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Ueno H, Takahashi Y, Mori S, Murakami S, Wani K, Matsumoto Y, Okamoto M, Ishihara T. Mice Recognise Mice in Neighbouring Rearing Cages and Change Their Social Behaviour. Behav Neurol 2024; 2024:9215607. [PMID: 38264671 PMCID: PMC10805542 DOI: 10.1155/2024/9215607] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2023] [Revised: 12/27/2023] [Accepted: 01/04/2024] [Indexed: 01/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Mice are social animals that change their behaviour primarily in response to visual, olfactory, and auditory information from conspecifics. Rearing conditions such as cage size and colour are important factors influencing mouse behaviour. In recent years, transparent plastic cages have become standard breeding cages. The advantage of using a transparent cage is that the experimenter can observe the mouse from outside the cage without touching the cage. However, mice may recognise the environment outside the cage and change their behaviour. We speculated that mice housed in transparent cages might recognise mice in neighbouring cages. We used only male mice in this experiment. C57BL/6 mice were kept in transparent rearing cages with open lids, and the cage positions were maintained for 3 weeks. Subsequently, we examined how mice behaved toward cagemate mice, mice from neighbouring cages, and mice from distant cages. We compared the level of interest in mice using a social preference test. Similar to previous reports, subject mice showed a high degree of interest in unfamiliar mice from distant cages. By contrast, subject mice reacted to mice from neighbouring cages as familiar mice, similar to cagemate mice. This suggests that mice housed in transparent cages with open lids perceive the external environment and identify mice in neighbouring cages. Researchers should pay attention to the environment outside the mouse cage, especially for the social preference test.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiroshi Ueno
- Department of Medical Technology, Kawasaki University of Medical Welfare, Okayama 701-0193, Japan
| | - Yu Takahashi
- Department of Psychiatry, Kawasaki Medical School, Kurashiki 701-0192, Japan
| | - Sachiko Mori
- Department of Psychiatry, Kawasaki Medical School, Kurashiki 701-0192, Japan
| | - Shinji Murakami
- Department of Psychiatry, Kawasaki Medical School, Kurashiki 701-0192, Japan
| | - Kenta Wani
- Department of Psychiatry, Kawasaki Medical School, Kurashiki 701-0192, Japan
| | - Yosuke Matsumoto
- Department of Neuropsychiatry, Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Okayama University, Okayama 700-8558, Japan
| | - Motoi Okamoto
- Department of Medical Technology, Graduate School of Health Sciences, Okayama University, Okayama 700-8558, Japan
| | - Takeshi Ishihara
- Department of Psychiatry, Kawasaki Medical School, Kurashiki 701-0192, Japan
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Rukh S, Meechan DW, Maynard TM, Lamantia AS. Out of Line or Altered States? Neural Progenitors as a Target in a Polygenic Neurodevelopmental Disorder. Dev Neurosci 2023; 46:1-21. [PMID: 37231803 DOI: 10.1159/000530898] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2023] [Accepted: 04/19/2023] [Indexed: 05/27/2023] Open
Abstract
The genesis of a mature complement of neurons is thought to require, at least in part, precursor cell lineages in which neural progenitors have distinct identities recognized by exclusive expression of one or a few molecular markers. Nevertheless, limited progenitor types distinguished by specific markers and lineal progression through such subclasses cannot easily yield the magnitude of neuronal diversity in most regions of the nervous system. The late Verne Caviness, to whom this edition of Developmental Neuroscience is dedicated, recognized this mismatch. In his pioneering work on the histogenesis of the cerebral cortex, he acknowledged the additional flexibility required to generate multiple classes of cortical projection and interneurons. This flexibility may be accomplished by establishing cell states in which levels rather than binary expression or repression of individual genes vary across each progenitor's shared transcriptome. Such states may reflect local, stochastic signaling via soluble factors or coincidence of cell surface ligand/receptor pairs in subsets of neighboring progenitors. This probabilistic, rather than determined, signaling could modify transcription levels via multiple pathways within an apparently uniform population of progenitors. Progenitor states, therefore, rather than lineal relationships between types may underlie the generation of neuronal diversity in most regions of the nervous system. Moreover, mechanisms that influence variation required for flexible progenitor states may be targets for pathological changes in a broad range of neurodevelopmental disorders, especially those with polygenic origins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shah Rukh
- Fralin Biomedical Research Institute, Virginia Tech Carilion School of Medicine, Roanoke, Virginia, USA
| | - Daniel W Meechan
- Fralin Biomedical Research Institute, Virginia Tech Carilion School of Medicine, Roanoke, Virginia, USA
| | - Thomas M Maynard
- Fralin Biomedical Research Institute, Virginia Tech Carilion School of Medicine, Roanoke, Virginia, USA
| | - Anthony-Samuel Lamantia
- Fralin Biomedical Research Institute, Virginia Tech Carilion School of Medicine, Roanoke, Virginia, USA
- Department of Biological Sciences, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia, USA
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Chandrasekaran J, Jacquez B, Wilson J, Brigman JL. Reinforcer value moderates the effects of prenatal alcohol exposure on learning and reversal. Front Neurosci 2023; 17:1147536. [PMID: 37179543 PMCID: PMC10166816 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2023.1147536] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2023] [Accepted: 03/14/2023] [Indexed: 05/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders (FASD) are the leading cause of preventable developmental disability and are commonly characterized by alterations in executive function. Reversal learning tasks are reliable, cross-species methods for testing a frequently impaired aspect of executive control, behavioral flexibility. Pre-clinical studies commonly require the use of reinforcers to motivate animals to learn and perform the task. While there are several reinforcers available, the most commonly employed are solid (food pellets) and liquid (sweetened milk) rewards. Previous studies have examined the effects of different solid rewards or liquid dietary content on learning in instrumental responding and found that rodents on liquid reward with higher caloric content performed better with increased response and task acquisition rate. The influence of reinforcer type on reversal learning and how this interacts with developmental insults such as prenatal alcohol exposure (PAE) has not been explored. Methods We tested whether reinforcer type during learning or reversal would impact an established deficit in PAE mice. Results We found that all male and female mice on liquid reward, regardless of prenatal exposure were better motivated to learn task behaviors during pre-training. Consistent with previous findings, both male and female PAE mice and Saccharine control mice were able to learn the initial stimulus reward associations irrespective of the reinforcer type. During the initial reversal phase, male PAE mice that received pellet rewards exhibited maladaptive perseverative responding whereas male mice that received liquid rewards performed comparable to their control counterparts. Female PAE mice that received either reinforcer types did not exhibit any deficits on behavioral flexibility. Female saccharine control mice that received liquid, but not pellet, rewards showed increased perseverative responding during the early reversal phase. Discussion These data suggest that reinforcer type can have a major impact on motivation, and therefore performance, during reversal learning. Highly motivating rewards may mask behavioral deficits seen with more moderately sought rewards and gestational exposure to the non-caloric sweetener, saccharine, can impact behavior motivated by those reinforcers in a sex-dependent manner.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jayapriya Chandrasekaran
- Department of Neurosciences, University of New Mexico School of Medicine, Albuquerque, NM, United States
| | - Belkis Jacquez
- Department of Neurosciences, University of New Mexico School of Medicine, Albuquerque, NM, United States
- New Mexico Alcohol Research Center, UNM Health Sciences Center, Albuquerque, NM, United States
| | - Jennifer Wilson
- Department of Neurosciences, University of New Mexico School of Medicine, Albuquerque, NM, United States
| | - Jonathan L. Brigman
- Department of Neurosciences, University of New Mexico School of Medicine, Albuquerque, NM, United States
- New Mexico Alcohol Research Center, UNM Health Sciences Center, Albuquerque, NM, United States
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Something to Snack on: Can Dietary Modulators Boost Mind and Body? Nutrients 2023; 15:nu15061356. [PMID: 36986089 PMCID: PMC10056809 DOI: 10.3390/nu15061356] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2023] [Revised: 03/07/2023] [Accepted: 03/08/2023] [Indexed: 03/14/2023] Open
Abstract
The last decades have shown that maintaining a healthy and balanced diet can support brain integrity and functionality, while an inadequate diet can compromise it. However, still little is known about the effects and utility of so-called healthy snacks or drinks and their immediate short-term effects on cognition and physical performance. Here, we prepared dietary modulators comprising the essential macronutrients at different ratios and a controlled balanced dietary modulator. We assessed, in healthy adult mice, the short-term effects of these modulators when consumed shortly prior to tests with different cognitive and physical demands. A high-fat dietary modulator sustained increased motivation compared to a carbohydrate-rich dietary modulator (p = 0.041) which had a diminishing effect on motivation (p = 0.018). In contrast, a high-carbohydrate modulator had an initial beneficial effect on cognitive flexibility (p = 0.031). No apparent effects of any of the dietary modulators were observed on physical exercise. There is increasing public demand for acute cognitive and motor function enhancers that can improve mental and intellectual performance in daily life, such as in the workplace, studies, or sports activities. Our findings suggest such enhancers should be tailored to the cognitive demand of the task undertaken, as different dietary modulators will have distinct effects when consumed shortly prior to the task.
