fields, animal sheds, indoors, drains and sewage waters. Specimens were collected through light traps, pyrethrum spray, aspirators and nets and subsequently killed, preserved and then arranged in entomological boxes for identification. Three genera were identified namely Culex, Anopheles and Aedes. A total of fourteen species were identified namely: Cx. quinquefasciatus (Say, 1823), An. stephensi (Liston, 1901), Cx. tritaeniorhynchus (Giles, 1901), Ae. vittatus (Bigot, 1861), An. maculatus (Theobald, 1901), An. fluviatilis (James, 1902), Cx. vishnui (Theobald, 1901), Ae. aegypti (Linnaeus, 1762) An. subpictus (Grassi, 1899), An. dthali (Patton, 1905), An. culicifascies (Giles, 1901), An. pallidus (Theobald, 1901), Ae. albopictus (Skuse, 1894) and An. annularis (van der Wulp, 1884). Cx. quinquefasciatus was found constantly distributed in the study area with RA = 16.5% and C = 100%. An. annularis was found as a satellite species, sporadically distributed in the study area having RA = 0.9% and C = 17%. Diversity indices of mosquitoes in the studied habitats were found as, Shannon-Wiener Index (2.415), Simpson Index (9.919), Fisher's Index (2.269) and Margalef's Index (1.859). A statistically significant difference was recorded in mosquito diversity in the six habitats (Kruskal-Wallis, chi-squared, H = 17.5, df = 5, P = 0.003 at α = 0.05). The present study encompasses mosquito fauna of Malakand, Pakistan with respect to diversity, relative abundance and distribution in diverse habitats and all seasons of the year. This will assist scientists working in various fields related with epidemiology, medical and veterinary entomology, ecology and allied areas of biological sciences.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Attaullah
- University of Malakand, Department of Zoology, Chakdara, Dir Lower, Pakistan
| | - S Gul
- University of Malakand, Department of Zoology, Chakdara, Dir Lower, Pakistan
| | - D Bibi
- University of Malakand, Department of Zoology, Chakdara, Dir Lower, Pakistan
| | - A Andaleeb
- University of Malakand, Department of Zoology, Chakdara, Dir Lower, Pakistan
| | - I Ilahi
- University of Malakand, Department of Zoology, Chakdara, Dir Lower, Pakistan
| | - M Siraj
- Abbottabad University of Science and Technology, Department of Zoology, Abbottabad, Pakistan
| | - M Ahmad
- University of Malakand, Department of Zoology, Chakdara, Dir Lower, Pakistan
| | - I Ullah
- University of Malakand, Department of Zoology, Chakdara, Dir Lower, Pakistan
| | - M Ali
- University of Malakand, Department of Zoology, Chakdara, Dir Lower, Pakistan
| | - S Ahmad
- University of Malakand, Department of Zoology, Chakdara, Dir Lower, Pakistan
| | - Z Ullah
- University of Malakand, Department of Zoology, Chakdara, Dir Lower, Pakistan
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Zhang Y, Lei W, Wang Y, Sui H, Liu B, Li F, He Y, Li Z, Fu S, Wang L, Xu L, Mahe M, Gao Z, Mamutijiang T, Lv Z, Xiang N, Zhou L, Ni D, Liang G, Li Q, Wang H, Feng Z. Surveillance of West Nile virus infection in Kashgar Region, Xinjiang, China, 2013-2016. Sci Rep 2021; 11:14010. [PMID: 34234184 PMCID: PMC8263600 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-93309-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2019] [Accepted: 05/07/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
West Nile virus (WNV) was first isolated in mainland China from mosquitoes in Jiashi County, Kashgar Region, Xinjiang in 2011, following local outbreaks of viral meningitis and encephalitis caused by WNV. To elaborate the epidemiological characteristics of the WNV, surveillance of WNV infection in Kashgar Region, Xinjiang from 2013 to 2016 were carried out. Blood and CSF samples from surveillance human cases, blood of domestic chicken, cattle, sheep and mosquitoes in Kashgar Region were collected and detected. There were human 65 WNV Immunoglobulin M (IgM) antibody positive cases by ELISA screening, 6 confirmed WNV cases by the plaque reduction neutralization test (PRNT) screening. These cases occurred mainly concentrated in August to September of each year, and most of them were males. WNV-neutralizing antibodies were detected in both chickens and sheep, and the positive rates of neutralizing antibodies were 15.5% and 1.78%, respectively. A total of 15,637 mosquitoes were collected in 2013–2016, with Culex pipiens as the dominant mosquito species. Four and 1 WNV-positive mosquito pools were detected by RT-qPCR in 2013 and 2016 respectively. From these data, we can confirm that Jiashi County may be a natural epidemic foci of WNV disease, the trend highlights the routine virology surveillance in WNV surveillance cases, mosquitoes and avian should be maintained and enhanced to provide to prediction and early warning of outbreak an epidemic of WNV in China.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanping Zhang
- Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, 102206, People's Republic of China
| | - Wenwen Lei
- Department of Viral Encephalitis, NHC Key Laboratory of Biosafety, National Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, State Key Laboratory of Infectious Disease Prevention and Control, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, 102206, People's Republic of China
| | - Yali Wang
- Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, 102206, People's Republic of China
| | - Haitian Sui
- China National Biotec Group Company Limited, Beijing, 100024, People's Republic of China
| | - Bo Liu
- Center for Drug Evaluation of the China National Medical Products Administration, Beijing, 100022, People's Republic of China
| | - Fan Li
- Department of Viral Encephalitis, NHC Key Laboratory of Biosafety, National Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, State Key Laboratory of Infectious Disease Prevention and Control, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, 102206, People's Republic of China
| | - Ying He
- Department of Viral Encephalitis, NHC Key Laboratory of Biosafety, National Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, State Key Laboratory of Infectious Disease Prevention and Control, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, 102206, People's Republic of China
| | - Zhaoxia Li
- Kashgar Center for Disease Control and Prevention of Xinjiang, Kashgar, 844000, People's Republic of China
| | - Shihong Fu
- Department of Viral Encephalitis, NHC Key Laboratory of Biosafety, National Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, State Key Laboratory of Infectious Disease Prevention and Control, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, 102206, People's Republic of China
| | - Lu Wang
- Kashgar Center for Disease Control and Prevention of Xinjiang, Kashgar, 844000, People's Republic of China
| | - Limin Xu
- Kashgar Center for Disease Control and Prevention of Xinjiang, Kashgar, 844000, People's Republic of China
| | - Muti Mahe
- Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Urumqi, 830001, People's Republic of China
| | - Zhenguo Gao
- Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Urumqi, 830001, People's Republic of China
| | - Tuerxun Mamutijiang
- Jiashi Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Jiashi, 844300, People's Republic of China
| | - Zhi Lv
- Department of Viral Encephalitis, NHC Key Laboratory of Biosafety, National Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, State Key Laboratory of Infectious Disease Prevention and Control, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, 102206, People's Republic of China
| | - Nijuan Xiang
- Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, 102206, People's Republic of China
| | - Lei Zhou
- Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, 102206, People's Republic of China
| | - Daxin Ni
- Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, 102206, People's Republic of China
| | - Guodong Liang
- Department of Viral Encephalitis, NHC Key Laboratory of Biosafety, National Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, State Key Laboratory of Infectious Disease Prevention and Control, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, 102206, People's Republic of China
| | - Qun Li
- Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, 102206, People's Republic of China
| | - Huanyu Wang
- Department of Viral Encephalitis, NHC Key Laboratory of Biosafety, National Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, State Key Laboratory of Infectious Disease Prevention and Control, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, 102206, People's Republic of China.
| | - Zijian Feng
- Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, 102206, People's Republic of China.
