Indicators of Horse Welfare: State-of-the-Art

Objective assessment of chronic pain in donkeys using the Donkey Chronic Pain Scale

OBJECTIVE

To clinically evaluate previously developed pain scales [Donkey Chronic Pain Composite Pain Scale (DCP-CPS), Donkey Chronic Pain Facial Assessment of Pain (DCP-FAP) and combined Donkey Chronic Pain Scale (DCPS)], including behavioural and facial expression-based variables, for the assessment of chronic pain in donkeys.

STUDY DESIGN

Prospective, blinded clinical study.

ANIMAL

A group of 77 donkeys (34 patients and 43 healthy control animals).

METHODS

Animals were assessed by two observers that were blinded to the condition of the animals.

RESULTS

Both DCP-CPS and DCP-FAP, and resulting combined DCPS scores, showed good interobserver reliability [intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) = 0.91, 95% confidence interval (CI) = 0.86-0.95, p < 0.001; ICC = 0.71, CI = 0.50-0.83, p < 0.001 and ICC = 0.84, CI = 0.72-0.91, p < 0.001, respectively]. All scores (DCP-CPS, DCP-FAP and the resulting combined DCPS) were significantly higher for patients than for controls at all time points (p < 0.001 for all three scales). Sensitivity and specificity for identification of pain (cut-off value >3) was 73.0% and 65.1% for DCP-CPS, and 60.9% and 83.3% for DCP-FAP, respectively. For the combined DCPS, sensitivity was 87.0% and specificity 90.9% (cut-off value >6).

CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE

Based on behavioural and facial expression-based variables, DCPS proved a promising and reproducible tool to assess different types of chronic pain in donkeys. The combination of behavioural and facial expression-based variables showed the best discriminatory characteristics in the current study. Further studies are needed for refinement of these tools.

Physiological stress responses in horses participating in novice endurance rides

Horses participating in endurance events encounter enormous physical challenges. Heart rate (HR) and heart rate variability (HRV) have been reported before and after endurance rides, but these have not been determined during the rides. Moreover, the modulation in HRV and haematology in horses with different ride results (completed a course or disqualified due to irregular gait) have not been elucidated. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate changes in HR, HRV, and haematological parameters during novice endurance rides and to compare these parameters between horses that successfully completed the course (SC) or were disqualified for irregular gait (FTQ-GA). Beat-to-beat (RR) intervals of 16 healthy horses (aged 6-14 years) were recorded before and throughout the approximately 40 km endurance event. Blood samples were taken at the pre-ride inspection and after passing each veterinary inspection. HRV and haematology measures were determined from nine SC and seven FTQ-GA horses. Horses with different ride results demonstrated distinctive physiological stress responses. Increases in PCV, RBC, WBC and neutrophils after completing the ride were found only in SC horses, implying that they were ridden with greater effort than FTQ-GA horses. A reduction in HRV during warm-up, followed by a significant reduction during the first and second riding phases, was observed. HRV returned to baseline at the compulsory rest period of both phases. FTQ-GA horses experienced lower RR intervals, RR triangular index, modified deceleration capacity, very-low-frequency band, and parasympathetic nervous system index, coinciding with higher HR and sympathetic nervous system and stress indices than SC horses. These results indicated that endurance horses revealed a shift toward sympathetic activity during the ride. Lower parasympathetic activity in FTQ-GA horses suggests they were under more stress or discomfort than SC horses in novice endurance rides. These results have welfare implications, indicating the need for additional rest breaks in FTQ-GA horses.

Embodied Communication, Sensed Atmospheres, Joint Situations: Human-Horse Encounters from a Neophenomenological Perspective

This article shows that the German philosopher Hermann Schmitz's new phenomenology can make a valuable contribution to human-animal studies. The three concepts suitable for this purpose are, first, Schmitz's concept of embodied communication, which can be applied to trans-species encounters; second, his understanding of atmospheres, which are always co-communicated in trans-species encounters; and, third, his conception of situation, which can help with analyzing the relationship of society to animals. My contribution applies these three basic elements of new phenomenology-embodied communication, atmosphere, and situation-to the analysis of the encounters between humans and horses. This paper demonstrates that embodied communication in particular is not only a worthwhile object of research but can also serve as a mode of producing scientific insight.

Comparison of daily heart rate and heart rate variability in trained and sedentary aged horses

Athletic horses are usually retired from equestrian competition at an advanced age. Aged horses may then continue to have regular exercise or are sedentary. The comparison of autonomic regulation between sedentary aged horses (SAH) and trained aged horses (TAH) after retirement remains unpublished. This study compared daily heart rate (HR) and heart rate variability between 11 SAH and 11 TAH over 22 h (07.00 h to 05.00 h on an alternate day) and during the day and night. An increase in mean beat-to-beat (RR) intervals (p < 0.01-0.0001) and parasympathetic nervous system (PNS) index (p < 0.05-0.0001), corresponding to the decreased HR and sympathetic nervous system (SNS) index (p < 0.01-0.0001), was observed at night. Compared to SAH, lowered mean HR and SNS index, corresponding to elevated mean RR intervals and very-low-frequency bands, were marked in TAH during the day (p < 0.05 for all variables). Whereas the standard deviation of the RR intervals index was higher in TAH than in SAH during the day and night (p < 0.05 for both periods). It was suggested that aged horses with different physical activities revealed distinct autonomic responses. TAH demonstrated higher HRV than SAH during the day. A decreased HR in TAH is prone to result from a reduced SNS role, leading to a shift toward more PNS activity during the day. More research is warranted to determine to what extent the autonomic regulation is modulated by accompanying higher exercise volume or programmed exercise in aged horses.

Welfare assessment of Thoroughbred horses naturally infected with gastrointestinal parasites in Southern Brazil: Quantifying the host-parasite relationship

Horse welfare assessment (HWA) does not account for individual or herd parasite infection. This study investigated the connection between HWA and individual parasite fecal egg count (FEC) in 90 Thoroughbred horses. All horses were naturally infected with gastrointestinal parasites and were evaluated for individual welfare indicators and FEC monthly, for 12 months. Horses were divided into three groups of 30 mares, 30 foals aged between 13 and 16 months (G2013), and 30 foals aged between two months and one year (G2014). A horse welfare protocol was developed and 1024 assessments were carried out by five trained assessors. FEC ranged from 0 to 5,760 with 98.8 % showing small strongyle eggs. Body condition scores were ideal in 94.4 % of the evaluations (n = 967), and 95.8 % of all horses had good clinical and behavioral indicators. Despite the variation in FEC, the data found no significant association between FEC and the behavioral indicators. The study suggests that FEC alone should not be used as a determinant of welfare when animals are managed with good nutritional and health management practices.

Behavioral and physiological responses of horses to ground-based adaptive horsemanship lessons for veterans with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)

Little literature exists on horses in adaptive horsemanship (AH) despite concerns about their well-being. The study objective was to evaluate behavioral and physiological responses of horses to ground-based AH lessons for veterans with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Lessons were expected to alter horses' hormone concentrations, behavior, and muscle activity. Geldings were assigned to AH (n=6; 20.3 ± 1.9 yrs., mean ± SE) or control (CON; stall in arena, n=6; 13.8 ± 1.7 yrs.) conditions for 8-week sessions based on current occupation (AH = equine-assisted services; CON = recreational riding). Plasma cortisol, epinephrine, norepinephrine, and oxytocin concentrations from samples at 0 (start of lesson), 3, 5, 25, and 30 (end) min were determined using assays validated in horses. Surface electromyography (sEMG) (masseter and brachiocephalic; Noraxon, Scottsdale, AZ, USA) and video were recorded continuously. Average rectified values (ARV) and median frequency (MF) were calculated (100 ms) after sEMG data were normalized, rectified, and filtered. The number, number of unique, and duration of stress related behaviors (ethogram) were recorded by three trained (ĸ ≥ 0.7) observers. Data were analyzed with repeated measures ANOVAs (significance P ≤ 0.05) with fixed effects of treatment, time point, week, and their interactions as appropriate and random effect of horse. CON horses had elevated cortisol concentrations (P = 0.0023) at 25 and 30 min. AH horses displayed fewer (P ≤ 0.0491) stress related and unique behaviors. CON horses were described as more (P < 0.0001) anxious, nervous, and stressed than AH horses (calm, comfortable, patient, and relaxed) in qualitative behavior analysis (22 observers). AH horses were less stressed than CON horses.