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McNamara EH, Tucker LB, Liu J, Fu AH, Kim Y, Vu PA, McCabe JT. Limbic Responses Following Shock Wave Exposure in Male and Female Mice. Front Behav Neurosci 2022; 16:863195. [PMID: 35747840 PMCID: PMC9210954 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2022.863195] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2022] [Accepted: 04/04/2022] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Blast traumatic brain injury (bTBI) presents a serious threat to military personnel and often results in psychiatric conditions related to limbic system dysfunction. In this study, the functional outcomes for anxiety- and depressive-like behaviors and neuronal activation were evaluated in male and female mice after exposure to an Advanced Blast Simulator (ABS) shock wave. Mice were placed in a ventrally exposed orientation inside of the ABS test section and received primary and tertiary shock wave insults of approximately 15 psi peak pressure. Evans blue staining indicated cases of blood-brain barrier breach in the superficial cerebral cortex four, but not 24 h after blast, but the severity was variable. Behavioral testing with the elevated plus maze (EPM) or elevated zero maze (EZM), sucrose preference test (SPT), and tail suspension test (TST) or forced swim test (FST) were conducted 8 days–3.5 weeks after shock wave exposure. There was a sex difference, but no injury effect, for distance travelled in the EZM where female mice travelled significantly farther than males. The SPT and FST did not indicate group differences; however, injured mice were less immobile than sham mice during the TST; possibly indicating more agitated behavior. In a separate cohort of animals, the expression of the immediate early gene, c-Fos, was detected 4 h after undergoing bTBI or sham procedures. No differences in c-Fos expression were found in the cerebral cortex, but female mice in general displayed enhanced c-Fos activation in the paraventricular nucleus of the thalamus (PVT) compared to male mice. In the amygdala, more c-Fos-positive cells were observed in injured animals compared to sham mice. The observed sex differences in the PVT and c-Fos activation in the amygdala may correlate with the reported hyperactivity of females post-injury. This study demonstrates, albeit with mild effects, behavioral and neuronal activation correlates in female rodents after blast injury that could be relevant to the incidence of increased post-traumatic stress disorder in women.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eileen H. McNamara
- Department of Anatomy, Physiology and Genetics, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, MD, United States
| | - Laura B. Tucker
- Department of Anatomy, Physiology and Genetics, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, MD, United States
- Pre-Clinical Studies Core, Center for Neuroscience and Regenerative Medicine, Henry M. Jackson Foundation, Bethesda, MD, United States
| | - Jiong Liu
- Department of Anatomy, Physiology and Genetics, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, MD, United States
| | - Amanda H. Fu
- Department of Anatomy, Physiology and Genetics, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, MD, United States
- Pre-Clinical Studies Core, Center for Neuroscience and Regenerative Medicine, Henry M. Jackson Foundation, Bethesda, MD, United States
| | - Yeonho Kim
- Department of Anatomy, Physiology and Genetics, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, MD, United States
- Pre-Clinical Studies Core, Center for Neuroscience and Regenerative Medicine, Henry M. Jackson Foundation, Bethesda, MD, United States
| | - Patricia A. Vu
- Department of Anatomy, Physiology and Genetics, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, MD, United States
| | - Joseph T. McCabe
- Department of Anatomy, Physiology and Genetics, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, MD, United States
- Pre-Clinical Studies Core, Center for Neuroscience and Regenerative Medicine, Henry M. Jackson Foundation, Bethesda, MD, United States
- *Correspondence: Joseph T. McCabe,
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Ueno H, Takahashi Y, Murakami S, Wani K, Matsumoto Y, Okamoto M, Ishihara T. Effect of simultaneous testing of two mice in the tail suspension test and forced swim test. Sci Rep 2022; 12:9224. [PMID: 35654971 PMCID: PMC9163059 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-12986-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2022] [Accepted: 05/19/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
In mouse studies, the results of behavioural experiments are greatly affected by differences in the experimental environment and handling methods. The Porsolt forced swim test and tail suspension test are widely used to evaluate predictive models of depression-like behaviour in mice. It has not been clarified how the results of these tests are affected by testing single or multiple mice simultaneously. Therefore, this study evaluated the differences between testing two mice simultaneously or separately. To investigate the effect of testing multiple mice simultaneously, the Porsolt forced swim test and tail suspension test were performed in three patterns: (1) testing with an opaque partition between two mice, (2) testing without a partition between two mice, and (3) testing a single mouse. In the Porsolt forced swim test, the mice tested simultaneously without a partition demonstrated increased immobility time as compared to mice tested alone. No difference in immobility time was observed between the three groups in the tail suspension test. Our results showed that the environment of behavioural experiments investigating depression-like behaviour in mice can cause a difference in depression-like behaviour. The results of this experiment indicated that it is necessary to describe the method used for behavioural testing in detail.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiroshi Ueno
- Department of Medical Technology, Kawasaki University of Medical Welfare, 288, Matsushima, Kurashiki, Okayama, 701-0193, Japan.
| | - Yu Takahashi
- Department of Psychiatry, Kawasaki Medical School, Kurashiki, 701-0192, Japan
| | - Shinji Murakami
- Department of Psychiatry, Kawasaki Medical School, Kurashiki, 701-0192, Japan
| | - Kenta Wani
- Department of Psychiatry, Kawasaki Medical School, Kurashiki, 701-0192, Japan
| | - Yosuke Matsumoto
- Department of Neuropsychiatry, Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Okayama University, Okayama, 700-8558, Japan
| | - Motoi Okamoto
- Department of Medical Technology, Graduate School of Health Sciences, Okayama University, Okayama, 700-8558, Japan
| | - Takeshi Ishihara
- Department of Psychiatry, Kawasaki Medical School, Kurashiki, 701-0192, Japan
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Effects of chronic tramadol administration on cognitive flexibility in mice. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2021; 238:2883-2893. [PMID: 34173033 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-021-05903-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2021] [Accepted: 06/08/2021] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE Tramadol is widely used for pain relief especially in seniors. However, long-term use of tramadol has serious adverse effects, including cognitive impairment. Besides its memory effects, already demonstrated in animals, a recent clinical report suggests that tramadol could also affect executive function in seniors. Several studies have hypothesized that the anti-muscarinic properties of tramadol could be responsible for the deleterious effects of tramadol on cognition. OBJECTIVES We aimed at investigating the effects of chronic administration of tramadol on cognitive flexibility in adult male mice, as assessed by a visual discrimination reversal task using a touchscreen device. The effects of tramadol were further compared to those of scopolamine, a reference muscarinic antagonist. RESULTS We found that, during the early phase of the reversal task, when cognitive flexibility is most in demand, both tramadol-treated mice (20 mg/kg, s.c., twice a day) and scopolamine-treated mice (0.5 mg/kg, s.c., twice a day) needed more correction trials and showed a higher perseveration index than saline-treated mice. Therefore, tramadol affects cognitive flexibility, and its anticholinergic properties could be at least partly involved in these deficits. CONCLUSIONS In view of these deleterious cognitive effects of tramadol, physicians should be cautious when prescribing this analgesic, especially in seniors who are more vulnerable to adverse drug events and in which alternative prescription should be preferred whenever possible.
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Odland AU, Sandahl R, Andreasen JT. Sequential reversal learning: a new touchscreen schedule for assessing cognitive flexibility in mice. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2021; 238:383-397. [PMID: 33123820 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-020-05687-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2020] [Accepted: 10/19/2020] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
RATIONALE The widespread deficits in cognitive flexibility observed across psychiatric disorders call for improved rodent tests to understand the biology of cognitive flexibility and development of better psychotherapeutics. Current reversal learning paradigms have a forced-choice setup that challenges the interpretation of results. OBJECTIVES We aimed at developing a free-choice reversal learning test, where images are presented sequentially and animals are free to move, to enable investigation of the cognitive sub-processes that occur during reversal. METHODS Behavior in female C57BL/6JOlaHsd mice was characterized using chronic fluoxetine as a reference compound. Additional tests were included to support the interpretation of results and exclude confounding pharmacological effects. Behaviors in vehicle-treated mice were furthermore analyzed for relatedness to deepen the understanding of parameters measured. RESULTS We found that exploitation of the previously rewarded image was independent of exploration and acquisition of the new reward contingency and could be differentially modulated by fluoxetine, supporting recent theories that these processes are not mutually exclusive. Specifically, fluoxetine reduced mistake rate, premature and perseverative responses, and promoted conservative strategies during reversal without affecting hit rate. These effects appeared to be most prominent during the late stage of reversal learning, where accuracy was above chance level. Analysis of behaviors in vehicle-treated mice suggested that exploitation was related to an impulsive-like deficit in response inhibition, while exploration was more related to motivation. CONCLUSIONS This new schedule was feasible, easy to implement, and can provide a deeper understanding of the cognitive sub-processes during reversal.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna U Odland
- Department of Drug Design and Pharmacology, University of Copenhagen, Universitetsparken 2, 2100, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Rune Sandahl
- Department of Drug Design and Pharmacology, University of Copenhagen, Universitetsparken 2, 2100, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Jesper T Andreasen
- Department of Drug Design and Pharmacology, University of Copenhagen, Universitetsparken 2, 2100, Copenhagen, Denmark.