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Chowdhury P, Khan SA. Global emergence of West Nile virus: Threat & preparedness in special perspective to India. Indian J Med Res 2021; 154:36-50. [PMID: 34782529 PMCID: PMC8715705 DOI: 10.4103/ijmr.ijmr_642_19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2019] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
West Nile virus (WNV) is a mosquito-borne single-stranded RNA neurotropic virus within the family Flaviviridae. The virus was first reported in the West Nile province of Uganda in 1937. Since then, sporadic cases have been reported until the last two decades when it has emerged as a threat to public health. The emergence of WNV with more severity in recent times is intriguing. Considering this phenomenon, the WNV-affected areas of the world were distinguished as old versus new in a depicted world map. The present review showcases the historical and epidemiological perspectives of the virus, genetic diversity of prevailing lineages and clinical spectrum associated with its infection. Emergence of the virus has been discussed in special context to India because of co-circulation of different WNV lineages/strains along with other flaviviruses. Recent laboratory diagnostics, vaccine development and clinical management associated with WNV infection have also been discussed. Further, the research gaps, especially in context to India have been highlighted that may have a pivotal role in combating the spread of WNV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pritom Chowdhury
- Department of Biotechnology, Tocklai Tea Research Institute, Tea Research Association, Jorhat, Assam, India
| | - Siraj Ahmed Khan
- Division of Medical Entomology, Arbovirology & Rickettsial Diseases, ICMR-Regional Medical Research Centre, Northeast Region, Dibrugarh, Assam, India
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15
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Fazal O, Hotez PJ. NTDs in the age of urbanization, climate change, and conflict: Karachi, Pakistan as a case study. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2020; 14:e0008791. [PMID: 33180793 PMCID: PMC7660527 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0008791] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Owais Fazal
- Rice University, Houston, Texas, United States of America
| | - Peter J Hotez
- Departments of Pediatrics and Molecular Virology and Microbiology, Texas Children's Center for Vaccine Development, National School of Tropical Medicine, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas, United States of America
- Hagler Institute for Advanced Study at Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, United States of America
- Department of Biology, Baylor University, Waco, Texas, United States of America
- James A Baker III Institute of Public Policy, Rice University, Houston, Texas, United States of America
- Scowcroft Institute of International Affairs, Bush School of Government and Public Service, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, United States of America
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Abstract
AbstractThe high prevalence and spread of arthropod-borne viruses (arboviruses) make them an important cause of viral encephalitis in humans. Most epidemic viral encephalitides have an etiology associated with arboviruses. Among various arboviruses, the Japanese encephalitis virus, West Nile virus, Zika virus, Dengue virus and Chikungunya virus can induce seizures. Arboviruses of the genus Flavivirus are usually transmitted by mosquitoes and other host animals. These vector-borne pathogens can cause epidemic viral encephalitis. Seizures may not be the major manifestation in these viral encephalitides, but may predict a poor prognosis. In this article, we discuss the relationships between these viruses and seizures from perspectives of clinical characteristics, pathogenesis, prognosis and treatments of each.
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Islam A, Islam S, Hossain ME, Ferdous J, Abedin J, Ziaur Rahman M, Rahman MK, Hoque MA, Hassan MM. Serological Evidence of West Nile Virus in Wild Birds in Bangladesh. Vet Sci 2020; 7:vetsci7040164. [PMID: 33126740 PMCID: PMC7712446 DOI: 10.3390/vetsci7040164] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2020] [Revised: 10/23/2020] [Accepted: 10/26/2020] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
West Nile Virus (WNV) is a vector-borne zoonotic disease maintained in a sylvatic cycle involving mosquito vectors and birds. To detect WNV and other flavivirus infections in wild resident and migratory birds, we tested 184 samples from 19 identified species within nine families collected during 2012–2016 from four districts in Bangladesh. We tested serum samples for the immunoglobulin G (IgG) antibody against WNV using competitive Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (c-ELISA), whereas tracheal and cloacal swabs were subjected to consensus Polymerase Chain Reaction (c-PCR) for the detection of the flavivirus RNA. Overall, we detected 11.9% (n = 22; 95% CI: 0.07–0.16) samples were seropositive, including 15.9% in the migratory wild birds and 10.7% in the resident wild birds. The migratory wild Tufted duck showed 28.5% seropositivity, whereas the resident wild house crows showed 12.5% seropositivity. None of the swab samples was positive for flavivirus RNA infection (0%, n = 184; 95% CI: 0–0.019). These study findings recommend continued surveillance for early detection and to better understand the epidemiology of WNV and other flavivirus circulation in both birds and mosquitoes in Bangladesh.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ariful Islam
- Centre for Integrative Ecology, School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Deakin University, Geelong Campus, VIC 3216, Australia
- EcoHealth Alliance, New York, NY 10001-2023, USA; (S.I.); (J.F.); (J.A.); (M.K.R.)