Time-Budget and Welfare Indicators of Stabled Horses in Three Different Stall Architectures: A Cross-Sectional Study

Keeping horses in single stalls can lead to the development of abnormal and stereotypic behaviors (ASB). Opportunities for social interactions and stall architecture can influence behavior. The current study aimed to identify how three different stall architectures influenced time-budget and physiological parameters in horses. Stall types included: (1) 3.2 × 3.7 m with tactile contact between horses (B1); (2) 2.6 × 3.5 m with visual contact between horses and outside view (B2); (3) 2.3 × 3.4 m with visual contact and outside view (B3). Ten horses from B1 and B3, and nine from B2 were randomly selected, filmed for 24 hours and the video was analyzed with continuous behavioral sampling. Nine horses from B1, 8 from B2 and 7 from B3 were randomly selected for blood sampling used to determine cortisol levels, cortisol circadian rhythm (CCR), white blood cells (WBC) and neutrophil/lymphocyte ratio. The effects of different stall architectures were analyzed by ANOVA and post hoc Tukey test. B1 had higher social interaction time (2.77% of the time-budget) (P = .020), with no other differences. Time spent eating represented a low proportion of horses' time-budget (14.31%) and all horses demonstrated ASB behaviors (21.10% of the time-budget). Twenty-five percent of the horses presented low WBC, 38% of the horses had high cortisol levels, and 29% of the horses had an altered CCR. Those alterations along with high prevalence of ASB indicate that horses were in a state of chronic stress. The stalls' architecture did not affect the presence of abnormal behaviors or indicators of stress.

Effects of Different Hay Feeders, Availability of Roughage on Abnormal Behaviors and Cortisol Circadian Rhythm in Horses Kept in Dry Lots

Free choice forage could be the best option regarding horses' welfare but can lead to increased body weight (BW), and waste of hay. Automatic box feeders (BF) and slow feeders (SF) decrease food waste, but it is unknown how these affect the horses' time-budget (TB). This study compared the effects of feeding free choice hay (FC), to a SF and an automated BF on the horses' cortisol circadian rhythm (CCR) and behavior by 24-hours continuous behavioral sampling (CBS). The study was designed as a 3 × 3 Latin square design with 15 polo horses divided into 3 groups, for 15 days on each treatment. Every 15 days, BW was assessed, blood collected for CCR analysis, the behavior recorded during the last 24 hours of the last day of each treatment and the video analyzed with CBS. Time spent on all behaviors was evaluated and used for the determination of the animals' TB. The effects of the different feeders were analyzed with ANOVA. FC horses consumed and wasted more hay daily (16.6 ± 0.5kg) (P < .001), compared with BF (10.4 ± 0.5 kg), and SF (9.30 ± 0.45 kg). FC horses had higher weight gain (P < .001, 23.5 ± 4.6kg), compared to BF (1.2 ± 5.7 kg) and SF (0.37 ± 4.6) kg. FC and SF horses spent more than 50% of the TB foraging, generating a TB similar to grazing horses. BF horses spent less time eating (P < .001), increasing time spent standing, sniffing the ground, and practicing coprophagy (P < .050). BF horses showed the highest aggression (P < .043). CCR was not different among treatments.

Selected Acoustic Frequencies Have a Positive Impact on Behavioural and Physiological Welfare Indicators in Thoroughbred Racehorses

(1) Background: Since antiquity, it is considered that sounds influence human emotional states and health. Acoustic enrichment has also been proposed for domestic animals. However, in both humans and animals, effects vary according to the type of sound. Human studies suggest that frequencies, more than melodies, play a key role. Low and high frequencies, music tuning frequency and even EEG slow waves used for 'neurofeedback' produce effects. (2) Methods: We tested the possible impact of such pure frequencies on racehorses' behavior and physiology. A commercial non-audible acoustic stimulus, composed of an array of the above-mentioned frequencies, was broadcasted twice daily and for three weeks to 12 thoroughbred horses in their home stall. (3) Results: The results show a decrease in stereotypic behaviors and other indicators such as yawning or vacuum chewing, an increase in the time spent in recumbent resting and foraging, and better hematological measures during and after the playback phase for 4 of the 10 physiological parameters measured. (4) Conclusions: These results open new lines of research on possible ways of alleviating the stress related to housing and training conditions in racehorses and of improving physical recovery.

How equestrians conceptualise horse welfare: Does it facilitate or hinder change?

More than ever the welfare of horses in equestrian sport is in the spotlight. In response to this scrutiny, one peak body, the Federation Equestre Internationale (FEI) has created an Equine Ethics and Wellbeing Commission to protect their sport's longevity. However, for welfare-based strategies to be successful, the conceptualisation of horse welfare must align across various stakeholders, including the general public. The value-laden nature of welfare makes agreement on its definition, even among scientists, difficult. Given little is known about how equestrians conceptualise horse welfare, we interviewed 19 Australian amateur equestrians using a semi-structured format. Systems thinking and the Five Domains Model provided the theoretical framework and informed our methods. Using reflexive thematic analysis, three themes were identified: (1) good horse welfare is tangible; (2) owners misinterpret unwanted horse behaviour; and (3) equestrians publicly minimise horse welfare issues but are privately concerned. Our results highlight participants' conceptualisations of horse welfare do not align with the Five Domains Model; participants' ideal of prioritising horse welfare does not align with their practice; and there is inconsistency between what participants share publicly and what they think privately about horse welfare. These findings can inform the development of programmes to improve ridden horse welfare throughout the horse industry. As a starting point, programmes that provide a safe space for equestrians to explore their private horse welfare concerns, and programmes that build a partnership mindset to facilitate knowledge exchange between all stakeholders are needed.

Mental Experiences in Wild Animals: Scientifically Validating Measurable Welfare Indicators in Free-Roaming Horses

The mental experiences of animals are what characterises their welfare status. The Five Domains Model for assessing welfare aligns with the understanding that physical and mental states are linked. Following measurement of indicators within each of the four physical/functional Domains (1. Nutrition; 2. Physical environment; 3. Health; and 4. Behavioural interactions), the anticipated negative or positive affective consequences (mental experiences) are cautiously inferred and assigned to Domain 5. Those inferences derive credibility from validated knowledge of the underlying systems of physiology, neurophysiology, neuroethology and affective neuroscience. Any indicators used for assessing welfare need to be scientifically validated. This requires, firstly, evidence of the links between a measurable/observable indicator and the physical/functional impact (in Domains 1 to 4), and secondly, a demonstrable relationship between the physical/functional impact and the mental experience it is inferred the indicators reflect (in Domain five). This review refers to indicators of physical/functional states in Domains 1 to 4, which have been shown to be measurable in free-roaming wild horses, and then evaluates the scientific evidence linking them to inferred mental experiences in Domain 5. This is the first time that the scientific evidence validating a comprehensive range of welfare indicators has been synthesised in this way. Inserting these indicators into the Five Domains Model enables transparently justifiable assessment and grading of welfare status in free-roaming horses.