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Heimer-McGinn VR, Wise TB, Hemmer BM, Dayaw JNT, Templer VL. Social housing enhances acquisition of task set independently of environmental enrichment: A longitudinal study in the Barnes maze. Learn Behav 2020; 48:322-334. [PMID: 32040697 PMCID: PMC7415481 DOI: 10.3758/s13420-020-00418-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Human studies suggest that healthy social relationships benefit cognition, yet little is known about the underlying neural mechanisms of this protective effect. In rodents, studies on acute isolation and environmental enrichment (EE) confirm the importance of social exposure. Despite the widely recognized importance of sociality, however, rodent models have yet to explore the independent contributions of social housing divorced of other forms of enrichment. This study dissociates the effects of social and physical enrichment on spatial learning and memory from adulthood to old age. Rats were placed in either single or group housing, provided with ample enrichment, and tested at three time points on several phases/versions of the Barnes maze (BM) (standard, retention probes, variable location, and reversal). We found that sustained social housing enhanced cognitive flexibility, as evidenced by superior acquisition of task set (standard BM), adaptability to a new task set (variable BM), and improved reversal learning (reversal BM). Long-term retention (BM retention probes) of spatial memory was unaffected by housing conditions. Recent studies from our lab, including this report, are the first to show that social housing confers cognitive benefits beyond those of physical enrichment. Importantly, our experimental design is ideal for exploring the neural underpinnings of this socially induced cognitive protection. Understanding how sociality influences cognition will be invaluable to translational models of aging, neuropsychiatric disease, and neurological injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Victoria R Heimer-McGinn
- Department of Psychology, Providence College, 1 Cunningham Square, Providence, RI, 02918, USA
- Department of Psychology, Roger Williams University, 1 Old Ferry Road, Bristol, RI, 02809, USA
| | - Taylor B Wise
- Department of Psychology, Providence College, 1 Cunningham Square, Providence, RI, 02918, USA
| | - Brittany M Hemmer
- Department of Psychology, Providence College, 1 Cunningham Square, Providence, RI, 02918, USA
| | - Judith N T Dayaw
- Department of Psychology, Providence College, 1 Cunningham Square, Providence, RI, 02918, USA
| | - Victoria L Templer
- Department of Psychology, Providence College, 1 Cunningham Square, Providence, RI, 02918, USA.
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Toader O, von Heimendahl M, Schuelert N, Nissen W, Rosenbrock H. Suppression of Parvalbumin Interneuron Activity in the Prefrontal Cortex Recapitulates Features of Impaired Excitatory/Inhibitory Balance and Sensory Processing in Schizophrenia. Schizophr Bull 2020; 46:981-989. [PMID: 31903492 PMCID: PMC7342098 DOI: 10.1093/schbul/sbz123] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Accumulating evidence supports parvalbumin expressing inhibitory interneuron (PV IN) dysfunction in the prefrontal cortex as a cause for cognitive impairment associated with schizophrenia (CIAS). PV IN decreased activity is suggested to be the culprit for many of the EEG deficits measured in patients, which correlate with deficits in working memory (WM), cognitive flexibility and attention. In the last few decades, CIAS has been recognized as a heavy burden on the quality of life of patients with schizophrenia, but little progress has been made in finding new treatment options. An important limiting factor in this process is the lack of adequate preclinical models and an incomplete understanding of the circuits engaged in cognition. In this study, we back-translated an auditory stimulation protocol regularly used in human EEG studies into mice and combined it with optogenetics to investigate the role of prefrontal cortex PV INs in excitatory/inhibitory balance and cortical processing. We also assessed spatial WM and reversal learning (RL) during inhibition of prefrontal cortex PV INs. We found significant impairments in trial-to-trial reliability, increased basal network activity and increased oscillation power at 20-60 Hz, and a decreased signal-to-noise ratio, but no significant impairments in behavior. These changes reflect some but not all neurophysiological deficits seen in patients with schizophrenia, suggesting that other neuronal populations and possibly brain regions are involved as well. Our work supports and expands previous findings and highlights the versatility of an approach that combines innovative technologies with back-translated tools used in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oana Toader
- Central Nervous System Diseases Research, Boehringer Ingelheim Pharma GmbH & Co. KG, Biberach Riß, Germany,To whom correspondence should be addressed; Central Nervous System Diseases Research, Boehringer Ingelheim Pharma GmbH & Co. KG, Birkendorferstr. 65, 88397 Biberach Riß, Germany; tel: +49 735154188280, e-mail:
| | - Moritz von Heimendahl
- Central Nervous System Diseases Research, Boehringer Ingelheim Pharma GmbH & Co. KG, Biberach Riß, Germany
| | - Niklas Schuelert
- Central Nervous System Diseases Research, Boehringer Ingelheim Pharma GmbH & Co. KG, Biberach Riß, Germany
| | - Wiebke Nissen
- Central Nervous System Diseases Research, Boehringer Ingelheim Pharma GmbH & Co. KG, Biberach Riß, Germany
| | - Holger Rosenbrock
- Central Nervous System Diseases Research, Boehringer Ingelheim Pharma GmbH & Co. KG, Biberach Riß, Germany
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Ueno H, Takahashi Y, Suemitsu S, Murakami S, Kitamura N, Wani K, Matsumoto Y, Okamoto M, Ishihara T. Effects of repetitive gentle handling of male C57BL/6NCrl mice on comparative behavioural test results. Sci Rep 2020; 10:3509. [PMID: 32103098 PMCID: PMC7044437 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-60530-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2020] [Accepted: 02/05/2020] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Mice are the most commonly used laboratory animals for studying diseases, behaviour, and pharmacology. Behavioural experiment battery aids in evaluating abnormal behaviour in mice. During behavioural experiments, mice frequently experience human contact. However, the effects of repeated handling on mice behaviour remains unclear. To minimise mice stress, methods of moving mice using transparent tunnels or cups have been recommended but are impractical in behavioural tests. To investigate these effects, we used a behavioural test battery to assess differences between mice accustomed to the experimenter’s handling versus control mice. Repeatedly handled mice gained slightly more weight than control mice. In behavioural tests, repeatedly handled mice showed improved spatial cognition in the Y-maze test and reduced anxiety-like behaviour in the elevated plus-maze test. However, there was no change in anxiety-like behaviour in the light/dark transition test or open-field test. Grip strength, rotarod, sociability, tail suspension, Porsolt forced swim, and passive avoidance tests revealed no significant differences between repeatedly handled and control mice. Our findings demonstrated that mice repeatedly handled by the experimenter before behavioural tests showed reduced anxiety about high altitudes and improved spatial cognition, suggesting that repeated contact can affect the results of some behavioural tests.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiroshi Ueno
- Department of Medical Technology, Kawasaki University of Medical Welfare, Okayama, 701-0193, Japan.
| | - Yu Takahashi
- Department of Psychiatry, Kawasaki Medical School, Okayama, 701-0192, Japan
| | - Shunsuke Suemitsu
- Department of Psychiatry, Kawasaki Medical School, Okayama, 701-0192, Japan
| | - Shinji Murakami
- Department of Psychiatry, Kawasaki Medical School, Okayama, 701-0192, Japan
| | - Naoya Kitamura
- Department of Psychiatry, Kawasaki Medical School, Okayama, 701-0192, Japan
| | - Kenta Wani
- Department of Psychiatry, Kawasaki Medical School, Okayama, 701-0192, Japan
| | - Yosuke Matsumoto
- Department of Neuropsychiatry, Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Okayama University, Okayama, 700-8558, Japan
| | - Motoi Okamoto
- Department of Medical Technology, Graduate School of Health Sciences, Okayama University, Okayama, 700-8558, Japan
| | - Takeshi Ishihara
- Department of Psychiatry, Kawasaki Medical School, Okayama, 701-0192, Japan
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Abstract
The techniques and protocols to modify the mouse genome described in this volume allow researchers to produce genetic models of a remarkable number and breadth of human disease. The generation of gene-modified mice offers profoundly powerful approaches for bringing known or purported human gene disruptions into mouse models, but the degree to which the resultant mutant mouse recapitulates the complex physiological and behavioral features of the human disease state is a key variable in the ultimate usefulness of the mouse model organism. Accordingly, the behavioral characterization of mice with novel targeted gene mutations is an important initial step in determining the potential impact of a novel mouse model. This chapter addresses strategies useful in the initial observations of the animal that assist in directing the choice of secondary tests to assess more detailed aspects of potentially disrupted behaviors that may be relevant to the disease being modeled. An initial standardized, comprehensive screen that assesses general health, reflexes, and sensorimotor functions is the first step in characterizing behavioral phenotype, and results often suggest areas where more complex complementary behavioral assays may reveal more detailed disruption of normal behavior. This sequential, standardized approach reduces variability between subjects; this chapter also addresses approaches to reducing experimental artifacts due to handling, test order, testing facility environment, and other sources. This brief overview of behavioral phenotyping approaches is intended to provide practical information to streamline initial characterization of new mouse models and maximize the usefulness of efforts to use these models to study human health and disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kenneth E McCarson
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology, and Therapeutics, Kansas Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities Research Center, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, KS, USA.