- Correspondence: (A.I.); (M.M.H.)
| | - Shariful Islam
- EcoHealth Alliance, New York, NY 10001-2023, USA; (S.I.); (J.F.); (J.A.); (M.K.R.)
- Bangladesh Livestock Research Institute, Savar, Dhaka 1241, Bangladesh
| | - Mohammad Enayet Hossain
- International Centre for Diarrheal Diseases Research, Bangladesh (ICDDR,B), Dhaka 1212, Bangladesh; (M.E.H.); (M.Z.R.)
| | - Jinnat Ferdous
- EcoHealth Alliance, New York, NY 10001-2023, USA; (S.I.); (J.F.); (J.A.); (M.K.R.)
- Institute of Epidemiology, Disease Control and Research (IEDCR), Dhaka 1212, Bangladesh
| | - Josefina Abedin
- EcoHealth Alliance, New York, NY 10001-2023, USA; (S.I.); (J.F.); (J.A.); (M.K.R.)
- Institute of Epidemiology, Disease Control and Research (IEDCR), Dhaka 1212, Bangladesh
| | - Mohammad Ziaur Rahman
- International Centre for Diarrheal Diseases Research, Bangladesh (ICDDR,B), Dhaka 1212, Bangladesh; (M.E.H.); (M.Z.R.)
| | - Md. Kaisar Rahman
- EcoHealth Alliance, New York, NY 10001-2023, USA; (S.I.); (J.F.); (J.A.); (M.K.R.)
| | - Md. Ahasanul Hoque
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chattogram Veterinary and Animal Sciences University, Chattogram 4225, Bangladesh;
| | - Mohammad Mahmudul Hassan
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chattogram Veterinary and Animal Sciences University, Chattogram 4225, Bangladesh;
- Correspondence: (A.I.); (M.M.H.)
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18
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Khan E, Prakoso D, Imtiaz K, Malik F, Farooqi JQ, Long MT, Barr KL. The Clinical Features of Co-circulating Dengue Viruses and the Absence of Dengue Hemorrhagic Fever in Pakistan. Front Public Health 2020; 8:287. [PMID: 32626679 PMCID: PMC7311566 DOI: 10.3389/fpubh.2020.00287] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2020] [Accepted: 06/01/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Dengue virus (DENV) is the most common and widespread arboviral infection worldwide. Though all four DENV serotypes cocirculate in nature, the clinicopathological framework of these serotypes is undefined in Pakistan. A cross-sectional, observational study was performed to document the circulation of various arboviruses in the Sindh region of Pakistan. Here we describe a population of patients diagnosed with DENV spanning a 2-year period. This study used an orthogonal system of NS1 antigen ELISA followed by RT-PCR for DENV detection and subtyping. A total of 168 NS1 positive patients were evaluated of which 91 patients were serotyped via RT-PCR. There was no significant difference between sex or age for infection risk and peak transmission occurred during the Autumn months. DENV2 was the most common serotype followed by DENV1 then DENV3, then DENV4. The data show that DENV1 patients were more likely to have abnormal liver function tests; DENV2 infected patients were more likely to exhibit arthralgia and neurological symptoms; DENV3 patients were more likely to complain of burning micturition and have elevated lymphocyte counts and low hematocrit; and DENV4 patients were more likely to report headaches and rash. Notably, no dengue hemorrhagic fever or other manifestations of severe dengue fever were present in patients with primary or secondary infections. We were able to identify significantly more NS1 antigen positive patients than RT-PCR. This study demonstrates that all four DENV serotypes are co-circulating and co-infecting in Pakistan.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erum Khan
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Aga Khan University Hospital, Aga Khan University, Karachi, Pakistan
| | - Dhani Prakoso
- Department of Comparative Diagnostic and Population Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
| | - Kehkashan Imtiaz
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Aga Khan University Hospital, Aga Khan University, Karachi, Pakistan
| | - Faisal Malik
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Aga Khan University Hospital, Aga Khan University, Karachi, Pakistan
| | - Joveria Q Farooqi
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Aga Khan University Hospital, Aga Khan University, Karachi, Pakistan
| | - Maureen T Long
- Department of Comparative Diagnostic and Population Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
| | - Kelli L Barr
- Department of Biology, Baylor University, Waco, TX, United States
