Physical and Sensory Properties of Mayonnaise Enriched with Encapsulated Olive Leaf Phenolic Extracts

Physical properties and oxidative stability of mayonnaises fortified with natural deep eutectic solvent, either alone or enriched with pigmented rice bran

This article explores the novel use of natural deep eutectic solvents (NaDES) in real food by incorporating them into mayonnaise, either alone or with pigmented rice bran (RB). Results showed that NaDES-fortified mayonnaises could prevent lipid oxidation. Notably, mayonnaises with NaDES2 (betaine:sucrose:water) significantly reduced the production of lipid hydroperoxides, which was maintained to an average of 2.6 mmol LOOH/kg oil, which is 2.9 times lower than the control (7.5 mmol LOOH/kg oil), or 7.4 times lower than mayonnaise with citric acid (19.1 mmol LOOH/kg oil). NaDES2-fortified mayonnaises maintained high tocopherols levels (0.97 g/Kg oil) and reduced volatile compounds from secondary lipid oxidation. This effect may result from NaDES altering the aqueous phase properties of mayonnaise, notably by reducing water activity by ∼0.1. Finally, pre-enrichment of the NaDES phase with bioactive molecules (e.g. from pigmented RB) represents an innovative perspective to promote the health benefits of formulated foods.

Quality Characteristics of Vegan Mayonnaise Produced Using Supercritical Carbon Dioxide-Processed Defatted Soybean Flour

Emulsifiers, like egg yolk (EY), are necessary for the formation of mayonnaise, which is an oil-in-water type of colloid. This study aimed to assess the potential of defatted soybean powder treated with supercritical carbon dioxide (DSF) to enhance the quality of plant-based mayonnaise as plant-based alternatives gain popularity. This study involved the production of DSF and the comparison of its quality attributes to those of mayonnaise made with varying amounts of control soy flour (CSF), DSF, and EY. It was found that mayonnaise made with an increased quantity of DSF showed better emulsion stability, viscosity, and a smaller, more uniform particle size when compared with CSF mayonnaise. Additionally, DSF mayonnaise was generally rated higher in sensory evaluation. The addition of approximately 2% DSF positively influenced the emulsion and sensory properties of the vegan mayonnaise, indicating that DSF is a promising plant-based alternative emulsifier for the replacement of animal ingredients.

Optimization of emulsification conditions with rice bran concentrates for the preliminary formulation of potential vegan dressings and their characterization

A fraction of rice bran (RB), generated during the brown rice polishing, is utilized to extract oil, resulting in defatted RB (DRB). The aim of this study was to optimize the emulsification conditions to enhance the value of this byproduct by formulating potential vegan dressings and characterizing them. Enzymatic hydrolysis of the starch present in DRB yields the DRB concentrate (DRBC). A central composite design was applied and the results were analyzed using response surface methodology to select optimal conditions for an oil-in-water emulsion formula. Two formulations were chosen: one corresponds to the optimal conditions, with 26.5% of oil and 73.5% of DRBC dispersion (eoptimal), and the other one with 21.7% of oil and 78.3% of dispersion (eED8). The eoptimal formulation exhibited significantly lower mean De Brouckere diameter (D4,3) value and higher viscosity when compared with eED8. For both emulsions, the particle size distribution and D4,3 remained unchanged during storage, whereas viscosity decreased, and backscattering (BS) increased. Initially, both emulsions exhibited solid viscoelastic behavior, which was partially lost during quiescent storage. The increase in BS was attributed to particle disaggregation, ultimately leading to the aforementioned change in rheological behavior. In conclusion, although the designed emulsions underwent microstructural changes, they were stable against gravitational separation. To improve stability during quiescent storage, it is suggested to incorporate a thickening agent. Hence, it is propose to procced with the development of a vegan dressing based on the eoptimal emulsion, as it exhibits superior physicochemical properties.