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Mancini N, Hranova S, Weber J, Weiglein A, Schleyer M, Weber D, Thum AS, Gerber B. Reversal learning in Drosophila larvae. Learn Mem 2019; 26:424-435. [PMID: 31615854 PMCID: PMC6796787 DOI: 10.1101/lm.049510.119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2019] [Accepted: 08/09/2019] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Adjusting behavior to changed environmental contingencies is critical for survival, and reversal learning provides an experimental handle on such cognitive flexibility. Here, we investigate reversal learning in larval Drosophila Using odor-taste associations, we establish olfactory reversal learning in the appetitive and the aversive domain, using either fructose as a reward or high-concentration sodium chloride as a punishment, respectively. Reversal learning is demonstrated both in differential and in absolute conditioning, in either valence domain. In differential conditioning, the animals are first trained such that an odor A is paired, for example, with the reward whereas odor B is not (A+/B); this is followed by a second training phase with reversed contingencies (A/B+). In absolute conditioning, odor B is omitted, such that the animals are first trained with paired presentations of A and reward, followed by unpaired training in the second training phase. Our results reveal "true" reversal learning in that the opposite associative effects of both the first and the second training phase are detectable after reversed-contingency training. In what is a surprisingly quick, one-trial contingency adjustment in the Drosophila larva, the present study establishes a simple and genetically easy accessible study case of cognitive flexibility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nino Mancini
- Department of Genetics, Leibniz Institute for Neurobiology (LIN), 39118 Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Sia Hranova
- Institute for Biology, University of Leipzig, 04103 Leipzig, Germany
| | - Julia Weber
- Department of Genetics, Leibniz Institute for Neurobiology (LIN), 39118 Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Aliće Weiglein
- Department of Genetics, Leibniz Institute for Neurobiology (LIN), 39118 Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Michael Schleyer
- Department of Genetics, Leibniz Institute for Neurobiology (LIN), 39118 Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Denise Weber
- Institute for Biology, University of Leipzig, 04103 Leipzig, Germany
| | - Andreas S Thum
- Institute for Biology, University of Leipzig, 04103 Leipzig, Germany
| | - Bertram Gerber
- Department of Genetics, Leibniz Institute for Neurobiology (LIN), 39118 Magdeburg, Germany
- Institute for Biology, Otto von Guericke University, 39106 Magdeburg, Germany
- Center for Behavioral Brain Sciences (CBBS), 39106 Magdeburg, Germany
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Abstract
The measurement of multiple behavior endpoints in zebrafish can provide informative clues within neurobehavioral field. However, multiple behavior evaluations usually require complicated and costly instrumental settings. Here, we reported a versatile setting that applied ten acrylic tanks arranging into five vertical layers and two horizontal columns to perform multiple behavior assays simultaneously, such as the novel tank diving test, mirror-biting test, social interaction, shoaling, and predator escape assay. In total, ten behavioral performance were collected in a single video, and the XY coordination of fish locomotion can be tracked by using open source software of idTracker and ImageJ. We validated our setting by examining zebrafish behavioral changes after exposure to low dose ethanol (EtOH) for 96 h. Fish were observed staying longer time at bottom of the tank, less mirror biting interest, higher freezing time, less fear in predator test, and tight shoaling behaviors which indicated the anxiogenic effect was induced by low dosage exposure of EtOH in zebrafish. In conclusion, the setting in this study provided a simple, versatile and cost-effective way to assess multiple behavioral endpoints in zebrafish with high reliability and reproducibility for the first time.
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15
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Drug development for neurodevelopmental disorders: lessons learned from fragile X syndrome. Nat Rev Drug Discov 2017; 17:280-299. [PMID: 29217836 DOI: 10.1038/nrd.2017.221] [Citation(s) in RCA: 216] [Impact Index Per Article: 30.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Neurodevelopmental disorders such as fragile X syndrome (FXS) result in lifelong cognitive and behavioural deficits and represent a major public health burden. FXS is the most frequent monogenic form of intellectual disability and autism, and the underlying pathophysiology linked to its causal gene, FMR1, has been the focus of intense research. Key alterations in synaptic function thought to underlie this neurodevelopmental disorder have been characterized and rescued in animal models of FXS using genetic and pharmacological approaches. These robust preclinical findings have led to the implementation of the most comprehensive drug development programme undertaken thus far for a genetically defined neurodevelopmental disorder, including phase IIb trials of metabotropic glutamate receptor 5 (mGluR5) antagonists and a phase III trial of a GABAB receptor agonist. However, none of the trials has been able to unambiguously demonstrate efficacy, and they have also highlighted the extent of the knowledge gaps in drug development for FXS and other neurodevelopmental disorders. In this Review, we examine potential issues in the previous studies and future directions for preclinical and clinical trials. FXS is at the forefront of efforts to develop drugs for neurodevelopmental disorders, and lessons learned in the process will also be important for such disorders.
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Turner KM, Simpson CG, Burne THJ. Touchscreen-based Visual Discrimination and Reversal Tasks for Mice to Test Cognitive Flexibility. Bio Protoc 2017; 7:e2583. [PMID: 34595265 DOI: 10.21769/bioprotoc.2583] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2017] [Revised: 09/05/2017] [Accepted: 09/25/2017] [Indexed: 11/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Reversal learning can be used to examine deficits in cognitive flexibility, which have been linked to a number of neuropsychiatric disorders including schizophrenia and addiction. However, methods of examining reversal learning have varied substantially between species. Touchscreen technology has allowed researchers to explore cognitive deficits with a platform that is translatable across rodents, non-human primates and human subjects. Here we describe a method for measuring visual discrimination and reversal learning in mice using automated touchscreen-based operant chambers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karly M Turner
- Queensland Brain Institute, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD, Australia
| | | | - Thomas H J Burne
- Queensland Brain Institute, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD, Australia.,Queensland Centre for Mental Health Research, Park Centre for Mental Health, Richlands, QLD, Australia
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17
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Turner KM, Simpson CG, Burne THJ. BALB/c Mice Can Learn Touchscreen Visual Discrimination and Reversal Tasks Faster than C57BL/6 Mice. Front Behav Neurosci 2017; 11:16. [PMID: 28197083 PMCID: PMC5281608 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2017.00016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2016] [Accepted: 01/18/2017] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Touchscreen technology is increasingly being used to characterize cognitive performance in rodent models of neuropsychiatric disorders. Researchers are attracted to the automated system and translational potential for touchscreen-based tasks. However, training time is extensive and some mouse strains have struggled to learn touchscreen tasks. Here we compared the performance of commonly used C57BL/6 mice against the BALB/c mice, which are considered a poor performing strain, using a touchscreen task. BALB/c and C57BL/6 mice were trained to operate the touchscreens before learning a visual discrimination (VD) and reversal task. Following touchscreen testing, these strains were assessed for differences in locomotion and learned helplessness. BALB/c mice finished training in nearly half the number of sessions taken by C57BL/6 mice. Following training, mice learned a VD task where BALB/c mice again reached criteria in fewer than half the sessions required for C57BL/6 mice. Once acquired, there were no strain differences in % correct responses, correction trials or response latency. BALB/c mice also learnt the reversal task in significantly fewer sessions than C57BL/6 mice. On the open field test C57BL/6 mice traveled further and spent more time in the center, and spent less time immobile than BALB/c mice on the forced swim test (FST). After touchscreen testing, strains exhibited well-established behavioral traits demonstrating the extensive training and handling from touchscreen testing did not alter their behavioral phenotype. These results suggest that BALB/c mice can be examined using touchscreen tasks and that task adaptations may improve feasibility for researchers using different strains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karly M Turner
- Queensland Brain Institute, The University of Queensland St Lucia, QLD, Australia
| | | | - Thomas H J Burne
- Queensland Brain Institute, The University of QueenslandSt Lucia, QLD, Australia; Queensland Centre for Mental Health Research, The Park Centre for Mental HealthRichlands, QLD, Australia
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18
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Measuring discrimination- and reversal learning in mouse models within 4 days and without prior food deprivation. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2016; 23:660-667. [PMID: 27918287 PMCID: PMC5066605 DOI: 10.1101/lm.042085.116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2016] [Accepted: 07/28/2016] [Indexed: 12/05/2022]
Abstract
Many neurological and psychiatric disorders are characterized by deficits in cognitive flexibility. Modeling cognitive flexibility in mice enables the investigation of mechanisms underlying these deficits. The majority of currently available behavioral tests targeting this cognitive domain are reversal learning tasks that require scheduled food restriction, extended training periods and labor-intensive, and stress-inducing animal handling. Here, we describe a novel 4-day (4-d) continuously running task measuring discrimination- and reversal learning in an automated home cage (CognitionWall DL/RL task) that largely eliminates these limitations. In this task, mice can earn unlimited number of food rewards by passing through the correct hole of the three-holed CognitionWall. To assess the validity and sensitivity of this novel task, the performance of C57BL/6J mice, amyloid precursor protein/presenilin1 transgenic (APP/PS1) mice, α-calmodulin kinase-II (αCaMKII) T305D knock-in mice, and mice with an orbitofrontal cortex lesion were examined. We found that C57BL/6J mice reach stable performance levels within the 4 d of the task, while experiencing only slight reductions in weight and no major effects on circadian rhythm. The task detected learning deficits in APP/PS1 transgenic and αCaMKII T305D mutant mice. Additionally, we established that the orbitofrontal cortex underlies reversal learning performance in our task. Because of its short duration and the absence of food deprivation and concurrent weight loss, this novel automated home-cage task substantially improves comprehensive preclinical assessment of cognitive functions in mouse models of psychiatric and neurological disorders and also enables analysis during specific developmental stages.