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Investigation of Japanese encephalitis virus as a cause of acute encephalitis in southern Pakistan, April 2015-January 2018. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0234584. [PMID: 32530966 PMCID: PMC7292402 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0234584] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2020] [Accepted: 05/28/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Japanese encephalitis (JE) occurs in fewer than 1% of JE virus (JEV) infections, often with catastrophic sequelae including death and neuropsychiatric disability. JEV transmission in Pakistan was documented in 1980s and 1990s, but recent evidence is lacking. Our objective was to investigate JEV as a cause of acute encephalitis in Pakistan. Methods Persons aged ≥1 month with possible JE admitted to two acute care hospitals in Karachi, Pakistan from April 2015 to January 2018 were enrolled. Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) or serum samples were tested for JEV immunoglobulin M (IgM) using the InBios JE DetectTM assay. Positive or equivocal samples had confirmatory testing using plaque reduction neutralization tests. Results Among 227 patients, testing was performed on CSF in 174 (77%) and on serum in 53 (23%) patients. Six of eight patient samples positive or equivocal for JEV IgM had sufficient volume for confirmatory testing. One patient had evidence of recent West Nile virus (WNV) neurologic infection based on CSF testing. One patient each had recent dengue virus (DENV) infection and WNV infection based on serum results. Recent flavivirus infections were identified in two persons, one each based on CSF and serum results. Specific flaviviruses could not be identified due to serologic cross-reactivity. For the sixth person, JEV neutralizing antibodies were confirmed in CSF but there was insufficient volume for further testing. Conclusions Hospital-based JE surveillance in Karachi, Pakistan could not confirm or exclude local JEV transmission. Nonetheless, Pakistan remains at risk for JE due to presence of the mosquito vector, amplifying hosts, and rice irrigation. Laboratory surveillance for JE should continue among persons with acute encephalitis. However, in view of serological cross-reactivity, confirmatory testing of JE IgM positive samples at a reference laboratory is essential.
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Karothia D, Kumar Dash P, Parida M, Bhagyawant SS, Kumar JS. Vector derived artificial miRNA mediated inhibition of West Nile virus replication and protein expression. Gene 2020; 729:144300. [DOI: 10.1016/j.gene.2019.144300] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2019] [Accepted: 12/16/2019] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
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21
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Schwarz ER, Pozor MA, Pu R, Barr KL, Beachboard SE, MacLachlan NJ, Prakoso D, Long MT. Experimental Infection of Pregnant Female Sheep with Zika Virus During Early Gestation. Viruses 2019; 11:v11090795. [PMID: 31470560 PMCID: PMC6784126 DOI: 10.3390/v11090795] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2019] [Revised: 08/22/2019] [Accepted: 08/27/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Zika virus (ZIKV) is a vertically and sexually transmissible virus resulting in severe congenital malformation. The goal of this study was to develop an ovine model of ZIKV infection. Between 28–35 days gestation (DG), four pregnant animals were infected with two doses of 6 × 106 PFU of ZIKV; four control animals received PBS. Animals were evaluated for 45 days (D) post-infection (PI) and necropsies were performed. Viral RNA was detected in infected ewe peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) during the first week PI; however, all fluids and tissues were negative upon culture. Anti-ZIKV IgM (1:400) and neutralizing antibodies were detected in all infected animals. Clinical disease, virus, or ZIKV antibodies were not detected in control ewes. After two weeks PI, fetal loss occurred in two infected animals, and at necropsy, three infected animals had placental petechiation and ecchymosis and one had hydramnion. Fetal morphometrics revealed smaller cranial circumference to crown-rump length ratios (p < 0.001) and relative brain weights (p = 0.038) in fetuses of infected animals compared with control fetuses. Immunophenotyping indicated an increase in B cells (p = 0.012) in infected sheep. Additionally, in vitro experiments using both adult and fetal cell lines demonstrated that ovine cells are highly permissive to ZIKV infection. In conclusion, ZIKV infection of pregnant sheep results in a change in fetal growth and gestational outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erika R Schwarz
