Emotional Transfer in Human-Horse Interaction: New Perspectives on Equine Assisted Interventions

Experiences of a Therapeutic Equine-Assisted Group Intervention for People with Common Mental Disorders on Sick-Leave

Common mental disorders such as anxiety, depression and stress-related disorders are increasing worldwide, resulting in long-term sick leave and lower quality of life. Traditional treatment is often insufficient to facilitate the recovery process, and the need for holistic interventions that enable successful recovery is evident. Equine-assisted interventions have shown promising results in health promotion among people with mental disorders, and further research is needed to implement them within the range of available care. The aim of the study is therefore to describe experiences of a therapeutic equine-assisted group intervention for people with common mental disorders on sick leave. The study has a descriptive qualitative design with an inductive approach. Ten participants with common mental disorders on sick leave were interviewed after participating in a 12-week equine-assisted intervention and the data were analysed with conventional content analysis. The analysis generated the overall theme "The equine-assisted group intervention facilitates recovery," which summons the four categories "The environment of the horses contributes to relaxation and an ability to be in the present," "The presence of the horses facilitates supportive relationships in the group," "Interplay with the horses entails physical activity and bodily improvements" and "Emotional interactions with the horses strengthen inner power." In conclusion, equine-assisted interventions have the potential to facilitate recovery for people with common mental disorders by providing relaxation, promoting the ability to be in the present, cultivating supportive relationships and providing physical activity and bodily improvements as well as emotional interactions that strengthen the participants' inner power.

The evolution of social timing

Sociality and timing are tightly interrelated in human interaction as seen in turn-taking or synchronised dance movements. Sociality and timing also show in communicative acts of other species that might be pleasurable, but also necessary for survival. Sociality and timing often co-occur, but their shared phylogenetic trajectory is unknown: How, when, and why did they become so tightly linked? Answering these questions is complicated by several constraints; these include the use of divergent operational definitions across fields and species, the focus on diverse mechanistic explanations (e.g., physiological, neural, or cognitive), and the frequent adoption of anthropocentric theories and methodologies in comparative research. These limitations hinder the development of an integrative framework on the evolutionary trajectory of social timing and make comparative studies not as fruitful as they could be. Here, we outline a theoretical and empirical framework to test contrasting hypotheses on the evolution of social timing with species-appropriate paradigms and consistent definitions. To facilitate future research, we introduce an initial set of representative species and empirical hypotheses. The proposed framework aims at building and contrasting evolutionary trees of social timing toward and beyond the crucial branch represented by our own lineage. Given the integration of cross-species and quantitative approaches, this research line might lead to an integrated empirical-theoretical paradigm and, as a long-term goal, explain why humans are such socially coordinated animals.

Potential Mechanisms of Action and Outcomes of Equine-Assisted Services for Veterans with a History of Trauma: A Narrative Review of the Literature

Equine-assisted services (EASs) are being increasingly used as complementary interventions for military veterans who have experienced trauma. However, there is limited evidence of benefit for this population and almost no literature describing the desired potential outcomes and possible mechanisms of action. The aim of this article is to address these gaps by reviewing the extant literature of animal-assisted interventions in general, and equine-assisted services in particular, with the goal of providing guidance for future investigations in the field. Currently, the field is in the early stage of scientific development, but published results are promising. Interventions that enhance treatment compliance and/or outcomes could benefit this population. Preliminary results, reviewed herein, indicate that EAS interventions might benefit the military veteran population by enhancing treatment engagement and therapeutic alliance, as well as by contributing to symptom reduction and resulting in various transdiagnostic benefits. It is recommended that future studies include exploration of potential beneficial outcomes discussed herein, as well as investigate suggested mechanisms of action.

