Common Beans and Their Non-Digestible Fraction: Cancer Inhibitory Activity-An Overview

Legumes and common beans in sustainable diets: nutritional quality, environmental benefits, spread and use in food preparations

In recent decades, scarcity of available resources, population growth and the widening in the consumption of processed foods and of animal origin have made the current food system unsustainable. High-income countries have shifted towards food consumption patterns which is causing an increasingly process of environmental degradation and depletion of natural resources, with the increased incidence of malnutrition due to excess (obesity and non-communicable disease) and due to chronic food deprivation. An urgent challenge is, therefore, to move towards more healthy and sustainable eating choices and reorientating food production and distribution to obtain a human and planetary health benefit. In this regard, legumes represent a less expensive source of nutrients for low-income countries, and a sustainable healthier option than animal-based proteins in developed countries. Although legumes are the basis of many traditional dishes worldwide, and in recent years they have also been used in the formulation of new food products, their consumption is still scarce. Common beans, which are among the most consumed pulses worldwide, have been the focus of many studies to boost their nutritional properties, to find strategies to facilitate cultivation under biotic/abiotic stress, to increase yield, reduce antinutrients contents and rise the micronutrient level. The versatility of beans could be the key for the increase of their consumption, as it allows to include them in a vast range of food preparations, to create new formulations and to reinvent traditional legume-based recipes with optimal nutritional healthy characteristics.

Legume intake and cancer risk in a network of case-control studies

Evidence on the relationship between legume consumption and risk of specific cancer sites is inconclusive. We used data from a series of case-controls studies, conducted in Italy and in the Swiss Canton of Vaud between 1991 and 2009 to quantify the association between legume consumption and several cancer sites including oral cavity, esophagus, larynx, stomach, colorectum, breast, endometrium, ovary, prostate and kidney. Multiple logistic regression models controlled for sex, age, education, smoking, alcohol, body mass index, physical activity, comorbidities, and consumption of fruit, vegetables, processed meat and total calorie intake were used to estimate the odds ratios (OR) for different cancer sites and their corresponding 95% confidence intervals(CI). For female hormone-related cancers, the models also included adjustments for age at menarche, menopausal status and parity. Although most of the estimates were below unity, suggesting a protective effect, only colorectal cancer showed a significant association. Compared to no consumption, the OR for consuming at least one portion of legumes was 0.79 (95% CI: 0.68-0.91), the OR for consuming two or more portions was 0.68 (95% CI: 0.57-0.82) and the estimate for an increment of one portion per week was 0.87 (95% CI: 0.81-0.93). The inverse association between legume consumption and colorectal cancer suggests a possible role of legumes in preventing cancer risk.

Hard-to-cook phenomenon in common legumes: Chemistry, mechanisms and utilisation

Future dietary protein demand will focus more on plant-based sources than animal-based products. In this scenario, legumes and pulses (lentils, beans, chickpeas, etc.) can play a crucial role as they are one of the richest sources of plant proteins with many health benefits. However, legume consumption is undermined due to the hard-to-cook (HTC) phenomenon, which refers to legumes that have high resistance to softening during cooking. This review provides mechanistic insight into the development of the HTC phenomenon in legumes with a special focus on common beans and their nutrition, health benefits, and hydration behaviour. Furthermore, detailed elucidation of HTC mechanisms, mainly pectin-cation-phytate hypothesis and compositional changes of macronutrients like starch, protein, lipids and micronutrients like minerals, phytochemicals and cell wall polysaccharides during HTC development are critically reviewed based on the current research findings. Finally, strategies to improve the hydration and cooking quality of beans are proposed, and a perspective is provided.

