Eco-Virological Preliminary Study of Potentially Emerging Pathogens in Hedgehogs (Erinaceus europaeus) Recovered at a Wildlife Treatment and Rehabilitation Center in Northern Italy

Morbidity and Prognostic Factors Associated with Wild Hedgehogs Admitted to a Wildlife Rehabilitation Center in Catalonia (NE Spain) from 1995 to 2020

Wildlife rehabilitation centers (WRC) play a crucial role in the collection of data and the monitoring of hedgehog populations. The main objective of this study was to identify the morbidity and prognostic factors associated with the mortality of wild hedgehogs admitted at a WRC in Catalonia. A total number of 3397 hedgehogs admitted from 1995 to 2020 were studied. The principal cause of admission was orphaned/young category (41%) followed by misplacement (19%), natural disease (17%), and trauma (14%). The best outcomes for release were for misplacement (93.6%), orphaned/young (72.3%), and other causes (77.6%), and the lowest proportion of released animals were found for natural disease (41.4%) and trauma (44.7%) categories. The most common macroscopic findings were the respiratory and digestive lesions. Internal parasites were also prevalent in 61% of the animals but with no association with a higher mortality. In the multivariate analyses, the prognostic indicators related with the mortality outcome were the presence of systemic (OR = 3.6, CI 95%: 2.8-4.6) and neurological (OR = 4.3, CI 95%: 2.9-6.4) signs. Morbidity and prognostic factors in wildlife rehabilitation are essential for providing effective care, making informed decisions, optimizing resources, and improving rehabilitation success rates.

Erinaceus coronavirus persistence in hedgehogs (Erinaceus europaeus) in a non-invasive, in vivo, experimental setting

In the last 20 years, new zoonotic CoV strains have emerged (SARS-CoV, MERS-CoV, and SARS-CoV-2), and new species have also been reported in animals. In Europe, the Erinaceus coronavirus (EriCoV) was recently described in Erinaceus europaeus. However, information on the prevalence and duration of viral shedding is unknown. In this study, feces samples were collected from 102 European hedgehogs hosted in the Center for the Recovery of Wild Fauna in Rome and analyzed for the presence of EriCoV RNA by Reverse Transcription-PCR. In total, 45 animals (44.1%) resulted positive for EriCoV at the first sampling and 63 (61.7%) animals were positive at the follow-up, which was performed from the 3rd to the 86th day. The duration of fecal virus shedding showed a mean duration of 22.8 days and lasted up to 62 days. Eighteen hedgehogs showed intermittent viral shedding. Phylogenetic analysis showed a correlation with EriCoV strains reported in Germany, the United Kingdom, and northern Italy. None of the EriCoV sequences showed the CD200 ortholog insertion, previously observed in strains isolated in animals from northern Italy. Interestingly, all but one animal revealed the presence in their feces of the same EriCoV sequences, analyzing the short genomic region at 3' spike gene and 5' ORF3a 500bp fragment (100% nt.id.) in both first and follow-up samples. This result suggests that animals were infected with the same strain during their stay at the center. Our results confirm that EriCoV can persist in hedgehogs for a long period, underlining that hedgehogs are an important commensal reservoir for Merbecovirus. A long duration of viral shedding increases the likelihood that the virus will spread in the environment.

First Detection of SARS-CoV-2 in White Rhinoceros during a Small-Scale Coronavirus Surveillance in the Bandia Reserve, Senegal

The SARS-CoV-2 pandemic has heightened interest in the monitoring and surveillance of coronaviruses in wildlife. Testing for the virus in animals can provide valuable insights into viral reservoirs, transmission, and pathogenesis. In this study, we present the results of the molecular surveillance project focused on coronaviruses in Senegalese wildlife. During the project, we screened fecal samples of the wild animals living in the Bandia Reserve (ten non-human primates, one giraffe, and two white rhinoceros) and the free-living urban population of African four-toed hedgehogs in Ngaparou. The results showed the absence of coronaviruses in hedgehogs, non-human primates, and a giraffe. A single positive sample was obtained from a white rhinoceros. The sequencing results of amplified RdRp gene confirmed that the detected virus was SARS-CoV-2. This study represents the first documented instance of molecular detection of SARS-CoV-2 in white rhinoceros and, therefore, extends our knowledge of possible SARS-CoV-2 hosts.