Equids in Equine Assisted Services: A Scoping Review

Equid welfare in equine assisted services (EAS) is an area that has received attention, but less attention than the documentation of human outcomes in response to EAS. To safeguard the well-being of equids and minimize human risk of injury, continued research on the effects of EAS programming and participants on equids needs to occur. The aims of this systematic scoping review were to identify the approaches taken for describing and understanding equids in EAS and the methods employed in evaluating equids' responses to EAS programming, participants, or both. Literature searches were performed in relevant databases to identify titles and abstracts for screening. Fifty-three articles were identified for full-text review. Fifty-one articles met the inclusion criteria and were retained for information and data extraction. The qualitative grouping of articles by study aim resulted in four categories: 1) characterization and description of equids in EAS; 2) the acute responses of equids to EAS programming, participants, or both; 3) the effects of management practices; and 4) the chronic responses of equids to EAS programming and participants. The latter three areas are in need of more research, especially as it relates to differentiating acute and chronic effects of EAS on the equids involved. Detailed reporting of information on study design, programming and participant characteristics, equid demographics, and workload are needed to facilitate comparison among studies and permit eventual meta-analysis of studies. Multi-faceted approaches including an array of measurements as well as relevant and informative control groups or conditions are required to identify the complex effects of EAS work on equids, their welfare, well-being, and affective states.

Animal-Assisted Interventions and Animal Welfare-An Exploratory Survey in Germany

BACKGROUND

Animals play a crucial role in social occupational fields. The positive effects of animals are described in theory and practice. However, the significance of animal welfare in animal-assisted intervention settings has not yet been extensively researched, so that the aim of this explorative study was to investigate the perception and significance as well as the understanding of animal welfare and its implementation on the part of professionals working with animals.

METHODS

In the present project, 270 animal-assisted professionals from Germany were interviewed about their individual perceptions of animal welfare and their implementation of animal welfare with the help of questionnaires with closed questions (5-point agreement scale) and open questions. The quantitative data were analyzed using the statistical software SPSS and MS Excel. The qualitative data were analyzed using thematic coding.

RESULTS

The quantitative and qualitative results show that animal welfare poses high importance for people working in animal-assisted interventions. The structure and design of assignments, animal-related aspects and conditions, and education and knowledge are mentioned as generally relevant conditions for ensuring animal welfare from the perspective of animal-assisted intervention practitioners. In addition, different concrete courses of action to ensure animal welfare are described, which are characterized as stopping or changing the setting at different levels.

CONCLUSIONS

Animal welfare plays a central role for professionals working with animals. However, further studies are necessary in order to record other animal welfare-relevant aspects in the animal-assisted interventions, depending on the respective animal species, and to examine the implementation of animal welfare-related measures.

The impact on physical performance, pain and psychological wellbeing of chronic low back pain patients during 12-weeks of equine- facilitated therapy intervention

Equine - Facilitated Therapy (EFT), an equine environment, and horses themselves can meet many physical and mental health needs beyond diagnostic categories. The horse's ability to produce a walk-like movement and the participant's ability to connect to non-judgemental living creatures, both of which can benefit participation and construct a positive self-image for chronic pain patients. The objective of this study is to evaluate the impact of EFT on perceived physical performance, level of pain, pain acceptance, depression and anxiety, and quality of life within a 12-week intervention for chronic low back pain (LBP) patients. Twenty-two LBP patients received EFT led by physical therapists as part of the public health services. A mixed method design combining quantitative and qualitative methods was employed to detect the outcome of the intervention. The data were collected via questionnaires, interviews, and patient data repositories. An interview was voluntary for participants and included questions of one's health, visits to the pain clinic during 6 months and an open-ended question about the intervention. The coding of the data was completed independently by two persons using thematizing. The welfare of the attending horses was taken into consideration in basic training and for the research setting. Statistical analysis and paired t-tests detected the changes during a 12-week intervention. The results suggest a significant increase in Canadian Occupational Performance Measure (COPM) levels of satisfaction with self-selected performances. The Raitasalo's version of Beck's Depression Inventory (RBDI) level of anxiety and Chronic Pain Acceptance Questionnaire (CPAQ) did not change, whereas a decline in the amount of perceived RBDI depression was found combined with increased levels of SF-36 Mental Change Scores and COPM satisfaction with performance. Only two of the 22 participants returned with reoccurring symptoms after 6 months to the pain clinic. The participant interviews revealed three important domains of experience during coding: physical-, psychological-, and social that link to the research question and suggest impact for the recovery from the human-animal interaction.