Omega-3-Enriched and Oxidative Stable Mayonnaise Formulated with Spray-Dried Microcapsules of Chia and Fish Oil Blends

There is a growing demand for nutritious food products that contain specific ingredients, such as long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LCPUFAs). In the case of LCPUFAs, protection against lipid peroxidation is difficult, and microencapsulation emerges as an alternative. The aim of this research work is to develop mayonnaise containing spray-dried microcapsules (SDM). Fortified mayonnaise was developed using various treatments such as (T1) incorporating chia seed oil (CSO), (T2) incorporating fish oil (FO), (T3) incorporating blend of chia and fish oil, (T4) incorporating the SDM of CSO, (T5) incorporating the SDM of FO, and (T6) incorporating the SDM of chia and fish oil blend as well as controls. Thereafter, during the 15-day storage period, the fatty acids (FAs) composition, free fatty acids (FFAs), peroxide value (PV), and sensory properties of fortified mayonnaise were examined every 5 days. The overall results showed that the oxidative stability of mayonnaise formulated with SDM has been improved, and it can be used as a fortifying agent in the processing of many food products. Treatments containing SDM of up to 4% did not differ from the control in sensory analysis. Sensory scores of SDM samples showed a slight decrease in off-flavor scores and were in an acceptable range. Therefore, SDM developed from CSO and FO blends can be recommended for supplementation in different food products for long-time storage.

Antioxidant and antimicrobial efficacy of microencapsulated mustard essential oil against Escherichia coli and Salmonella Enteritidis in mayonnaise

The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of pure and encapsulated mustard essential oil (MEO) on the shelf life of mayonnaise and its ability to be an alternative for synthetic preservatives. Determination of the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and the minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) indicated higher sensitivity of Escherichia coli O157:H7 (E. coli O157:H7) (MIC: 512 ppm, MBC: 1024 ppm) than Salmonella Enteritidis (S. enteritidis) (MIC: 1024 ppm, MBC: 2048 ppm) to MEO. Mayonnaise samples, were subsequently prepared according to the determined MIC and MBC of MEO for microbial analysis and physicochemical analysis. The antimicrobial activity of MEO in mayonnaise over 40-day storage indicated that the application of free and encapsulated MEO could inhibit the growth of target bacteria. In addition, the oxidative stability of mayonnaise samples exhibited decreasing trends over the storage time. At the end of the storage, the control sample without any preservatives revealed the highest peroxide value (3.59 meq O2 /kg of oil) whereas the sample containing 4096 ppm encapsulated MEO (2 meq O2/kg of oil) exhibited better oxidative stability, following t-butyl-hydroxyquinone (TBHQ) (1.84 meq O2 /kg of oil) as commercial antioxidant. Interestingly, the application of 2048 and 4096 ppm encapsulated essential oil had no undesirable effect on overall acceptance of mayonnaise, while the application of pure MEO at the same concentrations negatively affected the color, odor, taste and overall acceptability.

Valorization of grape (Vitis vinifera) leaves for bioactive compounds: novel green extraction technologies and food-pharma applications

Grape leaves, scientifically known as Vitis vinifera, the primary by-product obtained after the processing of grapes, are gathered in enormous amounts and disposed of as agricultural waste. For more sustainable agriculture and better food systems, it is crucial to investigate these byproducts' nutritional values. The primary bioactive compounds present in grape leaves are quercetin, resveratrol, caffeic acid, kaempferol, and gallic acid, which favour pharmacological effects on human health such as antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-obesity, anti-diabetic, and hepatoprotective. Furthermore, grape leaves extract has been used as a functional ingredient for creating both food and non-food products. The aim of the current review is to review the nutritional and phytochemical composition of various varieties of grape leaves, their health-promoting characteristics and their applications. The study also highlights the various extraction techniques including conventional and non-conventional methods for extracting the various bioactive compounds present in grape leaves. Grape leaves bioactives can be extracted using environmentally safe and sustainable processes, which are in line with the rising demand for eco-friendly and healthful products worldwide. These methods are perfectly suited to the changing needs of both customers and industries since they lessen environmental effect, enhance product quality, and offer financial advantages.