Spatiotemporal Distribution of Salmonella enterica in European Hedgehogs in Northern Italy

Growing attention is being given to the European hedgehog (Erinaceus europaeus) because of its synanthropic behaviour and its potential role in harbouring parasites, viruses, fungi and bacteria and disseminating them to several animals and humans. Salmonella are the most frequently detected zoonotic bacteria that hedgehogs could transmit through contaminating water and food sources with faeces. This study aimed to determine the prevalence and distribution of Salmonella spp. in wild hedgehogs in the Emilia-Romagna region (northern Italy). From 2019 to 2022, 212 European hedgehogs that died naturally were tested for Salmonella spp. through culture isolation. Positive samples were subjected to serological typing. A total of 82 samples tested positive for Salmonella spp., with the overall Bayesian posterior estimated prevalence ranging from 35% (95% CI: 23-47%) to a maximum of 45% (95% CI: 31-59%) during the years considered and with an overall prevalence calculated at 39% (95% CI: 33-45%). Salmonella enterica Enteritidis and Veneziana were the most prevalent detected serovars in 65% and 17% of the positive samples, respectively. Since 2021, S. Typhimurium, S. Typhimurium Monofasica, S. Zaiman, S. Hessarek, S. Muenster, S. Isangi serovars, S. enterica subsp. Diarizonae and S. enterica subsp. Houtenae have been detected. These findings show a high prevalence of Salmonella spp. in tested hedgehogs, suggesting an important role of this animal species in the epidemiology of potentially zoonotic serovars circulating in the Emilia-Romagna region.

Hematology, Biochemistry, and Protein Electrophoresis Reference Intervals of Western European Hedgehog (Erinaceus europaeus) from a Rehabilitation Center in Northern Portugal

The Western European hedgehog (Erinaceus europaeus) can work as a bioindicator of environmental pollution and be a host for multiple zoonotic agents, making it relevant in terms of One Health studies. It is essential to deepen the knowledge on this species and calculate reference intervals (RIs) for the usual hematological and biochemical parameters. For this retrospective study (2017–2022), the archives of the Clinical Pathology Laboratory (LPC) of University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro (UTAD) Veterinary Teaching Hospital were analyzed. Data of hematology, clinical biochemistry, and protein electrophoresis from 37 healthy hedgehogs of the Wild Animal Rehabilitation Center at UTAD, Northern Portugal, were included. It was possible to calculate RIs for almost all of the variables in the study, using Reference Value Advisor V2.1. Moreover, sex and age effects were investigated: alkaline phosphatase (p = 0.012, higher in males); total proteins (p = 0.034, higher in adults); mean cell volume (p = 0.007) and mean corpuscular hemoglobin (p = 0.010) (both higher in juveniles); and red blood cell distribution width (p = 0.021, higher in adults). Our study allowed for the first time to define RIs for a population of hedgehogs in Portugal, having a potentially relevant impact on species conservation and in the human–animal health interface.

Do Urban Hedgehogs (Erinaceus europaeus) Represent a Relevant Source of Zoonotic Diseases?

Urban fauna is defined as animal species that can live in urban environments. Several species, including the western-European hedgehog (Erinaceus europaeus), have now been identified as part of this urban fauna, becoming permanent residents of parks and gardens in different cities across Europe. Due to the importance that this phenomenon represents for zoonotic disease surveillance, several authors have been conducting zoonotic agents' surveys on hedgehog. The aim of this study is to compare zoonotic diseases' prevalence in hedgehogs in urban environments with those from more rural areas. A systematic review with meta-analysis of twelve studied of zoonotic diseases' (in urban and rural areas of Europe) was therefore conducted for this purpose. Fifteen different zoonoses have been assessed in urban environments and six in rural areas. Anaplasma phagocytophilum was the most prevalent zoonotic agent found in urban habitats (96%). Dermatophytosis shows statistically significant differences between locations (p-value < 0.001), with a higher prevalence in urban Poland (55%; n = 182). Our results suggest further research and a standardized monitoring of different hedgehog populations are essential to understanding the epidemiology of several zoonotic pathogens in different habitat types (urban, rural, natural, industrial, etc.) and preventing possible disease outbreaks.