A Pilot Study on Behavioural and Physiological Indicators of Emotions in Donkeys

Recognizing animal emotions is critical to their welfare and can lead to a better relationship with humans and the environment, especially in a widespread species like the donkey, which is often prone to welfare issues. This study aims to assess the emotional response of donkeys through an operant conditioning task with two presumed different emotional contents. Specifically, a within-subject design including positive and negative conditions was conducted, collecting behavioural and physiological (heart rate variability and HRV) parameters. Facial expressions, postures, and movements were analysed by principal component analysis and behavioural diversity indexes (frequencies, activity budgets, richness, Shannon and Gini-Simpson). During the positive condition, both ears were held high and sideways (left: r = -0.793, p < 0.0001; right: r = -0.585, p = 0.011), while the ears were frontally erected (left: r = 0.924, p < 0.0001; right: r = 0.946, p < 0.0001) during the negative one. The latter was also associated with an increased tendency to walk (r = 0.709, p = 0.001), walk away (r = 0.578, p = 0.012), more frequent changes in the body position (V_{Body position} = 0, p = 0.022), and greater behavioural complexity (V_{Gini-Simpson Index} = 4, p = 0.027). As for HRV analysis, the root mean square of successive beat-to-beat differences (rMSSD) was significantly lower after the negative condition. These non-invasive parameters could be considered as possible indicators of donkeys' emotional state.

GLAD Scale for Ranking Welfare of Horses on Arrival after Transport to Slaughterhouses

To date, there is no official method for measuring horse welfare after transport. This study aimed to develop a scale to classify horses into four categories: good shape; light affected; affected; down (GLAD) based on their welfare impairment measured at unloading. To this end, 15 animal-based measures (ABMs), previously recorded from 1019 horses, were scored. Weight and severity scores provided by welfare experts, alongside the number of welfare principles highlighted by the ABM, were assigned to each ABM. The welfare impairment (S) of each horse was then calculated as the weighted sum of the severity scores of the 15 ABMs. Three thresholds were also set to define the four GLAD categories; the ABM "down" (i.e., horses unable to stand and walk on arrival, also considered by the law as the indicator of the worst welfare) was used as the higher threshold, S_down, (category D); the intermediate threshold, S₂, was defined by the ABM "injuries", assumed to represent highly impaired welfare (category A); the threshold, S₁, was defined assuming that significant welfare impairment starts from 20% of S₂ (L category). Horses with an S value below S₁ were considered physically and mentally fit (G category). Out of 1019, 43% of horses fell into category G, 48% into L, 9% into A, and 0.3% into D. Our scale could be useful for veterinarians to decide whether a horse can be slaughtered immediately (G), needs rest (L), needs attention (A), or euthanasia (D), but further validation is needed.

Social Box: A New Housing System Increases Social Interactions among Stallions

In domestic conditions, adult stallions are mostly housed individually in internal stables to reduce the risk of injuries during social interactions. Social deprivation in horses results in physiological stress and behavioural problems. The aim of this study was to test the "social box" (SB), which allows closer physical contact between neighbouring horses. Eight pairs of stallions (n = 16) were filmed over a 24 h period in the SB and in their usual box stables, "conventional boxes" (CB), which strongly restrict tactile contact. The effect of housing in the SB on behaviour and the occurrence and characteristics of injuries was investigated. The total duration of active social interactions was significantly higher in the SB than in the CB (51.1 vs. 4.9 min, p < 0.0001). Positive interactions accounted for about 71% of the total duration of interactions in SB and CB stabling. The stallions interacted significantly more often in the SB than in the CB (113.5 vs. 23.8 social interaction sequences over 24 h, p < 0.0001). No grievous injuries were recorded. The social box appears to be a suitable solution to give adult stallions the possibility of having physical interactions. Therefore, it can be considered a substantial environmental enrichment for singly housed horses.

Welfare of extensively managed Swedish Gotland ponies

It has been suggested that grazing horses could be used as a credible tool for landscape conservation which would, at the same time, improve horse welfare as opposed to conventional housing. A study was conducted between May 2014 and April 2015 on 12 one year old Gotland ponies managed extensively without supplementary feed. Monthly animal welfare assessments (n = 13) revealed welfare issues in most of the horses, i.e. low body condition score (BCS < 3/5), recurring poor skin condition in 11/12 horses and ocular discharge in 7/12 horses. At the end of the study, compared to the beginning, chafing and poor skin condition increased while coat condition improved. A correlation was found between a negative reaction (score > 0) in the human approach test and BCS < 3 and ocular discharge. Avoidance Distance test values were correlated with faecal parasite counts (> 350 eggs per gram [EPG]). These results indicate that the horses had acceptable welfare during late spring/summer (May-September) and that some horses required additional feed during winter. The animal welfare protocol proved to be an efficient tool for monitoring welfare. The results showed that factors important for extensive management are: daily monitoring; enclosures that provide sufficient feed; access to recovery enclosure; and habituation of horses to human approach.

The use of cannabidiol as a novel treatment for oral stereotypic behaviour (crib-biting) in a horse

Behaviour is the response of living things to their environment and external stimulation, and is one of the parameters to be observed when assessing animal welfare. Any alteration from the conditions found in nature can lead to the occurrence of some specific behaviours, called stereotypies which are characterised as repetitive, consistent patterns of behaviour usually defined as having no apparent ultimate or proximal functions. It has been reported that once stabled or subjected to stressful activities, horses have more susceptibility of developing behavioural disturbances; therefore, behavioural disorders in horses are a strong indicator of poor welfare. Cannabis spp.-derived molecules have been studied under different medical conditions; the therapeutic potentials of phytocannabinoids are related to the effects of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol, cannabidiol (CBD), and other compounds. Cannabidiol has many activities within the central nervous system, such as anxiolytic, antidepressant, antipsychotic, anticonvulsant, and anti-inflammatory activities. Some studies have recently shown the potential and successful therapeutic use of phytocannabinoids in veterinary medicine. This clinical case report described a 22-year-old mare suffering from chronic crib-biting and wind-sucking, and the successful outcome of four weeks-therapy with CBD. This is the first report of the successful therapeutic use of phytocannabinoids in equine behavioural disorders.

Which animal-to-feeding-place ratio at time-controlled hay racks is animal appropriate? Preliminary analysis of stress responses of horses

Introduction

Automated feeding systems offer numerous advantages for animals and humans, but the associated benefits and risks can often only be seen under practical conditions. The space allowance (~80 cm per horse) at time-controlled hay racks for horses in group housing, unlike at partitioned feeding stands or transponder-controlled feed stations, currently falls below the required individual distance between the horses, which can result in a high level of aggression between the horses due to the lack of partitions between them. Hence, a feed-through at a time-controlled hay rack cannot be equated with a feeding place. In this preliminary study, we therefore aimed to determine the minimum animal-to-feeding-place ratio (AFR) at time-controlled hay racks that would provide adequate individual distances between the horses.

Methods

To do so, we assessed behavioral and physiological parameters (via video behavioral observations and salivary cortisol measurements) of up to 28 horses in a loose housing system. Over 2 observation days per treatment, four AFRs were investigated in a balanced sequence: 1:1.2, 1:2, 1:3, and C (single feeding in familiar surroundings as a control).

Results

We found that the horses expressed less aggressive behavior, especially those behaviors with a high risk of injury such as biting and kicking, when there were three times as many openings as there were horses at time-controlled hay racks, as compared with only 20% more openings or twice as many openings as there were horses [lineal mixed model: F (3, 4) = 7.411; adjusted R 2 = 0.733; p (AFR_1:2) = 0.06, p (AFR_1:3) = 0.02, p (AFR_C) = 0.01]. The salivary cortisol levels during feeding decreased more strongly with more generous AFRs [p (AFR_metric) = 0.02]. The factors hierarchy and individual showed no influence. In contrast, the day of the experiment and the associated weather conditions, despite randomized selection, influenced both the behavioral and the physiological parameters.