A qualitative study of equine-assisted therapy for Israeli military and police veterans with PTSD-impact on self-regulation, bonding and hope

Equine-assisted therapy (EAT) is an increasingly popular form of treatment for people suffering from post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) who, for one reason or another, find psychotherapy and other traditional treatment approaches unsuitable or unhelpful. However, the concomitant growth of research in the field is yet to engage with key factors relating to EAT; specifically, there are few studies considering the phenomenological perspective of patients, and the embodied knowledge deriving from the lived experience of PTSD patients who participated in EAT-based intervention programmes. Based on a qualitative-phenomenological study, interviews were conducted with 12 PTSD patients who had completed an EAT-based intervention programme. From these, three main themes characterising the meanings they gave to participation in an EAT-based treatment programme were identified: the ability to relax (self-regulation); establishing a relationship (bonding) and transformation and hope for the future. The findings of this study point to a process whereby participation in an EAT-based treatment programme facilitates the ability to cope with PTSD symptoms in a way that bridges the patient's emotional, social and spiritual-existential dimensions. The findings suggest that EAT can contribute to the healing process of veterans suffering from PTSD.

Lived experiences of parents of children with disabilities engaged in a support group incorporating equines

BACKGROUND

Parenting a child with disabilities comes with significant challenges to parental quality of life, often resulting in decreased physical, mental, and social health when compared to parents who raise typically developing children.

AIMS

To address the needs of this population a 10-week interdisciplinary support group, based in attachment theory and incorporating equines, was developed called Taking the Reins of Self-care.

METHODS AND PROCEDURES

Designed to utilize the human-equine bond, the support group facilitated development of self-care strategies to increase quality of life of 6 parents of children with disabilities in the United States OUTCOMES AND RESULTS: Qualitative phenomenological analysis of field notes and parent interviews revealed the following themes: confirming the horse as an emotional confidant, creating a safe haven, re-affirming identity, nourishing the emotional self, and meeting the challenge.

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

Analysis of Taking the Reins of Self-care substantiates the value of complimentary therapeutic approaches, attachment theory and the human-equine bond, and supports further investigation of the benefits of specialized parental support groups to enrich the experience of raising a child with disabilities.

Integrative Model of Human-Animal Interactions: A One Health-One Welfare Systemic Approach to Studying HAI

The Integrative Model of Human-Animal Interactions (IMHAI) described herewith provides a conceptual framework for the study of interspecies interactions and aims to model the primary emotional processes involved in human-animal interactions. This model was developed from theoretical inputs from three fundamental disciplines for understanding interspecies interactions: neuroscience, psychology and ethology, with the objective of providing a transdisciplinary approach on which field professionals and researchers can build and collaborate. Seminal works in affective neuroscience offer a common basis between humans and animals and, as such, can be applied to the study of interspecies interactions from a One Health-One Welfare perspective. On the one hand, Jaak Panksepp's research revealed that primary/basic emotions originate in the deep subcortical regions of the brain and are shared by all mammals, including humans. On the other hand, several works in the field of neuroscience show that the basic physiological state is largely determined by the perception of safety. Thus, emotional expression reflects the state of an individual's permanent adaptation to ever-changing environmental demands. Based on this evidence and over 5 years of action research using grounded theory, alternating between research and practice, the IMHAI proposes a systemic approach to the study of primary-process emotional affects during interspecies social interactions, through the processes of emotional transfer, embodied communication and interactive emotional regulation. IMHAI aims to generate new hypotheses and predictions on affective behavior and interspecies communication. Application of such a model should promote risk prevention and the establishment of positive links between humans and animals thereby contributing to their respective wellbeing.