Detection and genetic characterization of bat MERS-related coronaviruses in Japan

Betacoronaviruses, containing sarbecoviruses such as severe acute respiratory syndrome coronaviruses (SARS-CoV) and merbecovirus such as Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV), caused three human outbreaks in the past 2 decades; in particular, SARS-CoV-2 has caused the coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic. Since the ancestor of betacoronaviruses originated from wild bats, unidentified bat betacoronaviruses are presumed to be transmitted to humans in the future. In this study, we detected novel bat merbecoviruses from Vespertilio sinensis and Eptesicus japonensis, belonging to the family Vespertilionidae, in Japan. We found that these merbecoviruses were phylogenetically most closely related to the those previously detected in China. Alignment of the predicted receptor-binding motif on the spike proteins indicated that the Japanese bat merbecoviruses did not possess the specific amino acid residues that could be responsible for binding of MERS-CoV to the human dipeptidyl peptidase-4 receptor, which is unlikely to infect humans. This study demonstrated that bat merbecoviruses are widely conserved in multiple bat species of Vespertilionidae in East Asia, emphasizing the need for extensive epidemiological and biological studies on bat betacoronaviruses to facilitate the risk assessment of their spillover potential to humans.

Molecular detection of spotted fever group rickettsiae in hedgehogs (Erinaceus amurensis) and hedgehog-attached ticks in Xuyi County, Southeast China

Tick-borne diseases like Rickettsia, Anaplasma and Ehrlichia are widespread infectious zoonoses that threaten the health of both humans and animals worldwide. Ticks and their hosts, such as hedgehogs, can play a crucial role in transmitting tick-borne diseases and the cycle of Rickettsia. To investigate the presence and identity of Rickettsia in hedgehogs and hedgehog-attached ticks in Xuyi County, Southeast China, 114 ticks were collected from 45 hedgehogs captured totally. Via morphological and molecular methods, all these ticks were identified as two species: Haemaphysalis flava (110/114, 96.5%) and Haemaphysalis longicornis (4/114, 3.5%). Rickettsia spp. were genotypically characterized by PCR targeting rrs, gltA, ompA, ompB, and sca4 gene fragments. The prevalence of spotted fever group rickettsiae (SFGR) infection found in hedgehogs and ticks was 17.8% (8/45) and 78.1% (89/114), respectively. Phylogenetic analyses demonstrated that those Rickettsia spp. belong to two species: Rickettsia heilongjiangensis (R. heilongjiangensis XY-1) and a potential new species, Candidatus Rickettsia xuyiensis XY-2. The present study gave the first evidence of R. heilongjiangensis and Candidatus R. xuyiensis in ticks and hedgehogs of Southeast China. Our findings suggest that hedgehogs might be involved in the natural transmission cycle of Rickettsia species.

Comprehensive Surveillance of Virus Infection among Captive African Pygmy Hedgehogs in Japan

African pygmy hedgehogs (Atelerix albiventris) are popular exotic pets in Japan, and their breeding numbers have recently increased. Although various diseases have been reported in hedgehogs, including skin, respiratory, neurological, and neoplastic diseases, most of the causes remain unidentified. In this study, we investigated herpesvirus, adenovirus, and coronavirus infections among 150 African pygmy hedgehogs in Japan and evaluated the correlations between virus infection and diseases. A novel herpesvirus named Atelerix albiventris herpesvirus 1 (AAHeV), and African pygmy hedgehog adenovirus 1 (AhAdV-1) were detected in 14 and 3 oral swab samples, respectively. AAHeV infection may be related to neurological clinical signs. Interestingly, no hedgehog with a neoplastic disorder tested positive for AAHeV. Further research is required to determine the pathogenicity and prevalence of the detected viruses.

First detection of Hedgehog coronavirus 1 in Poland

Hedgehogs are common in the majority of European countries and are known to host various pathogens, including viruses. The recent discovery of MERS-related coronaviruses (CoVs) in hedgehogs from Germany, France, the UK, China, and Italy suggests that hedgehogs may represent a wild reservoir of betacoronaviruses. This study reports the first detection and characterization of novel betacoronovirus, subgenus Merbecovirus in wild hedgehogs in Poland. The CoV RNA was detected in 10 out of 40 hedgehogs' rectal swabs and in 1 out of 18 samples of the lung. No viral RNA was identified in the duodenum and kidney. There was no significant relationship between clinical status, gender, hedgehogs' age, and coronaviral RNA detection. Phylogenetic analysis showed that CoVs detected in our study grouped together with other representatives of Hedgehog coronavirus 1 species identified in Western Europe. Our findings provide further evidence that hedgehogs are a natural reservoir of Merbecovirus. Considering the high mutation rate of CoVs and their potential for crossing interspecies barriers, the proper management of hedgehogs admitted to wildlife rehabilitation centres is needed. It cannot be excluded that merbecovirus strains detected in hedgehogs may recombine with other CoVs leading to new viruses with potential for interspecies transmission.