Discussion

The results of this preliminary study indicate that the investigated time-controlled hay racks must provide at least three times as many feeding places as there are horses to ensure that neighboring horses can keep their individual distance and stress-free feeding is possible. Further studies on more farms and different types as well as arrangement of hay racks are proposed.

Sympathetic Arousal Detection in Horses Using Electrodermal Activity

The continuous monitoring of stress, pain, and discomfort is key to providing a good quality of life for horses. The available tools based on observation are subjective and do not allow continuous monitoring. Given the link between emotions and sympathetic autonomic arousal, heart rate and heart rate variability are widely used for the non-invasive assessment of stress and pain in humans and horses. However, recent advances in pain and stress monitoring are increasingly using electrodermal activity (EDA), as it is a more sensitive and specific measure of sympathetic arousal than heart rate variability. In this study, for the first time, we have collected EDA signals from horses and tested the feasibility of the technique for the assessment of sympathetic arousal. Fifteen horses (six geldings, nine mares, aged 13.11 ± 5.4 years) underwent a long-lasting stimulus (Feeding test) and a short-lasting stimulus (umbrella Startle test) to elicit sympathetic arousal. The protocol was approved by the University of Connecticut. We found that EDA was sensitive to both stimuli. Our results show that EDA can capture sympathetic activation in horses and is a promising tool for non-invasive continuous monitoring of stress, pain, and discomfort in horses.

Technology applications in bovine gait analysis: A scoping review

Quantitative bovine gait analysis using technology has evolved significantly over the last two decades. However, subjective methods of gait assessment using visual locomotion scoring remain the primary on-farm and experimental approach. The objective of this review is to map research trends in quantitative bovine gait analysis and to explore the technologies that have been utilized to measure biomechanical parameters of gait. A scoping literature review was conducted according to PRISMA guidelines. A search algorithm based on PICO framework generated three components-bovine, gait, and technology-to address our objectives. Three online databases were searched for original work published from January 2000 to June 2020. A two-step screening process was then conducted, starting with the review of article titles and abstracts based on inclusion criteria. A remaining 125 articles then underwent a full-text assessment, resulting in 82 final articles. Thematic analysis of research aims resulted in four major themes among the studies: gait/claw biomechanics, lameness detection, intervention/comparison, and system development. Of the 4 themes, lameness detection (55% of studies) was the most common reason for technology use. Within the literature identified three main technologies were used: force and pressure platforms (FPP), vision-based systems (VB), and accelerometers. FPP were the first and most popular technologies to evaluate bovine gait and were used in 58.5% of studies. They include force platforms, pressure mapping systems, and weight distribution platforms. The second most applied technology was VB (34.1% of studies), which predominately consists of video analysis and image processing systems. Accelerometers, another technological method to measure gait characteristics, were used in 14.6% of studies. In sum, the strong demand for automatic lameness detection influenced the path of development for quantitative gait analysis technologies. Among emergent technologies, deep learning and wearable sensors (e.g., accelerometers) appear to be the most promising options. However, although progress has been made, more research is needed to develop more accurate, practical, and user-friendly technologies.

Review of the Foundational Knowledge Required for Assessing Horse Welfare

A detailed understanding of what is usual for a species under optimal conditions is critical for identifying and interpreting different features of body function that have known impacts on animal welfare and its assessment. When applying the Five Domains Model to assess animal welfare, the key starting point is therefore to acquire extensive species-specific knowledge relevant to each of the four physical/functional Domains of the Model. These Domains, 1 to 4, address areas where objective information is evaluated and collated. They are: (1) Nutrition; (2) Physical environment; (3) Health; and (4) Behavioural interactions. It is on the basis of this detailed knowledge that cautious inferences can then be made about welfare-relevant mental experiences animals may have, aligned with Domain 5, Mental State. However, this review is focused entirely on the first four Domains in order to provide a novel holistic framework to collate the multidisciplinary knowledge of horses required for undertaking comprehensive welfare assessments. Thus, inferring the potential mental experiences aligned with Domain 5, the final step in model-based welfare assessments, is not considered here. Finally, providing extensive information on free-roaming horses enables a better understanding of the impacts of human interventions on the welfare of horses in both free-roaming and domestic situations.

Changes in haematological and biochemical parameters in blood serum of horses during exposition to workload stress

Health state of animals undergoing experimental procedures is an important topic nowadays, as even the small changes can influence the outcome of entire outcomes. Main aim of the study was to evaluate the influence of horse training on variety of blood parameters including mineral profile, energy profile, hepatic profile and haematology. In the experiment, the studied group of horses underwent training programme which consisted of transportation, lounging, riding, jumping, racing, treadmill training and shoeing. Blood samples were collected and later evaluated at the beginning, in the middle and at the end of 1-year lasting process. Our results show multiple significant changes in blood parameters, including changes to multiple minerals, such as Ca, K, Na as well as significant changes of total proteins, urea and certain hepatic profile parameters. Haematology results have also been affected in individual sample collections. Based on results of our study we can state that there have been changes to the internal milieu of the horse but also that there have not been any visible changes of the health status of the animals over the duration of the experiment.

Use of Infrared Thermography to Assess Body Temperature as a Physiological Stress Indicator in Horses during Ridden and Lunging Sessions

Equitation is a cause of physiological stress in the equine athlete, and personality is a factor generally associated with the different responses of equines to stressors. This study explored ocular temperature, measured via infrared thermography, associated with personality and stress in horses submitted to dressage exercising in riding lessons, ridden training and lunging. Infrared thermograms of 16 horses were taken before and after sessions using an FLIR F4 camera (FLIR Systems AB, Sweden) to determine maximum eye surface IRT temperature (IRTmax), and total training time was registered (T). A novel-stimulus test was conducted for personality assessment, and the ridden behavior was scored (mRBS). The results showed that T was statistically different (p ˂ 0.001) between modalities, but no differences were found in any IRTmax tests. Statistical correlations were found between mRBS and personality groups, sex and age (all p < 0.001). Additionally—and with caution, given the sample—no association was found between mRBS and post-workout IRT readings and modality, or between pre-workout IRT readings and personality groups. We conclude that trained horses show little stress when working in a familiar environment and when the workout plan is submaximal. The personality test was adequate and positively correlated with ridden behavior.

"Not All Who Wander Are Lost": The Life Transitions and Associated Welfare of Pack Mules Walking the Trails in the Mountainous Gorkha Region, Nepal

Equids in general experience transient lives where ownership may change multiple times, for working equids this can be more extreme where ownership changes are not only numerous but abrupt, and situations encountered prove difficult, diverse and tough for equids to adapt. In this study, we investigate the life cycle of pack mules in Nepal, investigating the challenges they face during their lives through to end of life. To gain insight into the lives of mules, we conducted semi-structured interviews and livelihood surveys with 27 key informants, gathering the perspectives of the people working with mules. Welfare assessments of the mules were undertaken via the Equid Assessment Research and Scoping tool (EARS) by a trained assessor. Mules had to adapt swiftly to changes in industry type, enduring long distance transportation in overloaded vehicles and across country borders with no checks for biosecurity or welfare. Mules had to show swift adaptation to their new environment, to respond to and learn new tasks via inhumanely administered training, using inappropriate techniques, delivered by owners lacking in understanding of mule behaviour and learning. Environmental conditions were often hard; the negotiation of difficult terrain and challenging weather conditions during monsoon and subsequent high-altitude working without acclimatisation likely pushed mules to their biological limits. This study investigates the lives of a population of mules in the mountains of Nepal, developing a better understanding of their needs and their 'truth' or 'telos' informing what measures will help them to thrive.