Physico-Chemical, Textural and Sensory Evaluation of Emulsion Gel Formulated with By-Products from the Vegetable Oil Industry

The aim of this study was to obtain low fat mayonnaise-like emulsion gels using sesame cake and walnut cake by-products resulting from vegetable oil extraction. The ingredients used to formulate the mayonnaise like emulsion gel samples were corn starch, sesame seed cake (SSC), walnuts seed cake (WSC), lemon juice, sunflower oil, mustard, sugar, salt, gelatin and water. Five different samples were prepared: one control lab sample (M) containing only corn starch and the other ingredients (without SSC and WSC), two samples (SO1 and SO2) with 2 and 4% of SSC (without corn starch and WSC) and two samples (WO1 and WO2) with 2 and 4% of WSC (without corn starch and SSC). Also, an egg-free commercial mayonnaise (CM) was purchased and used for comparison. Physicochemical (fat, protein, moisture, ash, carbohydrate, water activity, emulsion stability, viscosity, density and color), textural (hardness, adhesiveness, springiness, cohesiveness, gumminess and chewiness), and sensory (aspect, color, texture/firmness, flavor, taste and acceptability) attributes of all samples were investigated. The results showed that carbohydrate content decreased in all four seed cakes samples compared to the control sample, while protein and fat content increased in all seed cakes samples, with the largest increases observed in the sesame seed cake samples. It was observed that the CM sample has a carbohydrate content value close to that obtained for the M sample, while the protein content has the lowest value for the CM sample compared to all samples analyzed. The stability of the emulsion gels increased from 70.73% (control sample) to 83.64% for the sample with 2% addition sesame seed cake and to 84.09% for the 2% walnut cake added, due to the coagulation capacity of the added cakes. The type and concentration of oil seeds cake added in emulsion gels affected their textural properties such as hardness, adhesiveness, gumminess, and chewiness. The hardness and adhesiveness of low-fat mayonnaise-like emulsion gels samples decreased with the addition of oil seeds cake. However, the addition of by-products improved the sensory properties of emulsion gels. This study provided a theoretical basis for the food industry's application of oilseed cakes, especially for the development of low-fat mayonnaise.

Synthesis and application of a new antibacterial surfactant from apricot kernel oil

Food emulsifier are mostly prepared from a lipophilic lipid tail with a hydrophilic sugar head. In this study, the lipophilic tail was obtained from apricot kernels, which are food waste, and the hydrophilic head was gluconic acid instead of sugar, in order to draw attention to the non-cyclic poly hydroxyl compounds. Thus, oleic acid of apricot kernel was used as the lipophilic moiety of the prepared surfactant. So, apricot kernel was grinned and dried, oil was extracted using soxhlet apparatus, Physical and chemical parameters and fatty acids composition of the extracted oil had been determined. The extracted oil was then hydrolyzed into glycerol and a mixture of free fatty acids. The fatty acids mixture was separated. Then, oleic acid was extracted individually in pure form using supercritical CO2 extractor, it was then confirmed according to its melting point, Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) after esterification, elemental analysis, Proton nuclear magnetic resonance (H1NMR), and mass spectrometry (MS) to detect the corresponding molecular ion peak. The pure individual oleic acid was converted to hydroxy stearic acid, which was then converted to an amphiphilic compound (surfactant) via esterification reaction with the hydrophilic gluconic acid, and afforded a new surfactant known as 2,3,4,5-tetrahydroxy-6-((9-((-2,3,4,5,6-pentahydroxyhexanoyl) oxy)octadecanoyl) oxy)hexanoic acid or stearyl gluconate for simplification. The structures elucidation of all synthesized compound was established according to elemental analysis and spectral data (Fourier transform infrared IR, 1H NMR, 13C NMR and MS). Moreover, the prepared compound was tasted for its antibacterial activity, and showed good activities against some types of bacteria. The surface-active properties, foamability, foaming stability and emulsion stability of stearyl gluconate were studied and compared with the properties of the well-known surfactant sucrose stearate, and it was clear that, the activity of stearyl gluconate as a surfactant was higher than that of sucrose stearate. Moreover, establishment of safety of this compound was performed using albino rats by acute oral toxicity and kidney and liver functions of these mice. On the other hand, the prepared surfactant was used in the production of low fat-free cholesterol mayonnaise as egg replacer. Texture properties and the sensory evaluation of the prepared mayonnaise showed that the properties were improved by using the new prepared surfactant. Thus, the prepared gluconyl stearate can be used as a safe food additive.