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19
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Hessl D, Sansone SM, Berry-Kravis E, Riley K, Widaman KF, Abbeduto L, Schneider A, Coleman J, Oaklander D, Rhodes KC, Gershon RC. The NIH Toolbox Cognitive Battery for intellectual disabilities: three preliminary studies and future directions. J Neurodev Disord 2016; 8:35. [PMID: 27602170 PMCID: PMC5012003 DOI: 10.1186/s11689-016-9167-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2016] [Accepted: 08/11/2016] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Recent advances in understanding molecular and synaptic mechanisms of intellectual disabilities (ID) in fragile X syndrome (FXS) and Down syndrome (DS) through animal models have led to targeted controlled trials with pharmacological agents designed to normalize these underlying mechanisms and improve clinical outcomes. However, several human clinical trials have failed to demonstrate efficacy of these targeted treatments to improve surrogate behavioral endpoints. Because the ultimate index of disease modification in these disorders is amelioration of ID, the validation of cognitive measures for tracking treatment response is essential. Here, we present preliminary research to validate the National Institutes of Health Toolbox Cognitive Battery (NIH-TCB) for ID. METHODS We completed three pilot studies of patients with FXS (total n = 63; mean age 19.3 ± 8.3 years, mean mental age 5.3 ± 1.6 years), DS (n = 47; mean age 16.1 ± 6.2, mean mental age 5.4 ± 2.0), and idiopathic ID (IID; n = 16; mean age 16.1 ± 5.0, mean mental age 6.6 ± 2.3) measuring processing speed, executive function, episodic memory, word/letter reading, receptive vocabulary, and working memory using the web-based NIH-TB-CB, addressing feasibility, test-retest reliability, construct validity, ecological validity, and syndrome differences and profiles. RESULTS Feasibility was good to excellent (≥80 % of participants with valid scores) for above mental age 4 years for all tests except list sorting (working memory). Test-retest stability was good to excellent, and convergent validity was similar to or better than results obtained from typically developing children in the normal sample for executive function and language measures. Examination of ecological validity revealed moderate to very strong correlations between the NIH-TCB composite and adaptive behavior and full-scale IQ measures. Syndrome/group comparisons demonstrated significant deficits for the FXS and DS groups relative to IID on attention and inhibitory control, a significant reading weakness for FXS, and a receptive vocabulary weakness for DS. CONCLUSIONS The NIH-TCB has potential for assessing important dimensions of cognition in persons with ID, and several tests may be useful for tracking response to intervention. However, more extensive psychometric studies, evaluation of the NIH-TCB's sensitivity to change, both developmentally and in the context of treatment, and perhaps establishing links to brain function in these populations, are required to determine the true utility of the battery as a set of outcome measures.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Hessl
- Translational Psychophysiology and Assessment Laboratory (T-PAL), MIND Institute, UC Davis Medical Center, Sacramento, CA USA
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of California Davis Medical Center, Sacramento, CA USA
| | - Stephanie M. Sansone
- Translational Psychophysiology and Assessment Laboratory (T-PAL), MIND Institute, UC Davis Medical Center, Sacramento, CA USA
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of California Davis Medical Center, Sacramento, CA USA
| | - Elizabeth Berry-Kravis
- Department of Pediatrics, Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, IL USA
- Department of Neurological Sciences, Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, IL USA
- Department of Biochemistry, Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, IL USA
| | - Karen Riley
- Morgridge College of Education, The University of Denver, Denver, CO USA
| | - Keith F. Widaman
- Graduate School of Education, University of California Riverside, Riverside, CA USA
| | - Leonard Abbeduto
- Translational Psychophysiology and Assessment Laboratory (T-PAL), MIND Institute, UC Davis Medical Center, Sacramento, CA USA
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of California Davis Medical Center, Sacramento, CA USA
| | - Andrea Schneider
- Translational Psychophysiology and Assessment Laboratory (T-PAL), MIND Institute, UC Davis Medical Center, Sacramento, CA USA
- Department of Pediatrics, University of California Davis Medical Center, Sacramento, CA USA
| | - Jeanine Coleman
- Morgridge College of Education, The University of Denver, Denver, CO USA
| | - Dena Oaklander
- School of Medicine, Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, IL USA
| | - Kelly C. Rhodes
- School of Medicine, Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, IL USA
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20
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Takahashi T, Okabe S, Ó Broin P, Nishi A, Ye K, Beckert MV, Izumi T, Machida A, Kang G, Abe S, Pena JL, Golden A, Kikusui T, Hiroi N. Structure and function of neonatal social communication in a genetic mouse model of autism. Mol Psychiatry 2016; 21:1208-14. [PMID: 26666205 PMCID: PMC4909589 DOI: 10.1038/mp.2015.190] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2015] [Revised: 10/13/2015] [Accepted: 10/26/2015] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
A critical step toward understanding autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is to identify both genetic and environmental risk factors. A number of rare copy number variants (CNVs) have emerged as robust genetic risk factors for ASD, but not all CNV carriers exhibit ASD and the severity of ASD symptoms varies among CNV carriers. Although evidence exists that various environmental factors modulate symptomatic severity, the precise mechanisms by which these factors determine the ultimate severity of ASD are still poorly understood. Here, using a mouse heterozygous for Tbx1 (a gene encoded in 22q11.2 CNV), we demonstrate that a genetically triggered neonatal phenotype in vocalization generates a negative environmental loop in pup-mother social communication. Wild-type pups used individually diverse sequences of simple and complicated call types, but heterozygous pups used individually invariable call sequences with less complicated call types. When played back, representative wild-type call sequences elicited maternal approach, but heterozygous call sequences were ineffective. When the representative wild-type call sequences were randomized, they were ineffective in eliciting vigorous maternal approach behavior. These data demonstrate that an ASD risk gene alters the neonatal call sequence of its carriers and this pup phenotype in turn diminishes maternal care through atypical social communication. Thus, an ASD risk gene induces, through atypical neonatal call sequences, less than optimal maternal care as a negative neonatal environmental factor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomohisa Takahashi
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY, 10461 USA
| | - Shota Okabe
- Department of Animal Science and Biotechnology, Azabu University, Sagamihara, Kanagawa, Japan
| | - Pilib Ó Broin
- Department of Genetics, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY, 10461 USA
| | - Akira Nishi
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY, 10461 USA
- Department of Psychiatry, Course of Integrated Brain Sciences and Medical Informatics, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Tokushima University Graduate School, Tokushima, Japan
| | - Kenny Ye
- Department of Epidemiology and Population Health, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY, 10461 USA
| | - Michael V. Beckert
- Dominick P. Purpura Department of Neuroscience, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY, 10461 USA
| | - Takeshi Izumi
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY, 10461 USA
- Department of Neuropharmacology, Graduate School of Hokkaido University College of Medicine, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Akihiro Machida
- Department of Animal Science and Biotechnology, Azabu University, Sagamihara, Kanagawa, Japan
| | - Gina Kang
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY, 10461 USA
| | - Seiji Abe
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY, 10461 USA
| | - Jose L. Pena
- Dominick P. Purpura Department of Neuroscience, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY, 10461 USA
| | - Aaron Golden
- Department of Genetics, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY, 10461 USA
- Department of Mathematical Sciences, Yeshiva University, New York, NY, 10033 USA
| | - Takefumi Kikusui
- Department of Animal Science and Biotechnology, Azabu University, Sagamihara, Kanagawa, Japan
| | - Noboru Hiroi
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY, 10461 USA
- Department of Genetics, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY, 10461 USA
- Dominick P. Purpura Department of Neuroscience, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY, 10461 USA
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21
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Mouse Model of Chromosome 15q13.3 Microdeletion Syndrome Demonstrates Features Related to Autism Spectrum Disorder. J Neurosci 2016; 35:16282-94. [PMID: 26658876 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.3967-14.2015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
UNLABELLED The chromosome 15q13.3 microdeletion is a pathogenic copy number variation conferring epilepsy, intellectual disability, schizophrenia, and autism spectrum disorder (ASD). We generated mice carrying a deletion of 1.2 Mb homologous to the 15q13.3 microdeletion in human patients. Here, we report that mice with a heterozygous deletion on a C57BL/6 background (D/+ mice) demonstrated phenotypes including enlarged/heavier brains (macrocephaly) with enlarged lateral ventricles, decreased social interactions, increased repetitive grooming behavior, reduced ultrasonic vocalizations, decreased auditory-evoked gamma band EEG, and reduced event-related potentials. D/+ mice had normal body weight, activity levels, sensory gating, and cognitive abilities and no signs of epilepsy/seizures. Our results demonstrate that D/+ mice represent ASD-related phenotypes associated with 15q13.3 microdeletion syndrome. Further investigations using this chromosome-engineered mouse model may uncover the common mechanism(s) underlying ASD and other neurodevelopmental/psychiatric disorders representing the 15q13.3 microdeletion syndrome, including epilepsy, intellectual disability, and schizophrenia. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Recently discovered pathologic copy number variations (CNVs) from patients with neurodevelopmental/psychiatric disorders show very strong penetrance and thus are excellent candidates for mouse models of disease that can mirror the human genetic conditions with high fidelity. A 15q13.3 microdeletion in humans results in a range of neurodevelopmental/psychiatric disorders, including epilepsy, intellectual disability, schizophrenia, and autism spectrum disorder (ASD). The disorders conferred by a 15q13.3 microdeletion also have overlapping genetic architectures and comorbidity in other patient populations such as those with epilepsy and schizophrenia/psychosis, as well as schizophrenia and ASD. We generated mice carrying a deletion of 1.2 Mb homologous to the 15q13.3 microdeletion in human patients, which allowed us to investigate the potential causes of neurodevelopmental/psychiatric disorders associated with the CNV.