Evolutionary Dynamics and Epidemiology of Endemic and Emerging Coronaviruses in Humans, Domestic Animals, and Wildlife

Diverse coronavirus (CoV) strains can infect both humans and animals and produce various diseases. CoVs have caused three epidemics and pandemics in the last two decades, and caused a severe impact on public health and the global economy. Therefore, it is of utmost importance to understand the emergence and evolution of endemic and emerging CoV diversity in humans and animals. For diverse bird species, the Infectious Bronchitis Virus is a significant one, whereas feline enteric and canine coronavirus, recombined to produce feline infectious peritonitis virus, infects wild cats. Bovine and canine CoVs have ancestral relationships, while porcine CoVs, especially SADS-CoV, can cross species barriers. Bats are considered as the natural host of diverse strains of alpha and beta coronaviruses. Though MERS-CoV is significant for both camels and humans, humans are nonetheless affected more severely. MERS-CoV cases have been reported mainly in the Arabic peninsula since 2012. To date, seven CoV strains have infected humans, all descended from animals. The severe acute respiratory syndrome coronaviruses (SARS-CoV and SARS-CoV-2) are presumed to be originated in Rhinolopoid bats that severely infect humans with spillover to multiple domestic and wild animals. Emerging alpha and delta variants of SARS-CoV-2 were detected in pets and wild animals. Still, the intermediate hosts and all susceptible animal species remain unknown. SARS-CoV-2 might not be the last CoV to cross the species barrier. Hence, we recommend developing a universal CoV vaccine for humans so that any future outbreak can be prevented effectively. Furthermore, a One Health approach coronavirus surveillance should be implemented at human-animal interfaces to detect novel coronaviruses before emerging to humans and to prevent future epidemics and pandemics.

Can the European Hedgehog (Erinaceus europaeus) Be a Sentinel for One Health Concerns?

Erinaceus europaeus is a cosmopolitan mammalian species broadly distributed in Europe, from natural to suburban areas. Due to its ecological role and susceptibility to distinct zoonotic agents, E. europaeus could be a suitable sentinel candidate for many global problems that negatively affect human and animal health. Hedgehogs can work as bioindicators to environmental contamination and can be hosts for multiple tickborne zoonotic agents. Thus, people who directly or indirectly make physical contact with this species are exposed to a variety of threats. Moreover, it has also been studied as an indicator for antibiotic resistance, which was already confirmed for tetracyclines. Additionally, it was also reported as a reservoir for methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). More recently, hedgehogs have been recently recognised as potential reservoirs of MERS-CoV-like strains. Among other animals, this species can possibly represent an intermediate reservoir for SARS-CoV-2. The aim of this review is to briefly expose the scientific attainments about hedgehog health, namely agents, diseases, and threats that significantly affect general health concerns and that contribute to achieve One Health principles.

Hedgehogs as a Potential Source of Zoonotic Pathogens-A Review and an Update of Knowledge

Simple Summary

Up to date studies indicate that wild hedgehogs may act as carriers and/or hosts for bacterial, viral, and fungal pathogens with zoonotic potential, posing a significant threat to humans. The same applies to domestic hedgehogs, which are increasingly kept as pets. Considering the potential risk of infection to humans through close contact with hedgehogs or the contaminated environment they inhabit, current data on the prevalence of various zoonotic pathogens in these animals is desirable.

Abstract

Hedgehogs are small insectivorous mammals common across Europe, Asia, and Africa. The increased encroachment of humans into hedgehog habitats has disrupted the human-animal-environment interface. With growing interest in the zoonotic diseases of wildlife species, more studies have been devoted to this subject in the last few years. These papers provide information about known and new emerging diseases. Here we review the current knowledge regarding bacterial, viral, protozoic, and mycotic pathogens with zoonotic potential and assess the importance of hedgehogs as their carriers. Both wild and pet hedgehogs were included in the review. Data from several countries and various hedgehog species were included. The study shows the importance of hedgehogs as carriers of zoonotic diseases and reservoirs of zoonotic pathogens in varied habitats.

Can Coronaviruses Steal Genes from the Host as Evidenced in Western European Hedgehogs by EriCoV Genetic Characterization?