Impact of drought and salt stress on galactinol and raffinose family oligosaccharides in common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris)

Due to climate change, farmers will face more extreme weather conditions and hence will need crops that are better adapted to these challenges. The raffinose family oligosaccharides (RFOs) could play a role in the tolerance of crops towards abiotic stress. To investigate this, we determined for the first time the importance of galactinol and RFOs in the roots and leaves of common bean under drought and salt stress conditions. Initially, the physiological characteristics of common bean under agronomically relevant abiotic stress conditions were investigated by measuring the growth rate, transpiration rate, chlorophyll concentration and membrane stability, allowing to establish relevant sampling points. Subsequently, the differential gene expression profiles of the galactinol and RFO biosynthetic genes and the amount of galactinol and RFO molecules were measured in the primary leaves and roots of Phaseolus vulgaris cv. CIAP7247F at these sampling points, using RT-qPCR and HPAEC-PAD, respectively. Under drought stress, the genes galactinol synthase 1, galactinol synthase 3 and stachyose synthase were significantly upregulated in the leaves and had a high transcript level in comparison with the other galactinol and RFO biosynthetic genes. This was in accordance with the significantly higher amount of galactinol and raffinose detected in the leaves. Under salt stress, raffinose was also present in a significantly higher quantity in the leaves. In the roots, transcript levels of the RFO biosynthetic genes were generally low and no galactinol, raffinose or stachyose could be detected. These results suggest that in the leaves, both galactinol and raffinose could play a role in the protection of common bean against abiotic stresses. Especially, the isoform galactinol synthase 3 could have a specific role during drought stress and forms an interesting candidate to improve the abiotic stress resistance of common bean or other plant species.

Chemopreventive Effect of Cooked Chickpea on Colon Carcinogenesis Evolution in AOM/DSS-Induced Balb/c Mice

Chickpeas are one of the most widely consumed legumes worldwide and they might prevent diseases such as cancer. Therefore, this study evaluates the chemopreventive effect of chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) on the evolution of colon carcinogenesis induced with azoxymethane (AOM) and dextran sodium sulfate (DSS) in a mice model at 1, 7, and 14 weeks after induction. Accordingly, the expression of biomarkers-such as argyrophilic nucleolar organizing regions (AgNOR), cell proliferation nuclear antigen (PCNA), β-catenin, inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2)-was assessed in the colon of BALB/c mice fed diets supplemented with 10 and 20% cooked chickpea (CC). The results showed that a 20% CC diet significantly reduced tumors and biomarkers of proliferation and inflammation in AOM/DSS-induced colon cancer mice. Moreover, body weight loss decreased and the disease activity index (DAI) was lower than the positive control. Lastly, tumor reduction was more evident at week 7 in the groups fed a 20% CC diet. In conclusion, both diets (10% and 20% CC) exert a chemopreventive effect.

Sustainable Strategies for Increasing Legume Consumption: Culinary and Educational Approaches

Legumes are nutrient-dense crops with health-promoting benefits. However, several barriers are associated with their consumption. Emerging issues including food neophobic tendencies or taboos, unclear dietary guidelines on legume consumption, health concerns, and socio-economic reasons, as well as long cooking procedures, adversely affect legume consumption frequency. Pre-treatment methods, including soaking, sprouting, and pulse electric field technology, are effective in reducing the alpha-oligosaccharides and other anti-nutritional factors, eventually lowering cooking time for legumes. Extrusion technology used for innovative development of legume-enriched products, including snacks, breakfast cereals and puffs, baking and pasta, represents a strategic way to promote legume consumption. Culinary skills such as legume salads, legume sprouts, stews, soups, hummus, and the development of homemade cake recipes using legume flour could represent effective ways to promote legume consumption. This review aims to highlight the nutritional and health effects associated with legume consumption, and strategies to improve their digestibility and nutritional profile. Additionally, proper educational and culinary approaches aimed to improve legumes intake are discussed.

Nontargeted and Targeted Metabolomics Identifies Dietary Exposure Biomarkers for Navy Bean and Rice Bran Consumption in Children and Adults

Dietary exposure biomarkers are needed for advancing knowledge on healthy foods. This study examined biomarkers for navy beans and rice bran in children and adults. Plasma, urine, stool, and study foods from dietary intervention studies were analyzed by metabolomics. A total of 38 children and 49 adults were assessed after consuming navy beans and/or rice bran for 2-, 4-, 6-, or 12 weeks. From the 138-175 metabolites modulated by diet, 11 were targeted for quantification. Trigonelline and pipecolate concentrations increased in children and adult plasma after 4 weeks compared to baseline. Increased xanthurenate (46%) was observed in children plasma after rice bran intake for 4 weeks. Study foods with navy beans had higher S-methylcysteine compared to control and supported the increased urine S-methylcysteine sulfoxide. Nontargeted metabolomics was moderately effective to identify target molecules as candidate biomarkers. Study limitations include interindividual metabolite variations before diet intervention. Validation is warranted using cross-over designs and larger sample sizes.