Changes in Management, Welfare, Emotional State, and Human-Related Docility in Stallions

Despite an increase in awareness of their essential needs, many stallions continue to be kept in conditions limiting their social interactions and movement. To supplement the studies which highlight the effects of these practices on selected aspects of equine mental and physical wellbeing, we aimed to monitor a group of 32 adult intact stallions during their transition from tethered housing with limited outdoor access to free group housing through the lens of their overall welfare, perceived emotional status, and docility toward humans. Over three visits (before the management change, two weeks, and three months after, respectively), their welfare, qualitative behavior, and docility were assessed. Analysis of the data collected showed an improvement in the stallions’ overall welfare and no decrease in their docility after their group-release, with a constant correlation between these two aspects. The evaluation of their emotional states was less relevant, lacking consistency between the assessments for most of the descriptors used, warranting further research in similar conditions. Although our study covered a relatively short period of time, our results provide encouraging support for stallion owners in deciding on a similar management change for the welfare of their animals.

A Qualitative Exploration of UK Leisure Horse Owners' Perceptions of Equine Wellbeing

Human assessment of equine wellbeing is fundamental to ensuring the optimal care of domestic horses. However, terminology associated with wellbeing is still not fully defined and there are currently no validated quality of life (QoL) assessment tools. Furthermore, little is known about what equine wellbeing or QoL means to horse owners, or how their beliefs impact on the management decisions they make for their horse. This study sought to establish how UK leisure horse owners use wellbeing-related terminology by exploring their accounts within a focus group setting. Four online focus group discussions (FGD) were held and qualitative data were collected. FGDs involved a semi-structured discussion, followed by a group activity to compare seven equine wellbeing-related terms of interest introduced by the facilitator. The collected data were analysed using a constructivist grounded theory approach, and also by content analysis, to examine the frequency and subjective meaning of the terms of interest. The results showed that horse owners did not clearly delineate between different terms, rather, they used the terms in the context of their own assessments of their horse. The meanings assigned to what owners experienced with their horse were individual and subjective, shaped by past experiences, relationships with their animal, and peers or social groups. This individualised construction of equine wellbeing impacted on the meaning conveyed when using wellbeing-related terminology. In this study, we extend the literature on equine wellbeing terminology usage, and highlight differences between the academic literature and the real-world experiences of horse owners.

Habit Formation and the Effect of Repeated Stress Exposures on Cognitive Flexibility Learning in Horses

Horse training exposes horses to an array of cognitive and ethological challenges. Horses are routinely required to perform behaviours that are not aligned to aspects of their ethology, which may delay learning. While horses readily form habits during training, not all of these responses are considered desirable, resulting in the horse being subject to retraining. This is a form of cognitive flexibility and is critical to the extinction of habits and the learning of new responses. It is underpinned by complex neural processes which can be impaired by chronic or repeated stress. Domestic horses may be repeatedly exposed to multiples stressors. The potential contribution of stress impairments of cognitive flexibility to apparent training failures is not well understood, however research from neuroscience can be used to understand horses’ responses to training. We trained horses to acquire habit-like responses in one of two industry-style aversive instrumental learning scenarios (moving away from the stimulus-instinctual or moving towards the stimulus-non-instinctual) and evaluated the effect of repeated stress exposures on their cognitive flexibility in a reversal task. We measured heart rate as a proxy for noradrenaline release, salivary cortisol and serum Brain Derived Neurotrophic Factor (BDNF) to infer possible neural correlates of the learning outcomes. The instinctual task which aligned with innate equine escape responses to aversive stimuli was acquired significantly faster than the non-instinctual task during both learning phases, however contrary to expectations, the repeated stress exposure did not impair the reversal learning. We report a preliminary finding that serum BDNF and salivary cortisol concentrations in horses are positively correlated. The ethological salience of training tasks and cognitive flexibility learning can significantly affect learning in horses and trainers should adapt their practices where such tasks challenge innate equine behaviour.

Identification of potential welfare and survival indicators for stranded cetaceans through international, interdisciplinary expert opinion

Management of live cetacean strandings generally focuses on refloating animals, yet there is a lack of scientific data to inform decision-making. Valid indicators that are practical to measure are needed to assess welfare status and survival likelihood for stranded cetaceans. The Delphi method was applied to gather international and interdisciplinary expert opinion to provide face validity to potential indicators of stranded cetacean welfare and survival likelihood. Two online questionnaires were conducted. In the first questionnaire these experts identified potential indicators of stranded cetacean welfare and survival likelihood. These indicators were subsequently scored by the same experts in questionnaire two, based on their value for assessing welfare/survival likelihood and being practical to measure. Indicators considered valuable and practical for assessing welfare and survival likelihood at strandings included animal-based indices of body and skin condition, signs of physical trauma, respiration rate and various behaviours. Resource-/management-based indicators related mainly to human intervention and should be correlated with animal-based indices to provide relevant evaluations. Importantly, inextricable links between welfare and survival for stranded cetaceans are emphasized, with 90% of indicators being similar for both. Investigations into these indicators should be conducted to develop a practical, science-based assessment framework to inform decision-making during stranding events.

The Welfare of Traveller and Gypsy Owned Horses in the UK and Ireland

Travellers and Gypsies are recognised ethnic groups in the UK and Ireland. Horse ownership is an important cultural tradition, however, practices associated with poor welfare are often perceived to be linked to these horse owning communities. Despite this, empirical studies on the welfare status of Traveller and Gypsy owned horses are lacking. To determine the welfare status of Traveller and Gypsy owned horses, 104 horses were assessed using a bespoke horse welfare protocol. This protocol assessed animal, resource and management-based measures. In addition, Qualitative Behaviour Assessment (QBA) identified horses’ emotional state. Results indicated that 81% of horses had an optimal body condition score, with no horse recorded as very thin/fat. The absence of limb conditions (95%), ocular (98%) and nasal (93%) discharges were evident in most horses, and 81% of horses responded positively to the voluntary animal approach test. The most commonly observed welfare issues were hoof neglect (27%), with hoof cracks/breakages (19%) being the most prevalent. QBA indicated that positive emotional states were more commonplace than negative. A relationship between QBA and other horse welfare measures was observed, e.g., improved mood was associated with better water availability. This research provides novel data in the under-researched area of the welfare of Traveller and Gypsy owned horses and counters perceptions of a poor welfare state in this group of horses.

Single housing but not changes in group composition causes stress-related immunomodulations in horses

Domestic horses are currently often subject to management practices that can entail social stressors, which in turn can negatively influence immunocompetence and disease susceptibility.

The present study therefore aimed to characterize the number of various blood leukocyte subsets in horses, focusing on two potentially stressful housing environments: changes in group composition and relocation to individual stabling. Immune measurements were conducted before as well as one and eight days after changes were made. They were complemented by an assessment of plasma cortisol concentrations as well as behavioral observations. One and eight days after relocation to single housing, the mean numbers of eosinophils, T helper cells and cytotoxic T cells decreased by up to 31%, 20% and 22% respectively, whereas the mean numbers of neutrophils increased by 25%. In contrast, one and eight days after changes in group composition not only the mean number of neutrophils, but also of monocytes, T helper cells and cytotoxic T cells increased by up to 24%, 17%, 9%, and 15% respectively. In consequence, an increase in the neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio indicating stress-induced immune modulation was found after relocation to single housing, but not after changes in group composition. The changes in leukocyte numbers after relocation to single housing were accompanied by a transient increase in cortisol concentrations after one day and the occurrence of disturbed behavior patterns one week after change in housing condition. In contrast, changes in group composition did not result in an increase of cortisol concentrations or in an increase of aggressive interactions. The results strongly indicate that individual stabling is an intense stressor leading to acute and lasting alterations in blood counts of various leukocyte types. The study highlights a probable negative impact of single housing on welfare and health of horses and an advantage of group housing systems in view of immunocompetence.