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22
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Parikh V, Naughton SX, Yegla B, Guzman DM. Impact of partial dopamine depletion on cognitive flexibility in BDNF heterozygous mice. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2016; 233:1361-75. [PMID: 26861892 PMCID: PMC4814303 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-016-4229-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2015] [Accepted: 01/30/2016] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE Cognitive flexibility is a key component of executive function and is disrupted in major psychiatric disorders. Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) exerts neuromodulatory effects on synaptic transmission and cognitive/affective behaviors. However, the causal mechanisms linking BDNF hypofunction with executive deficits are not well understood. OBJECTIVES Here, we assessed the consequences of BDNF hemizygosity on cognitive flexibility in mice performing an operant conditioning task. As dopaminergic-glutamatergic interaction in the striatum is important for cognitive processing, and BDNF heterozygous (BDNF(+/-)) mice display a higher dopamine tone in the dorsal striatum, we also assessed the effects of partial striatal dopamine depletion on task performance and glutamate release. RESULTS BDNF(+/-) mice acquired discrimination learning as well as new rule learning during set-shifting as efficiently as wild-type mice. However, partial removal of striatal dopaminergic inputs with 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) impaired these cognitive processes by impeding the maintenance of a new learning strategy in both genotypes. BDNF mutants exhibited performance impairments during reversal learning, and these deficits were associated with increased perseveration to the previously acquired strategy. Partial dopamine depletion of the striatum reversed these cognitive impairments. Additionally, reduction in depolarization-evoked glutamate release noted in the dorsal striatum of BDNF(+/-) mice was not observed in 6-OHDA-infused BDNF mutants indicating normalization of glutamatergic transmission in these animals. CONCLUSIONS Our data illustrate that BDNF signaling regulates cognitive control processes presumably by maintaining striatal dopamine-glutamate balance. Moreover, aberrations in BDNF signaling may act as a common neurobiological substrate that accounts for executive dysfunction observed in multiple psychiatric conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vinay Parikh
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience Program, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, 19122, USA.
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23
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Izquierdo A, Brigman JL, Radke AK, Rudebeck PH, Holmes A. The neural basis of reversal learning: An updated perspective. Neuroscience 2016; 345:12-26. [PMID: 26979052 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2016.03.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 351] [Impact Index Per Article: 43.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2015] [Revised: 02/24/2016] [Accepted: 03/07/2016] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
Reversal learning paradigms are among the most widely used tests of cognitive flexibility and have been used as assays, across species, for altered cognitive processes in a host of neuropsychiatric conditions. Based on recent studies in humans, non-human primates, and rodents, the notion that reversal learning tasks primarily measure response inhibition, has been revised. In this review, we describe how cognitive flexibility is measured by reversal learning and discuss new definitions of the construct validity of the task that are serving as a heuristic to guide future research in this field. We also provide an update on the available evidence implicating certain cortical and subcortical brain regions in the mediation of reversal learning, and an overview of the principal neurotransmitter systems involved.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Izquierdo
- Department of Psychology, The Brain Research Institute, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA.
| | - J L Brigman
- Department of Neurosciences, University of New Mexico School of Medicine, Albuquerque, NM, USA
| | - A K Radke
- Laboratory of Behavioral and Genomic Neuroscience, National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - P H Rudebeck
- Department of Neuroscience and Friedman Brain Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10014, USA
| | - A Holmes
- Laboratory of Behavioral and Genomic Neuroscience, National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, Bethesda, MD, USA
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24
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Silverman JL, Gastrell PT, Karras MN, Solomon M, Crawley JN. Cognitive abilities on transitive inference using a novel touchscreen technology for mice. Cereb Cortex 2013; 25:1133-42. [PMID: 24293564 DOI: 10.1093/cercor/bht293] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Cognitive abilities are impaired in neurodevelopmental disorders, including autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and schizophrenia. Preclinical models with strong endophenotypes relevant to cognitive dysfunctions offer a valuable resource for therapeutic development. However, improved assays to test higher order cognition are needed. We employed touchscreen technology to design a complex transitive inference (TI) assay that requires cognitive flexibility and relational learning. C57BL/6J (B6) mice with good cognitive skills and BTBR T+tf/J (BTBR), a model of ASD with cognitive deficits, were evaluated in simple and complex touchscreen assays. Both B6 and BTBR acquired visual discrimination and reversal. BTBR displayed deficits on components of TI, when 4 stimuli pairs were interspersed, which required flexible integrated knowledge. BTBR displayed impairment on the A > E inference, analogous to the A > E deficit in ASD. B6 and BTBR mice both reached criterion on the B > D comparison, unlike the B > D impairment in schizophrenia. These results demonstrate that mice are capable of complex discriminations and higher order tasks using methods and equipment paralleling those used in humans. Our discovery that a mouse model of ASD displays a TI deficit similar to humans with ASD supports the use of the touchscreen technology for complex cognitive tasks in mouse models of neurodevelopmental disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- J L Silverman
- MIND Institute, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Science, University of California Davis School of Medicine, Sacramento, CA 95817, USA Laboratory of Behavioral Neuroscience, National Institute of Mental Health Intramural Research Program, Bethesda, MD 20892-3730, USA
| | - P T Gastrell
- Laboratory of Behavioral Neuroscience, National Institute of Mental Health Intramural Research Program, Bethesda, MD 20892-3730, USA
| | - M N Karras
- Laboratory of Behavioral Neuroscience, National Institute of Mental Health Intramural Research Program, Bethesda, MD 20892-3730, USA
| | - M Solomon
- MIND Institute, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Science, University of California Davis School of Medicine, Sacramento, CA 95817, USA Imaging Research Center, University of California Davis, Sacramento, CA 95817, USA
| | - J N Crawley
- MIND Institute, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Science, University of California Davis School of Medicine, Sacramento, CA 95817, USA Laboratory of Behavioral Neuroscience, National Institute of Mental Health Intramural Research Program, Bethesda, MD 20892-3730, USA
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25
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Coleman LG, Liu W, Oguz I, Styner M, Crews FT. Adolescent binge ethanol treatment alters adult brain regional volumes, cortical extracellular matrix protein and behavioral flexibility. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2013; 116:142-51. [PMID: 24275185 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2013.11.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 128] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2013] [Revised: 11/11/2013] [Accepted: 11/16/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Adolescents binge drink more than any other age group, increasing risk of disrupting the development of the frontal cortex. We hypothesized that adolescent binge drinking would lead to persistent alterations in adulthood. In this study, we modeled adolescent weekend underage binge-drinking, using adolescent mice (post-natal days [P] 28-37). The adolescent intermittent binge ethanol (AIE) treatment includes 6 binge intragastric doses of ethanol in an intermittent pattern across adolescence. Assessments were conducted in adulthood following extended abstinence to determine if there were persistent changes in adults. Reversal learning, open field and other behavioral assessments as well as brain structure using magnetic imaging and immunohistochemistry were determined. We found that AIE did not impact adult Barnes Maze learning. However, AIE did cause reversal learning deficits in adults. AIE also caused structural changes in the adult brain. AIE was associated with adulthood volume enlargements in specific brain regions without changes in total brain volume. Enlarged regions included the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC, 4%), cerebellum (4.5%), thalamus (2%), internal capsule (10%) and genu of the corpus callosum (7%). The enlarged OFC volume in adults after AIE is consistent with previous imaging studies in human adolescents. AIE treatment was associated with significant increases in the expression of several extracellular matrix (ECM) proteins in the adult OFC including WFA (55%), Brevican (32%), Neurocan (105%), Tenacin-C (25%), and HABP (5%). These findings are consistent with AIE causing persistent changes in brain structure that could contribute to a lack of behavioral flexibility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leon Garland Coleman
- Bowles Center for Alcohol Studies, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, CB# 7178, Chapel Hill, NC 27599-7178, United States.