Therapeutic Potential of Natural Plants Against Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease: Targeting the Interplay Between Gut Microbiota and Bile Acids

Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) remains a common disease with a significant health and economic burden worldwide. The gut microbiota (GM) and bile acids (BAs), which play important roles in the gut-liver axis, have been confirmed to jointly participate in the development of NAFLD. GM not only regulate bile acids’ synthesis, transport, and reabsorption by regulating other metabolites (such as trimetlyl amine oxide, butyrate), but also regulate dehydrogenation, dehydroxylation and desulfurization of bile acids. Meanwhile, disordered bile acids influence the gut microbiota mainly through promoting the bacterial death and lowering the microbial diversity. Although weight loss and lifestyle changes are effective in the treatment of NAFLD, the acceptability and compliance of patients are poor. Recently, increasing natural plants and their active ingredients have been proved to alleviate NAFLD by modulating the joint action of gut microbiota and bile acids, and considered to be promising potential candidates. In this review, we discuss the efficacy of natural plants in treating NAFLD in the context of their regulation of the complex interplay between the gut microbiota and bile acids, the crosstalk of which has been shown to significantly promote the progression of NAFLD. Herein, we summarize the prior work on this topic and further suggest future research directions in the field.

Identification and Expression Analysis of the Genes Involved in the Raffinose Family Oligosaccharides Pathway of Phaseolus vulgaris and Glycine max

Raffinose family oligosaccharides (RFO) play an important role in plants but are also considered to be antinutritional factors. A profound understanding of the galactinol and RFO biosynthetic gene families and the expression patterns of the individual genes is a prerequisite for the sustainable reduction of the RFO content in the seeds, without compromising normal plant development and functioning. In this paper, an overview of the annotation and genetic structure of all galactinol- and RFO biosynthesis genes is given for soybean and common bean. In common bean, three galactinol synthase genes, two raffinose synthase genes and one stachyose synthase gene were identified for the first time. To discover the expression patterns of these genes in different tissues, two expression atlases have been created through re-analysis of publicly available RNA-seq data. De novo expression analysis through an RNA-seq study during seed development of three varieties of common bean gave more insight into the expression patterns of these genes during the seed development. The results of the expression analysis suggest that different classes of galactinol- and RFO synthase genes have tissue-specific expression patterns in soybean and common bean. With the obtained knowledge, important galactinol- and RFO synthase genes that specifically play a key role in the accumulation of RFOs in the seeds are identified. These candidate genes may play a pivotal role in reducing the RFO content in the seeds of important legumes which could improve the nutritional quality of these beans and would solve the discomforts associated with their consumption.

Isolation of proteins from spent coffee grounds. Polyphenol removal and peptide identification in the protein hydrolysates by RP-HPLC-ESI-Q-TOF

Several works have been focused on the extraction of polysaccharides, polyphenols and caffeine from spent coffee grounds (SCG) and their application in food formulations, but the peptide bioactivity from SCG protein hydrolysates has never been addressed. In the present work and for the first time, two different methods to isolate proteins from SCG have been compared, demonstrating that a urea-based extraction buffer provides a higher yield. This extraction method was then applied to compare the protein content in SCG from different coffee-brewing preparations, showing a higher protein content in SCG from espresso coffee machines. In addition, a polyphenol extraction step to remove interferences has been evaluated and the hydrolysis of the extracted proteins using alcalase and thermolysin enzymes has been compared. The effect of roasting degree on the antioxidant and in vitro angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE)-inhibitory activity has been evaluated. The results show that the ACE-inhibitory activity is higher when SCG proteins are obtained from medium and dark roasted coffees and then hydrolyzed with thermolysin. Finally, the peptides contained in these hydrolysates have been identified by reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography coupled via electrospray ionization to a quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometer (RP-HPLC-ESI-Q-TOF).

Coffee in cancer chemoprevention: an updated review

INTRODUCTION

Chemoprevention of cancer refers to the use of natural or synthetic compounds to abolish or perturb a variety of steps in tumor initiation, promotion, and progression. This can be realized through different mechanisms, including activation of free radical scavenging enzymes, control of chronic inflammation, and downregulation of specific signaling pathways.