Tomato seed oil enriched mayonnaise: structural, rheological, and biochemical characterization

Two types of mayonnaise viz. eggless and egg based were prepared by substituting refined soybean oil by tomato seed oil (TSO) at varying concentrations (0-30%). Aim of the study was to utilise the potential of TSO in replaced of refined oil. With respect to oil particle distribution pattern in both types of mayonnaise, higher specific surface area (Dmean ~ 11.49 µm) and homogenous distribution of oil droplets was noted in egg-based mayonnaise. Rheological behavior depicted shear thinning properties in all types of mayonnaise with low viscosity (1.08 Pa s and 2.29 Pa s) being exhibited by tomato seed oil (TSO) incorporated mayonnaise. Nutritionally, significant increase of 65.5 and 26% in lycopene content while 29 and 34% increase in carotenoid content was noted upon incorporation of TSO in eggless and egg-based mayonnaise. Good storage and oxidative stability were demonstrated by TSO egg-based and eggless mayonnaise in terms of acid value and free fatty acids, also the peroxide value was also found lower than their respective control at the end of storage. Overall, tomato seed oil could be used as a non-conventional source of oil for such food applications owing to its close proximity with other vegetable oils and better nutritional profile like dominance of linoleic fatty acid i.e., 54.23% assayed via gas chromatography.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s13197-023-05771-7.

Investigation on physicochemical properties, sensory quality and storage stability of mayonnaise prepared from lactic acid fermented egg yolk

In this research, the physicochemical properties, sensory quality, and storage stability of mayonnaise prepared from egg yolk fermented for different times (0, 3, 6, and 9 h) have been investigated. Compared with control mayonnaise (3.50 μm and 92.88%), mayonnaise prepared from fermented egg yolk possessed significantly lower particle size (3.32-3.41 μm) and higher emulsion stability (97.26-98.72%). Meanwhile, texture, color, and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis revealed that the fermented egg yolk significantly enhanced the firmness, consistency and cohesiveness, lightness and redness, and flavor profile of mayonnaise. Sensory evaluation showed that mayonnaise with 3 h-fermented egg yolk exhibited the highest sensory scores. And the microscopic and appearance characteristics revealed that fermented egg yolk endowed mayonnaise with a more stable appearance after 30 days of storage. These results indicated that lactic acid fermentation of egg yolk is a feasible way to improve consumer acceptability and shelf life of mayonnaise.

A Validated HPLC-RID Method for Quantification and Optimization of Total Sugars: Fructose, Glucose, Sucrose, and Lactose in Eggless Mayonnaise