Due to their need for living cells, viruses have developed adaptive evolutionary strategies to survive and perpetuate in reservoir hosts that play a crucial role in the ecology of emerging pathogens. Pathogenic and potentially pandemic betacoronaviruses arose in humans in 2002 (SARS-CoV, disappeared in July 2003), 2012 (MERS-CoV, still circulating in Middle East areas), and 2019 (SARS-CoV-2, causing the current global pandemic). As universally recognized, bats host ancestors of the above-mentioned zoonotic viruses. However, hedgehogs have been recently identified in Europe and Asia as possible reservoirs of MERS-CoV-like strains classified as Erinaceus coronavirus (EriCoV). To elucidate the evolution and genetics of EriCoVs, NGS (next generation sequencing) and Sanger sequencing were used to examine fecal samples collected in Northern Italy in 2018/2019 from 12 hedgehogs previously found EriCoV-positive by RT-PCR. By sequence analysis, eight complete EriCoV genomes, obtained by NGS, showed a high phylogenetic correlation with EriCoV strains previously reported in Eurasia. Interestingly, eight viral strains presented an additional ORF encoding for the CD200 ortholog located between the genes encoding for the Spike and the ORF3a proteins. The CD200 ortholog sequences were closely similar to the host CD200 protein but varying among EriCoVs. The result, confirmed by Sanger sequencing, demonstrates for the first time that CoVs can acquire host genes potentially involved in the immune-modulatory cascade and possibly enabling the virus to escape the host defence.

Pathology of Coronavirus Infections: A Review of Lesions in Animals in the One-Health Perspective

Coronaviruses (CoVs) are worldwide distributed RNA-viruses affecting several species, including humans, and causing a broad spectrum of diseases. Historically, they have not been considered a severe threat to public health until two outbreaks of COVs-related atypical human pneumonia derived from animal hosts appeared in 2002 and in 2012. The concern related to CoVs infection dramatically rose after the COVID-19 global outbreak, for which a spill-over from wild animals is also most likely. In light of this CoV zoonotic risk, and their ability to adapt to new species and dramatically spread, it appears pivotal to understand the pathophysiology and mechanisms of tissue injury of known CoVs within the "One-Health" concept. This review specifically describes all CoVs diseases in animals, schematically representing the tissue damage and summarizing the major lesions in an attempt to compare and put them in relation, also with human infections. Some information on pathogenesis and genetic diversity is also included. Investigating the lesions and distribution of CoVs can be crucial to understand and monitor the evolution of these viruses as well as of other pathogens and to further deepen the pathogenesis and transmission of this disease to help public health preventive measures and therapies.

Characterizing trends in human-wildlife conflicts in the American Midwest using wildlife rehabilitation records

Human-wildlife conflict is difficult to measure, but the analysis of records from wildlife rehabilitation facilities has shown potential as a technique for characterizing human impacts on wildlife. To examine the value of wildlife rehabilitation records for characterizing local human-wildlife conflicts and prevalence of select wildlife diseases, we reviewed 45,668 records representing over 280 species admitted to a wildlife rehabilitation facility over a 10-year period (2005–2014). We identified the most frequently recorded causes of admission for commonly admitted species, and evaluated how causes of admission may vary across taxa throughout the year. Our analyses support the value of wildlife rehabilitation facility data for characterizing some pressures from human-wildlife conflict and select disease trends for certain taxa, as well as utility for informing topics to emphasize in local conservation education efforts. For example, orphaned neonatal wildlife accounted for the largest proportion of admissions to this facility, and highlights a opportunity for conservation education regarding when wildlife is truly orphaned and requires professional intervention. Additionally, domestic dog attack cases accounted for a proportion of admissions comparable to that of domestic cat attacks, demonstrating a need for the conversation surrounding the impact of domestic pets on local wildlife to expand to include dogs in addition to cats.

Novel human coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2): A lesson from animal coronaviruses

The recent pandemic caused by the novel human coronavirus, referrred to as severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), not only is having a great impact on the health care systems and economies in all continents but it is also causing radical changes of common habits and life styles. The novel coronavirus (CoV) recognises, with high probability, a zoonotic origin but the role of animals in the SARS-CoV-2 epidemiology is still largely unknown. However, CoVs have been known in animals since several decades, so that veterinary coronavirologists have a great expertise on how to face CoV infections in animals, which could represent a model for SARS-CoV-2 infection in humans. In the present paper, we provide an up-to-date review of the literature currently available on animal CoVs, focusing on the molecular mechanisms that are responsible for the emergence of novel CoV strains with different antigenic, biologic and/or pathogenetic features. A full comprehension of the mechanisms driving the evolution of animal CoVs will help better understand the emergence, spreading, and evolution of SARS-CoV-2.