AREAS COVERED

The goal of this article is to critically review recent evidence on association between coffee and prevention of different types of cancer, with particular emphasis on the molecular mechanisms and the bioactive compounds involved in its anticancer activity.

EXPERT OPINION

Coffee is a mixture of different compounds able to decrease the risk of many types of cancer. However, its potential anticancer activity is not completely understood. Hundreds of biologically active components such as caffeine, chlorogenic acid, diterpenes are contained in coffee. Further research is needed to fully elucidate the molecular mechanisms underlying the anticancer effects of coffee and fully understand the role of different confounding factors playing a role in its reported anticancer activity.

Modification of In Vitro and In Vivo Antioxidant Activity by Consumption of Cooked Chickpea in a Colon Cancer Model

Chickpea has been classified as a nutraceutical food due to its phytochemical compounds, showing antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer activity. To investigate this, we evaluated the effect of cooking on the nutritional and non-nutritional composition and the in vitro and in vivo antioxidant activity of chickpea seed. The latter was determined by the variation in the concentration of nitric oxide (NO), oxidized carbonyl groups (CO), malondialdehyde (MDA), and the expression of 4-hydroxy-2-nonenal (4-HNE) in the colon of male BALB/c mice fed with a standard diet with 10 and 20% cooked chickpea (CC). We induced colon cancer in mice by administering azoxymethane/dextran sulfate sodium (AOM/DSS); for the evaluation, these were sacrificed 1, 7, and 14 weeks after the induction. Results show that cooking does not significantly modify (p < 0.05) nutritional compounds; however, it decreases the concentration of non-nutritional ones and, consequently, in vitro antioxidant activity. The in vivo evaluation showed that animals administered with AOM/DSS presented higher concentrations of NO, CO, MDA, and 4-HNE than those in animals without AOM/DSS administration. However, in the three evaluated times, these markers were significantly reduced (p < 0.05) with CC consumption. The best effect on the oxidation markers was with the 20% CC diet, demonstrating the antioxidant potential of CC.

Genetic Architecture of Dietary Fiber and Oligosaccharide Content in a Middle American Panel of Edible Dry Bean

Common bean ( L.) is the most consumed edible grain legume worldwide and contains a wide range of nutrients for human health including dietary fiber. Diets high in beans are associated with lower rates of chronic diseases such as obesity and type 2 diabetes, and the content of dietary fibers varies among different market classes of dry bean. In this study, we evaluated the dietary fiber content in a Middle American diversity panel (MDP) of common bean and evaluated the genetic architecture of the various dietary fiber components. The dietary fiber components included insoluble and soluble dietary fibers as well as the antinutritional raffinose family of oligosaccharides (RFOs; raffinose, stachyose, and verbascose). All variables measured differed among market classes and entries. Colored bean seeds had higher levels of insoluble dietary fibers with the black market class showing also the highest raffinose and stachyose content. Cultivars and lines released since 1997 had higher insoluble dietary fibers and RFO content in race Durango. Higher levels of RFOs were also observed in cultivars with type II growth habit that was a recent breeding target in Durango race germplasm. Candidate genes for dietary fiber traits, especially homologs to two main genes in the RFO biosynthesis pathway, were identified. The knowledge of diversity of dietary fibers in the MDP accompanied with the identification of candidate genes could effectively improve dietary fiber components in common bean.

The Nutrient and Metabolite Profile of 3 Complementary Legume Foods with Potential to Improve Gut Health in Rural Malawian Children