- Department of Comparative, Diagnostic, and Population Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA
| | - Malgorzata A Pozor
- Department of Large Animal Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA
| | - Ruiyu Pu
- Department of Comparative, Diagnostic, and Population Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA
| | - Kelli L Barr
- Department of Biology, Colleges of Arts and Sciences, Baylor University, Waco, TX 76798, USA
| | - Sarah E Beachboard
- Department of Comparative, Diagnostic, and Population Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA
| | - N James MacLachlan
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology, and Immunology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA
| | - Dhani Prakoso
- Department of Comparative, Diagnostic, and Population Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA
| | - Maureen T Long
- Department of Comparative, Diagnostic, and Population Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA.
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Barr KL, Khan E, Farooqi JQ, Imtiaz K, Prakoso D, Malik F, Lednicky JA, Long MT. Evidence of Chikungunya Virus Disease in Pakistan Since 2015 With Patients Demonstrating Involvement of the Central Nervous System. Front Public Health 2018; 6:186. [PMID: 30042937 PMCID: PMC6048291 DOI: 10.3389/fpubh.2018.00186] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2018] [Accepted: 06/12/2018] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Several arboviruses are endemic to and co-circulate in Pakistan. In recent years, Pakistan has observed a rise in arboviral infections. A cross-sectional study for arboviral diseases, which included screening for Chikungunya virus (CHIKV), was initiated in 2015 to determine which pathogens were causing disease in patients presenting to health care services. Exposure to CHIKV was verified via detection of viral nucleic acids or virus-specific IgM with virus-specific neutralizing antibodies. Out of 997 enrolled patients presenting with clinical features suggestive of arboviral disease, 102 patients were positive for CHIKV IgM antibodies and 60 patients were positive for CHIKV nucleic acids or neutralizing antibodies. The data presented here show that CHIKV has been circulating in Pakistan since April of 2015. CHIKV infections were detected in study subjects up to the conclusion of our enrollment period in July 2017. Syndromic and clinical data show that arthralgia was associated with CHIKV as was rash, fever greater than 38°C, and lymphopenia. Neurological symptoms were reported in 49% of CHIKV suspect patients and in 46.6% of confirmed infections. Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis was diagnosed in 5% of confirmed infection and various manifestation of encephalitis diagnosed in an additional 16.6% of patients with confirmed CHIKV infections. CHIKV-exposed patients were just as likely to present with neurological symptoms and encephalitis as patients with West Nile Virus infections but were 4.57 times more likely to have lymphopenia. This proportion of neurological symptoms may be a complicating factor in countries where WNV and/or JEV co-circulate with CHIKV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kelli L Barr
- Department of Comparative, Diagnostic, and Population Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
| | - Erum Khan
- Laboratory Medicine, Department of Pathology, Aga Khan University, Karachi, Pakistan
| | - Joveria Q Farooqi
- Laboratory Medicine, Department of Pathology, Aga Khan University, Karachi, Pakistan
| | - Kehkashan Imtiaz
- Laboratory Medicine, Department of Pathology, Aga Khan University, Karachi, Pakistan
| | - Dhani Prakoso
- Department of Comparative, Diagnostic, and Population Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
| | - Faisal Malik
- Laboratory Medicine, Department of Pathology, Aga Khan University, Karachi, Pakistan
| | - John A Lednicky
- Department of Comparative, Diagnostic, and Population Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
| | - Maureen T Long
- Department of Comparative, Diagnostic, and Population Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
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