Presentation of the "Step-by-step in communication” equine-assisted therapy intervention program for children with autism

ABSTRACT The objective of this paper is to present the “Step-by-step in communication” equine-assisted speech-language-hearing rehabilitation program to treat language impairment in children. The program was developed in three stages: literature analysis, pilot application, and clinical analysis. The literature was analyzed by searching, reading, and discussing articles and books on the topic, published up to 2018. After this stage, the first version of the program was developed. This version addressed: participants’ language assessment, application of 10 sessions, monitoring and record of activities in each session, participants’ reassessment, and adjustment of techniques and activities. The clinical analysis took place after the pilot application with the following procedures: analysis by three judges, revision of the approach by the authors, and development of the final version of the “Step-by-step in communication” program, comprising eight theme modules with 24 sessions, and based on four main pillars, which are applied in equine-assisted therapy activities. Each pillar has specific objectives and strategies. The activities aim at formal (semantic and morphosyntactic) and pragmatic aspects of language. Their theoretical/practical framework is grounded on functional grammar, and the strategies are based on equine-assisted therapy experiences that open the way for communication.

Apresentação do Programa de intervenção em equoterapia “Passo a passo na comunicação” para crianças com autismo

RESUMO O objetivo desse trabalho é apresentar o Programa de reabilitação fonoaudiológica em equoterapia “Passo a passo na comunicação” para tratamento de prejuízos de linguagem em crianças. O Programa foi elaborado em três etapas: análise de literatura, aplicação piloto e análise clínica. A análise da literatura foi realizada por meio da busca, leitura e discussão de artigos e livros sobre o tema publicados até 2018. No final desta fase foi elaborada a primeira versão do Programa. Essa versão foi aplicada de forma a contemplar: avaliação de linguagem dos participantes; aplicação de dez sessões; monitoramento e registro de atividades de cada sessão; reavaliação dos participantes; ajustes de técnicas e atividades. A etapa de análise clínica ocorreu após a aplicação piloto, por meio dos procedimentos: análise por três juízes, revisão da proposta pelos autores, elaboração da versão final do Programa “Passo a passo na comunicação”. O Programa contém oito módulos temáticos com 24 sessões e possui quatro pilares principais que são aplicados durante as atividades em equoterapia. Cada um dos pilares possui objetivos e estratégias específicas. Possui atividades voltadas para os aspectos formais (semânticos e morfossintáticos) e pragmáticos da linguagem, seu arcabouço teórico-prático está ancorado na gramática funcional e as estratégias são baseadas em vivências de equoterapia que possam fornecer momentos de abertura para comunicação.

Heterospecific Fear and Avoidance Behaviour in Domestic Horses (Equus caballus)

Simple Summary

Horses lacking exposure to cattle often show a fearful response when confronted with cows. In controlled conditions, we tested the responses towards two cows and a novel moving object in twenty horses in arena and hand-leading tests. The horses avoided the proximity of all stimuli, but of one of the cows the most. However, both cows provoked a stronger cardiac response than an inanimate object. We hypothesise that this response may be due to both neophobia and heterospecific interactions.

Abstract

Ridden horses have been reported to be fearful of cows. We tested whether cows could provoke behavioural and cardiac fear responses in horses, and whether these responses differ in magnitude to those shown to other potential dangers. Twenty horses were exposed to cow, a mobile object or no object. The time spent at different distances from the stimulus was measured. In a separate test, heart rate (HR), root mean square of successive differences between heartbeats (RMSSD) and the horses’ perceived fear were assessed at various distances from the stimuli. The horses avoided the area nearest to all stimuli. During hand-leading, the cow elicited the highest HR and lowest RMSSD. Led horses’ responses to the cow and box were rated as more fearful as the distance to the stimulus decreased. Mares had a higher HR than geldings across all tests. HR positively correlated with the fearfulness rating at the furthest distance from the cow and box, and RMSSD negatively correlated with this rating in cow and control conditions. Our results show that these horses’ avoidance response to cows was similar or higher to that shown towards a novel moving object, demonstrating that potentially, both neophobia and heterospecific communication play a role in this reaction.