Mayonnaise is an oil-in-water emulsion containing 70–80% finely dispersed droplets of oil in a continuous phase of water. Since mayonnaise has a sour and acidic taste, its sugar profile is barely noticed and thus often disregarded. However, today, there are various variants of mayonnaise available on the market; hence, it is crucial to understand their mono- and disaccharide profile, in order to determine the precise total sugar composition. The traditional methods of sugar analysis available, such as titration, can only quantify sucrose and are unable to differentiate between mono- and disaccharides. The aim of this study was to develop and validate a method for the quantification of total sugars, including fructose, glucose, sucrose, and lactose, in eggless mayonnaise, using a high performance liquid chromatography refractive index detector (HPLC-RID). Sugars were separated on an amino column with an oven temperature of 35 °C, using an isocratic solvent system consisting of a 75:25 v/v mixture of acetonitrile and HPLC water, at a 0.9 mL/min flow rate with RID. Method validation was performed for the linearity, specificity, precision, accuracy, LOD, LOQ, and robustness. A linearity for total sugars, with a regression coefficient of 0.9998, was obtained within the range of 0.05024 to 10.048 mg/mL. The relative standard deviation was less than 2.0% for the intra-day and inter-day precision. The accuracy was found to be 96.78–108.88% using a three-level recovery method. The LOD and LOQ were also found to be suitable. The samples used in this study contained 0.24–10.32% total sugars. The sucrose value obtained matched the label claim of the products and no significant differences were observed between results in a paired sample t-test. This showed the applicability of the proposed method for analyzing the sugar profile in a finished product. Routine analysis of total sugars in eggless mayonnaise and similar finished products can thus be performed using this technique, which was found to be simple, rapid, and reproducible.

Effect of Different Drying Treatments and Sieving on Royal Gala Apple Pomace, a Thickening Agent with Antioxidant Properties

Currently, there is an increasing interest in the search of natural derived materials as valuable substitutes for microplastics. One of the categories investigated, represented by thickening agents deriving from agri-food waste and apple pomace (AP), was considered of interest. In this study AP was submitted to three different treatments and drying conditions (oven drying at 55 °C for 12 h; homogenization and oven drying at 55 °C for 12 h; homogenization and freeze-drying), and then grinded and sieved obtaining three different dimensional fractions (>400 µm, 250-400 µm and <250 µm). The hydroalcoholic extracts of these fractions, obtained by ultrasound-assisted extraction, were analyzed to compare their total phenol content (TPC), antioxidant properties, and phenol profile. Correlation studies between the above-indicated parameters were also carried out. The highest values of TPC, antioxidant capacity, and phenol content (determined by liquid chromatography) were found for oven dried AP (250-400 μm) or homogenized and freeze-dried (>400 μm) samples. Both samples were most suitable to form stable hydrogels and the sample obtained after drying at 55 °C showed the best performances in terms of ability to form a stable hydrogel. Among the studied treatments and drying conditions, the oven dried AP was demonstrated to be an interesting stabilizing material with potential applications in many fields (such as food, cosmetics, and nutraceuticals) showing both antioxidant activity and thickening capacity.

Microwave and Roasting Impact on Pumpkin Seed Oil and Its Application in Full-Fat Mayonnaise Formula

In this study, ‘Béjaoui’ Cucurbita maxima seeds variety were exposed to both microwave and roasting prior to oil cold press extraction. In addition, full-fat mayonnaise formula from untreated and treated pumpkin seed oils was prepared and assessed for their physical stabilities and bioactive properties in 28-day storage at 25 ± 1 °C. A mayonnaise sample prepared with unrefined sunflower seed oil served as a control. The results showed that the microwave pretreatment of seeds greatly enhanced the oxidative stability of the pumpkin seed oil, which increased from 3 h 46 min ± 10 min in the untreated sample to 4 h 32 min ± 14 min in the microwave cold press pumpkin seed oil. The sterol content increased from 4735 ± 236.75 mg/kg oil in the untreated cold press pumpkin seed oil to 5989 ± 299.45 mg/kg oil and 7156 ± 357.8 mg/kg in the microwave cold press pumpkin seed oil and the roasted cold press pumpkin seed oil, respectively. The mayonnaise prepared with microwave cold press pumpkin seed oil exhibited the lowest creaming index and was more stable to droplet growth when compared to the other mayonnaise samples. All mayonnaise samples prepared with pumpkin seed oils exhibited higher total phenolic contents and antioxidant activities during storage when compared to the mayonnaise sample prepared with unrefined sunflower seed oil. Among pumpkin seed oil mayonnaise samples, the highest values were, however, observed in the one prepared with microwave cold press pumpkin seed oil. Thanks to its high nutraceuticals, the latter could be confidently regarded as a natural fat substitute for commercial stable vegetable oils mayonnaise type emulsions.