| | - Wen Liu
- Bowles Center for Alcohol Studies, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, CB# 7178, Chapel Hill, NC 27599-7178, United States.
| | - Ipek Oguz
- Bowles Center for Alcohol Studies, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, CB# 7178, Chapel Hill, NC 27599-7178, United States; Department of Computer Science, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, United States.
| | - Martin Styner
- Department of Psychiatry, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, United States; Department of Computer Science, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, United States.
| | - Fulton T Crews
- Bowles Center for Alcohol Studies, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, CB# 7178, Chapel Hill, NC 27599-7178, United States; Department of Psychiatry, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, United States.
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26
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Meechan DW, Rutz HLH, Fralish MS, Maynard TM, Rothblat LA, LaMantia AS. Cognitive ability is associated with altered medial frontal cortical circuits in the LgDel mouse model of 22q11.2DS. Cereb Cortex 2013; 25:1143-51. [PMID: 24217989 DOI: 10.1093/cercor/bht308] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
We established a relationship between cognitive deficits and cortical circuits in the LgDel model of 22q11 Deletion Syndrome (22q11DS)-a genetic syndrome with one of the most significant risks for schizophrenia and autism. In the LgDel mouse, optimal acquisition, execution, and reversal of a visually guided discrimination task, comparable to executive function tasks in primates including humans, are compromised; however, there is significant individual variation in degree of impairment. The task relies critically on the integrity of circuits in medial anterior frontal cortical regions. Accordingly, we analyzed neuronal changes that reflect previously defined 22q11DS-related alterations of cortical development in the medial anterior frontal cortex of the behaviorally characterized LgDel mice. Interneuron placement, synapse distribution, and projection neuron frequency are altered in this region. The magnitude of one of these changes, layer 2/3 projection neuron frequency, is a robust predictor of behavioral performance: it is substantially and selectively lower in animals with the most significant behavioral deficits. These results parallel correlations of volume reduction and altered connectivity in comparable cortical regions with diminished executive function in 22q11DS patients. Apparently, 22q11 deletion alters behaviorally relevant circuits in a distinct cortical region that are essential for cognitive function.
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Affiliation(s)
- D W Meechan
- Department of Pharmacology and Physiology GW Institute for Neuroscience, The George Washington University, Washington, DC 20037, USA
| | - H L H Rutz
- Department of Psychology GW Institute for Neuroscience, The George Washington University, Washington, DC 20037, USA
| | - M S Fralish
- Department of Pharmacology and Physiology GW Institute for Neuroscience, The George Washington University, Washington, DC 20037, USA
| | - T M Maynard
- Department of Pharmacology and Physiology GW Institute for Neuroscience, The George Washington University, Washington, DC 20037, USA
| | - L A Rothblat
- Department of Psychology GW Institute for Neuroscience, The George Washington University, Washington, DC 20037, USA
| | - A-S LaMantia
- Department of Pharmacology and Physiology GW Institute for Neuroscience, The George Washington University, Washington, DC 20037, USA
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27
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Effects of stimulus salience on touchscreen serial reversal learning in a mouse model of fragile X syndrome. Behav Brain Res 2013; 252:126-35. [PMID: 23747611 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2013.05.060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2013] [Revised: 05/24/2013] [Accepted: 05/28/2013] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Fragile X syndrome (FXS) is the most common inherited form of intellectual disability in males and the most common genetic cause of autism. Although executive dysfunction is consistently found in humans with FXS, evidence of executive dysfunction in Fmr1 KO mice, a mouse model of FXS, has been inconsistent. One possible explanation for this is that executive dysfunction in Fmr1 KO mice, similar to humans with FXS, is only evident when cognitive demands are high. Using touchscreen operant conditioning chambers, male Fmr1 KO mice and their male wildtype littermates were tested on the acquisition of a pairwise visual discrimination followed by four serial reversals of the response rule. We assessed reversal learning performance under two different conditions. In the first, the correct stimulus was salient and the incorrect stimulus was non-salient. In the second and more challenging condition, the incorrect stimulus was salient and the correct stimulus was non-salient; this increased cognitive load by introducing conflict between sensory-driven (i.e., bottom-up) and task-dependent (i.e., top-down) signals. Fmr1 KOs displayed two distinct impairments relative to wildtype littermates. First, Fmr1 KOs committed significantly more learning-type errors during the second reversal stage, but only under high cognitive load. Second, during the first reversal stage, Fmr1 KOs committed significantly more attempts to collect a reward during the timeout following an incorrect response. These findings indicate that Fmr1 KO mice display executive dysfunction that, in some cases, is only evident under high cognitive load.
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28
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Treviño M, Oviedo T, Jendritza P, Li SB, Köhr G, De Marco RJ. Controlled variations in stimulus similarity during learning determine visual discrimination capacity in freely moving mice. Sci Rep 2013; 3:1048. [PMID: 23308341 PMCID: PMC3541512 DOI: 10.1038/srep01048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2012] [Accepted: 12/05/2012] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
The mouse is receiving growing interest as a model organism for studying visual perception. However, little is known about how discrimination and learning interact to produce visual conditioned responses. Here, we adapted a two-alternative forced-choice visual discrimination task for mice and examined how training with equiprobable stimuli of varying similarity influenced conditioned response and discrimination performance as a function of learning. Our results indicate that the slope of the gradients in similarity during training determined the learning rate, the maximum performance and the threshold for successful discrimination. Moreover, the learning process obeyed an inverse relationship between discrimination performance and discriminative resolution, implying that sensitivity within a similarity range cannot be improved without sacrificing performance in another. Our study demonstrates how the interplay between discrimination and learning controls visual discrimination capacity and introduces a new training protocol with quantitative measures to study perceptual learning and visually-guided behavior in freely moving mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mario Treviño
- Department of Molecular Neurobiology Max-Planck-Institute for Medical Research, Heidelberg, Germany.