The Effect of Human-Horse Interactions on Equine Behaviour, Physiology, and Welfare: A Scoping Review

Simple Summary

Human–horse interactions (HHIs) are an important aspect of society, especially in the equine industry. HHIs are diverse and can be focused on horses as an economic means, pleasure, or companionship for humans. As a result, the welfare of horses during these interactions, including their mental and physical health, is an important consideration. Although the physical health of horses can be readily measured during equestrian activities, their mental health is more difficult to assess. This review was conducted to evaluate what is known about the horse’s mental state during common HHI in an attempt to better understand the welfare of the horse.

Abstract

Human–horse interactions (HHIs) are diverse and prominent in the equine industry. Stakeholders have an invested interest in making sure that HHIs are humane. Assessment of equine welfare goes beyond physical health and includes assessment of the emotional state of the animal. HHIs can have a permanent effect on human–horse relationships, thereby influencing welfare. Therefore, an understanding of the horse’s affective state during HHIs is necessary. A scoping review was conducted to: (1) map current practices related to the measurement of HHIs; (2) explore the known effects of HHIs on horse behaviour and physiology; and (3) clarify the connection between HHIs and equine welfare. A total of 45 articles were included in this review. Studies that used both physiological and behavioural measures of equine response to human interactions accounted for 42% of the included studies. A further 31% exclusively used physiological measures and 27% used behavioural observation. Current evidence of equine welfare during HHIs is minimal and largely based on the absence of a negative affective state during imposed interactions. Broadening the scope of methods to evaluate a positive affective state and standardization of methodology to assess these states would improve the overall understanding of the horse’s welfare during HHIs.

Animal Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 and the Welfare of Animals during the COVID-19 Pandemic

The accelerated pace of research into Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) necessitates periodic summaries of current research. The present paper reviews virus susceptibilities in species with frequent human contact, and factors that are best predictors of virus susceptibility. Species reviewed were those in contact with humans through entertainment, pet, or agricultural trades, and for whom reports (either anecdotal or published) exist regarding the SARS-CoV-2 virus and/or the resulting disease state COVID-19. Available literature was searched using an artificial intelligence (AI)-assisted engine, as well as via common databases, such as Web of Science and Medline. The present review focuses on susceptibility and transmissibility of SARS-CoV-2, and polymorphisms in transmembrane protease serine 2 (TMPRSS2) and angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) that contribute to species differences. Dogs and pigs appear to have low susceptibility, while ferrets, mink, some hamster species, cats, and nonhuman primates (particularly Old World species) have high susceptibility. Precautions may therefore be warranted in interactions with such species, and more selectivity practiced when choosing appropriate species to serve as models for research.

The Horse as a Therapist: Effects of an Equine Program Without "Therapy" on the Attention and Behavior of Youth Disengaged from Traditional School