Mayonnaise Enriched with Flaxseed Oil: Omega-3 Fatty Acids Content, Sensory Quality and Stability during the Storage

This study aimed to produce healthy mayonnaise with a protective effect against cardiovascular diseases, containing omega-3 fatty acids (FA), using flaxseed oil (FXO), which includes a high percentage of alpha-linolenic acid (ALA, C18:3n-3). The mayonnaise was prepared by replacing soybean oil with FXO at 20, 30, and 40% levels. The effect on the organoleptic, physical, and chemical quality was studied compared to a control, prepared only with soybean oil (70%). The oxidative and microbial stability during 12 weeks of storage at 25 and 7 °C was also evaluated. The results showed that the use of FXO in mayonnaise (20, 30, and 40%) led to an increase in TUFA (from 79.37 (control) to 82.48, 85.49, and 87.66%, respectively), particularly in PUFAn-3, due to the rise of ALA (from 6.5 to 18.38, 24.02 and 37.87%, respectively) and a decrease in TSFA (from 20.63 to 17.52, 14.51 and 12.34%, respectively). The panelists did not perceive significant differences in the sensory characteristics of the “new” mayonnaise. A decrease in the oxidation rates of the “new” mayonnaise during the storage period was observed. A significant effect on microbial growth was not reported, although the permissible limits were not exceeded after 12 weeks of storage, even at 25 °C.

Encapsulation of bioactive compounds extracted from Cucurbita moschata pumpkin waste: The multi-objective optimization study

AIM

Artificial neural network (ANN) development to find optimal carriers (pea protein-P, maltodextrin-M, and inulin-I) mixture for encapsulation of pumpkin waste bioactives (β-carotene and phenolics).

METHODS

Freeze-drying encapsulation and encapsulates characterisation in terms of bioactives contents and encapsulation efficiencies, water activity, hygroscopicity, densities, flowability, cohesiveness, particle size (laser diffraction), solubility, color (CIELab), morphological (SEM), stability and release properties.

RESULTS

Optimal encapsulates, OE-T (with highest total bioactives contents; P, M, and I of 53.9, 46.1, and 0%w/w) and OE-EE (with highest bioactives encapsulation efficiencies; P, M, and I of 45.5, 32.0, and 22.5%w/w) had particle diameters of 94.561 ± 1.341µm and 90.206 ± 0.571µm, span of 1.777 ± 0.094 and 1.588 ± 0.089, highest release at pH 7.4 of phenolics of 71.03%w/w after 72h and 66.22%w/w after 48h, and β-carotene of 43.67%w/w after 8h and 48.62%w/w after 6h, respectively.

CONCLUSION

ANN model for prediction of encapsulates' preparation, showed good anticipation properties (with gained determination coefficients of 1.000).

Novel Approaches in the Valorization of Agricultural Wastes and Their Applications

Worldwide, a huge amount of agricultural food wastes and byproducts containing valuable bioactive compounds are generated, especially throughout the entire supply chain. Minimizing food wastes and byproducts is the first option to avoid environmental problems, and to help the economy and the society. Although many countries implement policies to reduce food wastes and byproducts, and different management methods are available to utilize agricultural food wastes, they are still produced annually. Nanotechnological and biotechnological approaches are recently used as novel and green applications to valorize agricultural food wastes and improve their stability and applicability. In this Review, these approaches are covered in detail with given examples. Another valorization way of consumable food waste is using it for functional food production. This Review focuses on specific examples of functional foods with food waste as an ingredient. In addition, the problems and limitations of waste management and valorization methods are investigated, considering future perspectives.