Background: Environmental enteric dysfunction (EED), frequently seen in rural Malawian children, causes chronic inflammation and increases the risk of stunting. Legumes may be beneficial for improving nutrition and reducing the risk of developing EED in weaning children. Objective: The objectives of this study were to determine the nutritional value, verify the food safety, and identify metabolite profiles of 3 legume-based complementary foods: common bean (CB), cowpea (CP), and traditional corn-soy blend (CSB). Methods: Foods were prepared by using local ingredients and analyzed for nutrient composition with the use of Association of Official Analytical Chemists (AOAC) standards (950.46, 991.43, 992.15, 996.06, and 991.36) for macro- and micronutrient proximate analysis. Food safety analysis was conducted in accordance with the Environmental Protection Agency (7471B) and AOAC (2008.02) standards. The metabolite composition of foods was determined with nontargeted ultra-performance LC-tandem mass spectrometry metabolomics. Results: All foods provided similar energy; CB and CP foods contained higher protein and dietary fiber contents than did the CSB food. Iron and zinc were highest in the CSB and CP foods, whereas CB and CP foods contained higher amounts of magnesium, phosphorus, and potassium. A total of 652 distinct metabolites were identified across the 3 foods, and 23, 14, and 36 metabolites were specific to the CSB, CB, and CP foods, respectively. Among the potential dietary biomarkers of intake to distinguish legume foods were pipecolic acid and oleanolic acid for CB; arabinose and serotonin for CSB; and quercetin and α- and γ-tocopherol acid for CP. No heavy metals were detected, and aflatoxin was measured only in the CSB (5.2 parts per billion). Conclusions: Legumes in the diet provide a rich source of protein, dietary fiber, essential micronutrients, and phytochemicals that may reduce EED. These food metabolite analyses identified potential dietary biomarkers of legume intake for stool, urine, and blood detection that can be used in future studies to assess the relation between the distinct legumes consumed and health outcomes. This trial was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT02472262 and NCT02472301.

Recent advances in γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) properties in pulses: an overview

Beans, peas, and lentils are all types of pulses that are extensively used as foods around the world due to their beneficial effects on human health including their low glycaemic index, cholesterol lowering effects, ability to decrease the risk of heart diseases and their protective effects against some cancers. These health benefits are a result of their components such as bioactive proteins, dietary fibre, slowly digested starches, minerals and vitamins, and bioactive compounds. Among these bioactive compounds, γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA), a non-proteinogenic amino acid with numerous reported health benefits (e.g. anti-diabetic and hypotensive effects, depression and anxiety reduction) is of particular interest. GABA is primarily synthesised in plant tissues by the decarboxylation of l-glutamic acid in the presence of glutamate decarboxylase (GAD). It is widely reported that during various processes including enzymatic treatment, gaseous treatment (e.g. with carbon dioxide), and fermentation (with lactic acid bacteria), GABA content increases in the plant matrix. The objective of this review paper is to highlight the current state of knowledge on the occurrence of GABA in pulses with special focus on mechanisms by which GABA levels are increased and the analytical extraction and estimation methods for this bioactive phytochemical. © 2017 Society of Chemical Industry.

Bioactive constituents in pulses and their health benefits

Pulses are good sources of bioactive compounds such as polyphenols, phytosterols and non-digestible carbohydrates that play important physiological as well as metabolic roles. These compounds vary in concentration amongst different pulse species and varieties. Pulse seed coats are rich in water-insoluble fibres and polyphenols (having high antioxidant activities), while cotyledons contain higher soluble fibres, oligosaccharides, slowly digestible and resistant starch content. Ferulic acid is the most abundant phenolic acid present in pulses, while flavonol glycosides, anthocyanins and tannins are responsible for the seed coat colour. Sitosterol (most abundant), stigmasterol, and campesterol are the major phytosterols present in pulses. Pulse fibres, resistant starch and oligosaccharides function as probiotics and possess several other health benefits such as anti-inflammatory, anti-tumour, and reduce glucose as well as lipid levels. Beans and peas contain higher amounts of oligosaccharides than other pulses. Processing methods affect resistant starch, polyphenol composition and generally increase antioxidant activities of different pulses. In this review, the current information on pulse polyphenols, phytosterols, resistant starch, dietary fibre, oligosaccharides, antioxidant and associated health benefits are discussed.

Dietary peptides from the non-digestible fraction of Phaseolus vulgaris L. decrease angiotensin II-dependent proliferation in HCT116 human colorectal cancer cells through the blockade of the renin–angiotensin system

Peptides in common beans reduced angiotensin II-dependent proliferation in HCT116 colon cancer cells.