Background: Equine-assisted therapy may promote positive behavior change in young people "at risk." However, it is not always clear what therapeutic content is involved and if a trained therapist is included. The therapeutic effects of the key part of the "therapy," the horse, are not understood. Objectives: To investigate the impact of an equine program without a therapist on attention and behavioral outcomes of young people "at risk." Design: A within subjects pre-post design. A small sample also completed a control period. Setting/location: A small riding center in a rural area of outer Brisbane, Australia. Subjects: Twelve- to 17-year olds (N = 50; 20 girls; mean age 13.88), attending nontraditional flexischool. Intervention: A 5-week program of 2-h long sessions of equine activities that did not include a trained therapist or specific therapeutic content. Outcome measures: Teacher-report measures of externalizing and internalizing behavior were reported before and after the program through the Behavioral Rating Inventory of Executive Function (BRIEF) and the Strength and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ). Results: A paired samples t test resulted in the statistically significant reduction of the BRIEF Global Executive Score between pre and post participation in the equine program (mean difference = -5.89), t(36) = -3.377, p = 0.002 and the SDQ Hyperactivity score (mean difference = -0.727), t(43) = -2.244, p = 0.030. Equine activities may reverse a trajectory of worsening problems. This may especially affect symptoms related to attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Conclusion: Equine programs may offer an alternative method to reduce poor behavior and improve attention in young people. Benefits in attention may occur even without specific therapeutic content or therapist involvement. It is proposed that some of these benefits come directly from the horse and the interactions with the horse; others are contextual.

An Ethnographic Account of the British Equestrian Virtue of Bravery, and Its Implications for Equine Welfare

This article describes the virtue of bravery in British equestrian culture and suggests that riders' tactics for bolstering bravery may have negative implications on equine welfare. These observations are based on 14 months of ethnographic research among amateur riders and the professionals who support them (n = 35), utilising participant observation and Dictaphone recordings. Riders suffering from 'confidence issues' could be belittled and excluded. Instructors' approaches towards bolstering bravery involved encouraging riders to 'get tough'-on both themselves and on their horses. Narrative theory is employed in this article to show that riders could demonstrate their own bravery through describing the horse as defiant. Alternate narrative possibilities existed, including describing the horse as needy patient and the rider as care provider. Riders were critically aware that veterinary diagnoses could be sought or avoided in line with riders' own dispositions. 'Diagnoses-seeking' behaviours could be judged negatively by others and seen as evidence of unresolved fearfulness. In conclusion, the British equestrian cultural orientation towards bravery can be associated with stressful or painful training techniques, delayed or missed diagnoses of physiological pathologies, and poor training outcomes. Programs that aim to help riders to develop confidence without instilling a sense of 'battle' with the horse, and without ridiculing the rider, are likely to have positive implications on equine welfare and human safety.

Inside the Interaction: Contact With Familiar Humans Modulates Heart Rate Variability in Horses

A human–animal relationship can be developed through subsequent interactions, affected by the positive or negative emotional valence of the proceeding one. Horses implement a process of categorization to classify humans with whom they interact as positive, negative, or neutral stimuli by evaluating the kind of approach and the nature of the contact. In these terms, human–animal interactions are emotionally charged events, eliciting specific emotional states in both subjects involved. Although the human–horse relationship has been mainly investigated through behavioral analysis, physiological indicators are needed for a more objective assessment of the emotional responses. Heart rate variability (HRV) is a commonly used autonomic nervous system (ANS) correlate estimating the sympathovagal balance as a psychophysiological marker of emotion regulation in horses. We have assumed that long-term positive relationships with humans may have a positive and immediate impact on the emotional arousal of the horse, detectable, via ANS activity, during the interaction. We analyzed horses' heartbeat dynamics during their interaction with either familiar or unfamiliar handlers, applying a standardized experimental protocol consisting of three different conditions shifting from the absence of interaction to physical contact. The ANS signals were monitored through an innovative non-invasive wearable system, not interfering with the unconscious emotional response of the animal. We demonstrated that horses appeared to feel more relaxed while physically interacting (e.g., grooming on the right side) with some familiar handlers compared to the same task performed by someone unfamiliar. The shift of the sympathovagal balance toward a vagal predominance suggests that the horses experienced a decrease in stress response as a function not only of the handler's familiarity but also of the type of interaction they are experiencing. These results constitute the objective evidence of horses' capacity to individually recognize a familiar person, adding the crucial role of familiarity with the handler as a paramount component of human–animal interaction. Our rigorous methodological approach may provide a significant contribution to various fields such as animal welfare while further investigating the emotional side of the human–animal relationships.