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29
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Webster JP, Kaushik M, Bristow GC, McConkey GA. Toxoplasma gondii infection, from predation to schizophrenia: can animal behaviour help us understand human behaviour? J Exp Biol 2013; 216:99-112. [PMID: 23225872 PMCID: PMC3515034 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.074716] [Citation(s) in RCA: 104] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2012] [Accepted: 09/08/2012] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
We examine the role of the protozoan Toxoplasma gondii as a manipulatory parasite and question what role study of infections in its natural intermediate rodent hosts and other secondary hosts, including humans, may elucidate in terms of the epidemiology, evolution and clinical applications of infection. In particular, we focus on the potential association between T. gondii and schizophrenia. We introduce the novel term 'T. gondii-rat manipulation-schizophrenia model' and propose how future behavioural research on this model should be performed from a biological, clinical and ethically appropriate perspective.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joanne P. Webster
- Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, School of Public Health, Imperial College Faculty of Medicine, London, W2 1PG, UK
| | - Maya Kaushik
- Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, School of Public Health, Imperial College Faculty of Medicine, London, W2 1PG, UK
| | - Greg C. Bristow
- School of Biology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds, LS2 9JT, UK
| | - Glenn A. McConkey
- School of Biology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds, LS2 9JT, UK
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30
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Endo T, Kakeyama M, Uemura Y, Haijima A, Okuno H, Bito H, Tohyama C. Executive function deficits and social-behavioral abnormality in mice exposed to a low dose of dioxin in utero and via lactation. PLoS One 2012; 7:e50741. [PMID: 23251380 PMCID: PMC3520971 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0050741] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2012] [Accepted: 10/23/2012] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
An increasing prevalence of mental health problems has been partly ascribed to abnormal brain development that is induced upon exposure to environmental chemicals. However, it has been extremely difficult to detect and assess such causality particularly at low exposure levels. To address this question, we here investigated higher brain function in mice exposed to dioxin in utero and via lactation by using our recently developed automated behavioral flexibility test and immunohistochemistry of neuronal activation markers Arc, at the 14 brain areas. Pregnant C57BL/6 mice were given orally a low dose of 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) at a dose of either 0, 0.6 or 3.0 µg/kg on gestation day 12.5. When the pups reached adulthood, they were group-housed in IntelliCage to assess their behavior. As a result, the offspring born to dams exposed to 0.6 µg TCDD/kg were shown to have behavioral inflexibility, compulsive repetitive behavior, and dramatically lowered competitive dominance. In these mice, immunohistochemistry of Arc exhibited the signs of hypoactivation of the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) and hyperactivation of the amygdala. Intriguingly, mice exposed to 3.0 µg/kg were hardly affected in both the behavioral and neuronal activation indices, indicating that the robust, non-monotonic dose-response relationship. In conclusion, this study showed for the first time that perinatal exposure to a low dose of TCDD in mice develops executive function deficits and social behavioral abnormality accompanied with the signs of imbalanced mPFC-amygdala activation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Toshihiro Endo
- Laboratory of Environmental Health Sciences, Center for Disease Biology and Integrative Medicine, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
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31
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Graybeal C, Kiselycznyk C, Holmes A. Stress-induced impairments in prefrontal-mediated behaviors and the role of the N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor. Neuroscience 2012; 211:28-38. [PMID: 22414923 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2012.02.042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2011] [Revised: 02/20/2012] [Accepted: 02/22/2012] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
The prefrontal cortex (PFC) mediates higher-order cognitive and executive functions that subserve various complex, adaptable behaviors, such as cognitive flexibility, attention, and working memory. Deficits in these functions typify multiple neuropsychiatric disorders that are caused or exacerbated by exposure to psychological stress. Here we review recent evidence examining the effects of stress on executive and cognitive functions in rodents and discuss an emerging body of evidence that implicates the N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) as a potentially critical molecular mechanism mediating these effects. Future work in this area could open up new avenues for developing pharmacotherapies for ameliorating cognitive dysfunction in neuropsychiatric disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Graybeal
- Laboratory of Behavioral and Genomic Neuroscience, National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, NIH, Bethesda, MD 20892-9304, USA.
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32
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Examining the genetic and neural components of cognitive flexibility using mice. Physiol Behav 2012; 107:666-9. [PMID: 22234243 DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2011.12.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2011] [Revised: 12/14/2011] [Accepted: 12/27/2011] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
This commentary summarizes the research presented during the symposium "Examining the genetic and neural components of cognitive flexibility using mice" at the annual meeting of the International Behavioral Neuroscience Society 2011. Research presented includes examining: 1) Corticostriatal networks underlying reversal learning using GluN2B knockout mice, cFos expression, and in vivo electrophysiological recording; 2) Cerebellar contribution to reversal learning using mutants with Purkinje cell loss and in vivo electrochemical recording; 3) Parvalbumin contribution to reversal learning and set-shifting using PLAUR mutants and in vitro recording to examine fast-spiking interneurones; and 4) Alpha 7 nAChR contribution to reversal learning, set-shifting, motivation, and the 'eureka moment' of rule acquisition. It is proposed that these studies revealed more about the neurobiology underlying these behaviors than could be discovered using pharmacological techniques alone. Together, the research presented stressed the importance of exploring the genetic contribution to neuropsychiatric disease and the important role that the mouse, coupled with robust behavioral measures, can play in understanding neurobiology underlying cognitive flexibility.
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33
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Mouse pharmacological models of cognitive disruption relevant to schizophrenia. Neuropharmacology 2011; 62:1381-90. [PMID: 21726569 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2011.06.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2010] [Revised: 06/14/2011] [Accepted: 06/17/2011] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Schizophrenia is a debilitating cognitive disorder. The link between cognitive debilitation and functional outcome in patients with schizophrenia has prompted research to develop procognitive therapies. It is hoped that by improving cognition in these patients, their functional outcome will also improve. Although no established treatments exist as yet, progress has been made toward understanding how to evaluate putative compounds in the clinic. Genetic mouse models and pharmacological rat models of cognitive disruption are being developed that may help to evaluate these putative compounds preclinically. Considering the increased number of genetic mouse models relevant to schizophrenia, there is a need to evaluate pharmacological manipulations on cognition in mice. Here we review the current literature on mouse pharmacological models relevant to schizophrenia. In this review, we discuss where different pharmacological effects between rats and mice on cognitive tasks are observed and assess the validity offered by these models. We conclude that the predictive validity of these models is currently difficult to assess and that much more needs to be done to develop useful mouse pharmacological models of cognitive disruption in schizophrenia.
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34
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Does gene deletion of AMPA GluA1 phenocopy features of schizoaffective disorder? Neurobiol Dis 2010; 40:608-21. [PMID: 20699120 PMCID: PMC2955784 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2010.08.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2010] [Revised: 07/06/2010] [Accepted: 08/03/2010] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Glutamatergic dysfunction is strongly implicated in schizophrenia and
mood disorders. GluA1 knockout (KO) mice display schizophrenia- and
depression-related abnormalities. Here, we asked whether GluA1 KO show
mania-related abnormalities. KO were tested for behavior in approach/avoid
conflict tests, responses to repeated forced swim exposure, and locomotor
responses under stress and after psychostimulant treatment. The effects of rapid
dopamine depletion and treatment with lithium or GSK-3β inhibitor on KO
locomotor hyperactivity were tested. Results showed that KO exhibited novelty-
and stress-induced locomotor hyperactivity, reduced forced swim immobility and
alterations in approach/avoid conflict tests. Psychostimulant treatment and
dopamine depletion exacerbated KO locomotor hyperactivity. Lithium, but not
GSK-3β inhibitor, treatment normalized KO anxiety-related behavior and
partially reversed hyperlocomotor behavior, and also reversed elevated
prefrontal cortex levels of phospho-MARCKS and phospho-neuromodulin.
Collectively, these findings demonstrate mania-related abnormalities in GluA1 KO
and, combined with previous findings, suggest this mutant may provide a novel
model of features of schizoaffective disorder.
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35
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Brigman JL, Mathur P, Harvey-White J, Izquierdo A, Saksida LM, Bussey TJ, Fox S, Deneris E, Murphy DL, Holmes A. Pharmacological or genetic inactivation of the serotonin transporter improves reversal learning in mice. Cereb Cortex 2009; 20:1955-63. [PMID: 20032063 DOI: 10.1093/cercor/bhp266] [Citation(s) in RCA: 148] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Growing evidence supports a major contribution of cortical serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine, 5-HT) to the modulation of cognitive flexibility and the cognitive inflexibility evident in neuropsychiatric disorders. The precise role of 5-HT and the influence of 5-HT gene variation in mediating this process is not fully understood. Using a touch screen-based operant system, we assessed reversal of a pairwise visual discrimination as an assay for cognitive flexibility. Effects of constitutive genetic or pharmacological inactivation of the 5-HT transporter (5-HTT) on reversal were examined by testing 5-HTT null mice and chronic fluoxetine-treated C57BL/6J mice, respectively. Effects of constitutive genetic loss or acute pharmacological depletion of 5-HT were assessed by testing Pet-1 null mice and para-chlorophenylalanine (PCPA)-treated C57BL/6J mice, respectively. Fluoxetine-treated C57BL/6J mice made fewer errors than controls during the early phase of reversal when perseverative behavior is relatively high. 5-HTT null mice made fewer errors than controls in completing the reversal task. However, reversal in Pet-1 null and PCPA-treated C57BL/6J mice was not different from controls. These data further support an important role for 5-HT in modulating reversal learning and provide novel evidence that inactivating the 5-HTT improves this process. These findings could have important implications for understanding and treating cognitive inflexibility in neuropsychiatric disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan L Brigman
- Section on Behavioral Science and Genetics, Laboratory for Integrative Neuroscience, National Institute on Alcoholism and Alcohol Abuse, NIH, MD 20852-9411, USA.
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