Common beans and cowpeas as complementary foods to reduce environmental enteric dysfunction and stunting in Malawian children: study protocol for two randomized controlled trials

Background

Interventions to decrease the burden of childhood malnutrition are urgently needed, as millions of children die annually owing to undernutrition and hundreds of millions more are left cognitively and physically stunted. Environmental enteric dysfunction (EED), a pervasive chronic subclinical inflammatory condition among children that develops when complementary foods are introduced, places them at high risk of stunting, malabsorption, and poor oral vaccine efficacy. Improved interventions to reduce the burden of EED and stunting are expected to markedly improve the nutritional status and survival of children throughout resource-limited settings.

Methods/Design

We will conduct, in parallel, two prospective randomized controlled clinical trials to determine whether common beans or cowpeas improve growth, ameliorate EED, and alter the intestinal microbiome during a high-risk period in the lives of rural Malawian children. Study 1 will enroll children at 6 months of age and randomize them to receive common beans, cowpeas, or a standard complementary food for 6 months. Anthropometry will be compared among the three groups; EED will be assessed using a dual-sugar absorption test and by quantifying human intestinal mRNA for inflammatory messages; and the intestinal microbiota will be characterized by deep sequencing of fecal DNA, to enumerate host microbial populations and their metabolic capacity. Study 2 will enroll children 12–23 months old and follow them for 12 months, with similar interventions and assessments as Study 1.

Discussion

By amalgamating the power of rigorous clinical trials and advanced biological analysis, we aim to elucidate the potential of two grain legumes to reduce stunting and EED in a high-risk population. Legumes have potential as an affordable and effective complementary food intervention, given their cultural acceptability, nutritional content, and agricultural feasibility in sub-Saharan Africa.

Trial registration

Clinicaltrials.gov NCT02472262 and NCT02472301.

Peptides present in the non-digestible fraction of common beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) inhibit the angiotensin-I converting enzyme by interacting with its catalytic cavity independent of their antioxidant capacity

Pure peptides present in common-bean non-digestible fraction inhibited ACE by interacting with its catalytic cavity, and presented antioxidant activities.

Nutritional and health benefits of pulses

Pulses (beans, peas, and lentils) have been consumed for at least 10 000 years and are among the most extensively used foods in the world. A wide variety of pulses can be grown globally, making them important both economically as well as nutritionally. Pulses provide protein and fibre, as well as a significant source of vitamins and minerals, such as iron, zinc, folate, and magnesium, and consuming half a cup of beans or peas per day can enhance diet quality by increasing intakes of these nutrients. In addition, the phytochemicals, saponins, and tannins found in pulses possess antioxidant and anti-carcinogenic effects, indicating that pulses may have significant anti-cancer effects. Pulse consumption also improves serum lipid profiles and positively affects several other cardiovascular disease risk factors, such as blood pressure, platelet activity, and inflammation. Pulses are high in fibre and have a low glycemic index, making them particularly beneficial to people with diabetes by assisting in maintaining healthy blood glucose and insulin levels. Emerging research examining the effect of pulse components on HIV and consumption patterns with aging populations indicates that pulses may have further effects on health. In conclusion, including pulses in the diet is a healthy way to meet dietary recommendations and is associated with reduced risk of several chronic diseases. Long-term randomized controlled trials are needed to demonstrate the direct effects of pulses on these diseases.

A non-digestible fraction of the common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) induces cell cycle arrest and apoptosis during early carcinogenesis

We have previously demonstrated that the non-digestible fraction (NDF) from common cooked beans (P. vulgaris L., cv Negro 8025) inhibits azoxymethane (AOM)-induced colon cancer and influences the expression of genes involved in the induction of apoptosis and cell cycle arrest through the action of butyrate. The objective of this study was to identify cell cycle alterations and morphological changes induced by treatment with AOM and to examine the formation of colonic aberrant crypt foci (ACF) in male Sprague Dawley rats fed with these beans. Rats were fed control diets upon arrival and were randomly placed into four groups after one week of acclimatization: control, NDF (intragastric administration), NDF + AOM and AOM. Rats treated with NDF + AOM exhibited a significantly lower number of total colonic ACF with a notable increase in the number of cells present in the G1 phase (83.14%); a decreased proliferation index was observed in the NDF + AOM group when compared to AOM group. NDF + AOM also displayed a higher number of apoptotic cells compared to AOM group. NDF of cooked common beans inhibited colon carcinogenesis at an early stage by inducing cell cycle arrest of colon cells and morphological changes linked to apoptosis, thus confirming previous results obtained with gene expression studies.