The behavior of horses stabled in a large group at essential resources (watering point and lying halls)

Since there is a practical need, this study focused on the behavior of 51 horses kept in one large group in order to make management suggestions regarding the animal:watering point ratio and the design of lying halls. Drinking events and interactions between pairs of horses were analyzed for 18 days as well as the occupancy time of the watering point. The time period, had significant effects on drinking events with visible interactions (P < 0.05). The highest least square means (LSM) and standard errors (SE) of drinking events with and without visible interaction were observed between 12 noon-2 p.m. (8.6 ± 1.6 and 13.6 ± 2.2 drinking events, respectively) which was also the time period of main occupancy of the watering point (41.9 ± 2.7 min/2h). About 57% of drinking events were classed as with visible interaction, of which over 90% were mild (i.e. laying back of ears, tightening of face). Horses' behavior (resting while standing/others) and lying positions (sternal/lateral) in different lying halls were analyzed over 36 days by generalized mixed models. The sternal position was preferred (12.4 ± 1.4 - 39.2 ± 3.0%) compared to the lateral one (1.4 ± 0.4% - 8.3 ± 1.6%). Older horses spent significantly less time in the sternal position (13.8 ± 1.6%) and rested more standing (45.4 ± 3.3%) compared to younger horses (26.4 ± 4.5% and 29.1 ± 4.9%, respectively) (P < 0.05). Overall, this study provides first insights into drinking and lying behavior of horses kept in a large group.

Evaluating Potential Cetacean Welfare Indicators from Video of Live Stranded Long-Finned Pilot Whales (Globicephala melas edwardii)

Despite the known benefit of considering welfare within wildlife conservation and management, there remains a lack of data to inform such evaluations. To assess animal welfare, relevant information must be captured scientifically and systematically. A key first step is identifying potential indicators of welfare and the practicality of their measurement. We assessed the feasibility of evaluating potential welfare indicators from opportunistically gathered video footage of four stranded odontocete species (n = 53) at 14 stranding events around New Zealand. The first stranded cetacean ethogram was compiled, including 30 different behaviours, 20 of which were observed in all four species. Additionally, thirteen types of human intervention were classified. A subset of 49 live stranded long-finned pilot whales (Globicephala melas edwardii) were assessed to determine indicator prevalence and to quantify behaviours. Four ‘welfare status’ and six ‘welfare alerting’ non-behavioural indicators could be consistently evaluated from the footage. Additionally, two composite behavioural indicators were feasible. Three human intervention types (present, watering, and touching) and five animal behaviours (tail flutter, dorsal fin flutter, head lift, tail lift, and head side-to-side) were prevalent (>40% of individuals). Our study highlights the potential for non-invasive, remote assessments via video footage and represents an initial step towards developing a systematic, holistic welfare assessment framework for stranded cetaceans.

Quality of Life within Horse Welfare Assessment Tools: Informing Decisions for Chronically Ill and Geriatric Horses

Equine Quality of Life (QoL) is an important concern in decision making in veterinary medicine and is especially relevant for chronically ill or geriatric horses towards the end of their lives. To our knowledge, there is no currently available QoL assessment tool for chronically ill or geriatric horses that assesses equine QoL defined as the horse's evaluation of their life. However, tools exist to assess equine welfare in different contexts. Hence, the aims of this study were to analyse how equine welfare, QoL, well-being and happiness assessment tools label, define and operationalise the concepts and to discuss the tools' suitability to assess equine QoL in the context of end-of-life decisions for chronically ill or geriatric horses. Fourteen articles were found through a systematic literature search, describing ten equine welfare assessment tools and one approach to integrating equine QoL in veterinary practice that suggests QoL assessment parameters. We discuss that some welfare assessment tools have the potential to support the development of a QoL assessment tool informing decisions towards the end of horses' lives if they are adjusted to focus on the horses' experiences, to provide an integration into an overall QoL grade and are tailored to chronically ill or geriatric horses.

Does Feeding Management Make a Difference to Behavioural Activities and Welfare of Horses Reared for Meat Production?

Horses reared for meat production are generally fed a diet rich in starch with the aim of maximizing production performances. This study evaluated the effects of two feeding management systems on horse welfare by analysing the relative time spent engaged in different behavioural activities. Nineteen Bardigiano horses aged 14.3 ± 0.7 months were randomly assigned to one of two group pens: one group was fed high amounts of starch-rich concentrates (HCG; n = 10), the other was fed a fibre-based diet (HFG; n = 9). Behavioural activities performed by each horse were video-recorded over a 96-h period. A scan sampling process (n = 144 scans/horse/day; total n of scans sampled = 10,368) was used, and the scans were analysed according to a specific ethogram. The mean frequency (%/24 h) spent exhibiting each behavioural activity was calculated to obtain the time budget. After checking for normality (Shapiro–Wilk test), Student’s t tests (normally distributed data) and Mann–Whitney tests (not normally distributed data) were used to compare the time budgets of the two groups of horses (HCG vs. HFG). Principal Component Analysis (PCA) was applied to identify the components explaining the variability in behavioural activities between the two groups. K-means cluster analysis subsequently confirmed the PCA results. The behavioural activities associated with feeding horses a fibre-based diet correlated with better horse welfare compared with feeding horses a starch-based diet. Feeding horses a fibre-based diet resulted advantageous from both the welfare and economic perspective; it allowed horses to spend more time expressing feeding behaviours and reduced energy expenditure in the form of excitable, or “fizzy”, behaviours.

Champing at the Bit for Improvements: A Review of Equine Welfare in Equestrian Sports in the United Kingdom

Equestrian sports, including racing (e.g., flat, steeple-chasing, harness or donkey derby); show-jumping; cross-country; dressage; polo; polocrosse; endurance; carriage driving; vaulting and hunting; are hugely popular in the UK, and they involve a significant number of people, both as participants and spectators, and tens of thousands of equids. In this paper, we discuss animal welfare as a complex and disputed issue, clarifying what the term means and how it can be measured. We review many aspects of welfare risk to equids used for sport, addressing issues encountered throughout their lives, including housing, feeding, veterinary intervention, shoeing, handling, training, breeding and equipment. This is followed by a unique exploration of the institutions and social processes influencing equine welfare. The institutional components comprise the rules of competition, the equids, attributes of the stakeholders and the space where participants strive to achieve a common purpose. We endeavour to untangle the most significant elements that create barriers or provide opportunities for equine welfare improvement. We expose the challenges faced by a broad range of stakeholders with differing ethics, attitudes and values. Evidently, there are many welfare risks to which equids used in sports continue to be exposed. It is also evident that significant improvements have occurred in recent times, but there remains a barrier to reducing the risks to an acceptable level. We conclude with recommendations regarding a process for change, involvement of stakeholders and management of knowledge to improve equine welfare that involves identifying and prioritising the risk factors and ultimately leading to interventions, further research and/or education.

Muscular tension as an indicator of acute stress in horses

Horses' muscular tension during acute stress remains unexplored. Our aim was to assess muscular, behavioral, cortisol, and hematocrit responses to social isolation (ISO), novel object exposure (NOV), and sham clipping (CLIP). Altered stress responses were expected. Eight mature Standardbred horses (four mares and four geldings) were exposed to acute stressors and a control period (CON) in a balanced, replicated 4×4 Latin Square experimental design with 3 min treatment periods and 10 min washout periods. Surface electromyography collected from the masseter, brachiocephalas, cervical trapezius, and longissimus dorsi was processed to derive average rectified value (ARV) and median frequency (MF) during the initial, middle, and final 30 s of treatments. ARV and MF data were log transformed then analyzed using a mixed model, repeated measures ANOVA along with plasma cortisol and hematocrit. Behavior data were analyzed using a negative binomial distribution mixed model ANOVA. CLIP resulted in greater (p < 0.05) log ARV in the masseter (1.5 + 1.5%, mean + SD) and brachiocepahlas (2.2 + 2.0%) than CON (-1.2 + 1.4%, 0.1 + 1.5%). ISO resulted in greater (p < 0.05) log ARV in the masseter (0.2 + 1.3%) and cervical trapezius (0.6 + 1.3%) than CON (-1.2 + 1.4%, -1.0 + 1.7%). ISO increased (p < 0.05) the total number of stress-related behaviors and hematocrit. No changes in cortisol were observed. We suggest that muscular tension can be used as an indicator of acute stress in horses. Incorporating muscle activity into an array of measurements may provide a more nuanced understanding of stress responses.

Aggression, Erection, and Masturbation in Feral Pottoka Ponies and Implications for Equine Welfare

Simple Summary

Horse trainers and handlers have expressed concerns that equine erection and masturbation may be associated with unwanted or dangerous behaviors. Such concerns and attitudes may guide decisions that affect the welfare of male horses. In this study, male feral ponies were observed before, during, and after natural occurrences of erection and masturbation. Erection and masturbation were not associated with reproductive or aggressive behavior, and they did not predict a change in intensity or energy of behavior. Rather, they were often performed in relaxed moments, with the pony displaying calm behaviors. Understanding the natural presentation of these behaviors can help handlers and trainers to interpret them when in the context of horse-human interactions.

Abstract

Erection and masturbation in horses are considered unwanted behaviors in training contexts, despite recognition that these are naturally occurring behaviors that are integral to the welfare of male horses. Equestrians, especially those who use positive reinforcement in their training, expressed concern that the presence of such behaviors might be associated with aggressive or sexual behaviors aimed at humans participating in horse-human interactions. The implications of such attitudes could negatively affect male horses by excluding them from welfare-friendly training systems. In this study, feral stallions were observed to describe and quantify behaviors that occurred before, during, and after erection and masturbation, and to identify change in arousal. This study did not find evidence that erection and masturbation are associated with increases in arousal, or to sexual or aggressive behavior toward other horses. The possible presence or induction of erection or masturbation alone might not limit male horses from participating in certain handling, training, or riding contexts. These findings, along with further research, may be used to inform interpretations of horse–human interactions that involve erection or masturbation.

Recumbency as an Equine Welfare Indicator in Geriatric Horses and Horses with Chronic Orthopaedic Disease

Recumbency is a prerequisite for horses achieving rapid eye movement (REM) sleep and completing a full sleep cycle. An inability to lie down due to environmental insecurities or pain results in REM sleep deficiency, which can cause substantial impairment of welfare and health. Therefore, the present study used wearable automated sensor technology on 83 horses housed in an animal sanctuary to measure and compare the recumbency, locomotion, and standing time budgets of geriatric horses with and without chronic lameness to younger adult sound and lame horses. Recumbency times ranged from 0 to 319 min per day with an overall mean of 67.4 (±61.9) minutes; the time budget for locomotion was 19.1% (±11.2% s.d.) and for standing 75.6% (±13.1 s.d.). Interestingly, neither age nor lameness due to chronic orthopedic disease had a significant influence on recumbency times in this study. Eight horses showed symptoms of REM deficit. These horses had significantly shorter lying times (7.99 ± 11.4 min) and smaller locomotion time budgets than the other horses enrolled in this study (73.8 ± 61.8 min), indicating a general compromise of well-being. Thus, wearable sensor technology can be used to identify horses with low recumbency times at risk for REM sleep deficiency and to assess and monitor equine welfare objectively.

A Fibre- vs. cereal grain-based diet: Which is better for horse welfare? Effects on intestinal permeability, muscle characteristics and oxidative status in horses reared for meat production

Horses reared for meat production are fed high amounts of cereal grains in comparison with horses raised for other purposes. Such feeding practice may lead to risk of poor welfare consequences. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of two feeding practices on selected metabolic parameters and production aspects. Nineteen Bardigiano horses, 14.3 ± 0.7 months of age, were randomly assigned to two groups-one fed with high amounts of cereal grains (HCG; n = 9; 43% hay plus 57% cereal grain-based pelleted feed) vs. one fed with high amounts of fibre (HFG; n = 10; 70% hay plus 30% pelleted fibrous feed)-for 129 days. At slaught on abattoir, biological and tissue samples were collected to evaluate the microbiological contamination of mesenteric lymph nodes and liver; selected meat quality traits (chemical composition and fatty acid profile of the Longissimus thoracis et lumborum muscle); and the oxidative status of the horse. A linear mixed model was used: dietary treatment and sex were fixed effects and their interaction analysed on production and metabolic parameters as dependent variables. Results showed an increased intestinal permeability in the horses fed HCG compared to HFG, according to the significant increased total mesophilic aerobic bacteria counts in mesenteric lymph nodes (p = 0.04) and liver samples (p = 0.05). Horses in HCG showed increased muscle pH (p = 0.02), lighter muscle colour (L) (p = 0.01), increased intramuscular fat concentrations (p = 0.03), increased muscle glutathione peroxidase and superoxide dismutase activities (p = 0.01 and p = 0.03, respectively). Moreover, horses in HCG had lower muscle water holding capacity at interaction with sex (p = 0.03, lower in female), lower muscle protein content (p = 0.01), lower concentration of muscle PUFAs (p = 0.05) and lower plasma catalase activities (p = 0.05). Our results showed that feeding a high cereal grains diet can have global effects on horse physiology, and thus represents a threat for their welfare.

Investigating Equestrians' Perceptions of Horse Happiness: An Exploratory Study

Happiness is a subjective feeling and associated with positive affective states that can indicate good welfare. It is becoming increasingly agreed that equestrians' ability to recognize indicators of positive emotions has the potential to enhance overall horse wellbeing, but research in this area is limited. Therefore, this study investigated equestrians' perceptions of horse happiness. A survey comprising 25 questions was distributed through equestrian-related social media (internationally) and yielded 332 valid responses. Frequency analysis was conducted within each factor category (e.g., rider type). Pearson chi-squared and Fisher's exact test determined if differences occurred between the tested factor categories (significance level: P < .05). The majority of respondents believed that they were able to recognize when their horses were happy (94%, n = 332; P < .0001) whilst 92.8% (n = 332; P < .0001) believed that their horses could be described as happy. The majority of participants who indicated that they were able to recognize when their horses were happy also believed that their horses were: happy when they interacted with them (98.3%, n = 295; P < .001); when they rode them (83%, n = 270; P < .0001); when they worked them (i.e., unmounted work) (82.7%, n = 312; P < .0001). The largest respondent proportion believed that horses who were very "forward"/energetic every time they were being ridden could be best described as "rather happy" (36.4%, n = 332). Owners more frequently believed that horses were "rather happy" if they did not react to loud noises/scary objects (30.9%, n = 285; P < .013). These results suggest that some equestrians may have overconfidence in interpreting equine affective states. Furthermore, some respondents may have incorrectly perceived behaviors potentially indicating negative emotions as indicators of happiness.

Detecting Welfare in a Non-Verbal Species: Social/Cultural Biases and Difficulties in Horse Welfare Assessment

Simple Summary

There is a paradox about the welfare of horses in the domestic situation: on the one hand, horses are beloved partners for most owners, but on the other hand, scientific studies are converging to show that there is a high prevalence of welfare problems. There seems to be a mismatch between theoretical knowledge and field applications. In this review, we aim at disentangling the possible factors explaining such a paradox. Among them, we consider the impact of anthropomorphic and cultural biases, popular beliefs, but also overexposure to horses with compromised welfare state, which can change owners’ representation of what is a “normal” horse, on the undervaluation of horse welfare state. We suggest that, rather than simply having knowledge on what should be done, identifying the horse welfare state using validated animal-based indicators is essential to identify and promote best practices.

Abstract

Horses were domesticated for more than 5000 years and have been one of the most emblematic species living alongside humans. This long-shared history would suggest that horses are well known and well understood, but scientific data raise many concerns about the welfare state of most domestic horses suggesting that many aspects have been largely misunderstood. In the present review, we will examine some of the possible human factors that may explain the huge prevalence of welfare problems, despite horses being of special importance to humans. First of all, as horses are non-verbal, current management practices rely upon what one thinks is good for them, which opens the way to subjective interpretations and projections, based on one’s own subjective experience but probably still more on cultural/social norms and influences, traditions and beliefs. The lack of recognition, identification, or even the misinterpretation of signals are other potential reasons for welfare issues. Lastly, the over-exposure to animals with expressions of compromised welfare may lead to lower sensitivity of owners/professionals. That is why we lastly suggest that instead of simply providing information on what to do, we should promote validated visible indicators that leave less room for personal interpretation.

Do You Think I Am Living Well? A Four-Season Hair Cortisol Analysis on Leisure Horses in Different Housing and Management Conditions

The satisfaction of leisure horses' behavioral needs has begun to be considered a priority, linked to the awareness that horses kept in single boxes may be deprived of social contact and the possibility to perform natural behaviors. Several factors may influence horses' quality of life also in the paddock, and there are very few data on the effects of those variables on leisure horses' chronic stress, measurable in terms of activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical axis. Therefore, managerial choices faced by owners and stables managers are only based on experience, common sense, and anecdotal beliefs. This study assessed and compared the chronic stress levels in leisure horses hosted in structures in the same geographic and climatic area with different daily routines to verify which management strategy could be the one that better contributes to achieving the welfare of horses. Forty-seven horses were divided into three groups homogeneous in terms of sex and age: Mixed management group (n = 12), Paddock group (n = 19), and Natural management group (n = 16). The hair cortisol concentration, a reliable marker of long-term stress, was analyzed in all the horses the same day at four time points of the year. In addition to management strategies, the influences of other variables (sex, age, coat color, and season) were evaluated. Independently from the management strategies, significantly higher hair cortisol values were detected in the autumn and summer, as well as in individuals older than 15 years. No significant differences were highlighted between the sexes or the coat colors. The comparison of the different management strategies showed that, in the summer, autumn, and winter, the hair cortisol levels were significantly lower in the Mixed management group horses than the Paddock group, highlighting that those subjects had better homeostasis. The Natural management group horses' hair cortisol levels were intermediate between the other two groups of horses in all the seasons. Spending the night in the stables would seem to positively impact the well-being of the horses. These findings, if confirmed by further studies, may be helpful in enhancing horse welfare and assisting in managerial choice decision-making.

Evaluation of the Feasibility, Reliability, and Repeatability of Welfare Indicators in Free-Roaming Horses: A Pilot Study

Simple Summary

Animal welfare assessment is an essential tool for maintaining positive animal wellbeing. Validated welfare assessment protocols have been developed for farm, laboratory, zoo, and companion animals, including horses in managed care. However, wild and free-roaming equines have received relatively little attention, despite populations being found worldwide. In the UK, free-roaming ponies inhabit areas of Exmoor, Dartmoor, and New Forest, England, and Snowdonia National Park in Wales, amongst others. Visitors and local members of the public who encounter free-roaming ponies occasionally raise concerns about their welfare, as they are not provided with additional food, water, or shelter. In this study, we evaluated the feasibility, reliability, and repeatability of welfare indicators that can be applied to a population of free-roaming Carneddau Mountain ponies to address such concerns. Our findings indicate that many of the trialed indicators were successfully repeated and had good levels of inter-assessor reliability. Reliable and repeatable welfare indicators for free-roaming and semi free-roaming ponies will enable population managers and conservation grazing schemes to manage the welfare of free-roaming horses and ponies.

Abstract

Validated assessment protocols have been developed to quantify welfare states for intensively managed sport, pleasure, and working horses. There are few protocols for extensively managed or free-roaming populations. Here, we trialed welfare indicators to ascertain their feasibility, reliability, and repeatability using free-roaming Carneddau Mountain ponies as an example population. The project involved (1) the identification of animal and resource-based measures of welfare from both the literature and discussion with an expert group; (2) testing the feasibility and repeatability of a modified body condition score and mobility score on 34 free-roaming and conservation grazing Carneddau Mountain ponies; and (3) testing a prototype welfare assessment template comprising 12 animal-based and 6 resource-based welfare indicators, with a total of 20 questions, on 35 free-roaming Carneddau Mountain ponies to quantify inter-assessor reliability and repeatability. This pilot study revealed that many of the indicators were successfully repeatable and had good levels of inter-assessor reliability. Some of the indicators could not be verified for reliability due to low/absent occurrence. The results indicated that many animal and resource-based indicators commonly used in intensively managed equine settings could be measured in-range with minor modifications. This study is an initial step toward validating a much-needed tool for the welfare assessment of free-roaming and conservation grazing ponies.

Equine Activity Time Budgets: The Effect of Housing and Management Conditions on Geriatric Horses and Horses with Chronic Orthopaedic Disease

Housing and management conditions strongly influence the health, welfare and behaviour of horses. Consequently, objective and quantifiable comparisons between domestic environments and their influence on different equine demographics are needed to establish evidence-based criteria to assess and optimize horse welfare. Therefore, the present study aimed to measure and compare the time budgets (=percentage of time spent on specific activities) of horses with chronic orthopaedic disease and geriatric (≥20 years) horses living in different husbandry systems using an automated tracking device. Horses spent 42% (range 38.3-44.8%) of their day eating, 39% (range 36.87-44.9%) resting, and 19% (range 17-20.4%) in movement, demonstrating that geriatric horses and horses suffering from chronic orthopaedic disease can exhibit behaviour time budgets equivalent to healthy controls. Time budget analysis revealed significant differences between farms, turn-out conditions and time of day, and could identify potential areas for improvement. Horses living in open-air group housing on a paddock had a more uniform temporal distribution of feeding and movement activities with less pronounced peaks compared to horses living in more restricted husbandry systems.

COVID-19 impacts equine welfare: Policy implications for laminitis and obesity

The COVID-19 pandemic continues to impact human health and welfare on a global level. In March 2020, stringent national restrictions were enforced in the UK to protect public health and slow the spread of the SARS-CoV-2 virus. Restrictions were likely to have resulted in collateral consequences for the health and welfare of horses and ponies, especially those at risk of obesity and laminitis and this issue warranted more detailed exploration. The current study utilised qualitative methodology to investigate the implications of COVID-19 related policies upon equine management and welfare with a focus on horses and ponies at risk of laminitis and obesity. Twenty-four interviews with five sub-groups of key equestrian welfare stakeholders in the UK were conducted between May and July of 2020 to understand the challenges facing equine welfare in the context of laminitis and obesity susceptible animals. Thematic analysis revealed lockdown-associated factors with the potential to compromise welfare of horses and ponies at risk of obesity and laminitis. These included: disparate information and guidance, difficulties enacting public health measures in yard environments, and horses having reduced exercise during the pandemic. Positive examples of clear and consistent information sharing by farriers were reported to have improved horse owner understanding of routine hoof care during lockdown. Analysis suggested that the recommendations for supporting the management-based needs of horses under reduced supervision were not clearly defined, or were not sufficiently disseminated, across the equine industry. These findings support the development of guidelines specific to the care of horses and ponies at risk of obesity and laminitis through collaborative input from veterinary and welfare experts, to reduce the negative impacts of future lockdown events in the UK.