Recent advances in food applications of phenolic-loaded micro/nanodelivery systems

The current relevance of a healthy diet in well-being has led to a surging interest in designing novel functional food products enriched by biologically active molecules. As nature-inspired bioactive components, several lines of research have revealed the capability of polyphenolic compounds (phenolics) in the medical intervention of different ailments, i.e., tumors, cardiovascular and inflammatory diseases. Phenolics typically possess antioxidant and antibacterial properties and, due to their unique molecular structure, can offer superior platforms for designing functional products. They can protect food ingredients from oxidation and promote the physicochemical attributes of proteins and carbohydrate-based materials. Even though these properties contribute to the inherent benefits of bioactive phenolics as important functional ingredients in the food industry, the in vitro/in vivo instability, poor solubility, and low bioavailability are the main factors restricting their food/pharma applicability. Recent advances in the encapsulation realm are now offering efficient platforms to overcome these limitations. The application of encapsulation field may offer protection and controlled delivery of phenolics in food formulations. Here, we review recent advances in micro/nanoencapsulation of phenolics and highlight efficient carriers from this decade, which have been utilized successfully in food applications. Although further development of phenolic-containing formulations promises to design novel functional food formulations, and revolutionize the food industry, most of the strategies found in the scientific literature are not commercially applicable. Moreover, in vivo experiments are extremely crucial to corroborate the efficiency of such products.

The Effect of Corn Dextrin on the Rheological, Tribological, and Aroma Release Properties of a Reduced-Fat Model of Processed Cheese Spread

Low-calorie and low-fat foods have been introduced to the market to fight the increasing incidence of overweightness and obesity. New approaches and high-quality fat replacers may overcome the poor organoleptic properties of such products. A model of processed cheese spread (PCS) was produced as a full-fat version and with three levels of fat reduction (30%, 50%, and 70%). Fat was replaced by water or by corn dextrin (CD), a dietary fiber. Additionally, in the 50% reduced-fat spreads, fat was replaced by various ratios of CD and lactose (100:0, 75:25, 50:50, 25:75, and 0:100). The effect of each formulation was determined by measuring the textural (firmness, stickiness, and spreadability), rheological (flow behavior and oscillating rheology), tribological, and microstructural (cryo-SEM) properties of the samples, as well as the dynamic aroma release of six aroma compounds typically found in cheese. Winter’s critical gel theory was a good approach to characterizing PCS with less instrumental effort and costs: the gel strength and interaction factors correlated very well with the spreadability and lubrication properties of the spreads. CD and fat exhibited similar interaction capacities with the aroma compounds, resulting in a similar release pattern. Overall, the properties of the sample with 50% fat replaced by CD were most similar to those of the full-fat sample. Thus, CD is a promising fat replacer in PCS and, most likely, in other dairy-based emulsions.

Influence of Fat Replacers on the Rheological, Tribological, and Aroma Release Properties of Reduced-Fat Emulsions

Reduced-fat food products can help manage diet-related health issues, but consumers often link them with poor sensory qualities. Thus, high-quality fat replacers are necessary to develop appealing reduced-fat products. A full-fat model emulsion was reduced in fat by replacing fat with either water, lactose, corn dextrin (CD), inulin, polydextrose, or microparticulated whey protein (MWP) as fat replacers. The effect of fat reduction and replacement, as well as the suitability of different types of fat replacers, were determined by analyzing fat droplet size distribution, composition, rheological and tribological properties, and the dynamic aroma release of six aroma compounds prevalent in cheese and other dairy products. None of the formulations revealed a considerable effect on droplet size distribution. MWP strongly increased the Kokini oral shear stress and viscosity, while CD exhibited similar values to the full-fat emulsion. All four fat replacers improved the lubricity of the reduced-fat samples. Butane-2,3-dione and 3-methylbutanoic acid were less affected by the changes in the formulation than butanoic acid, heptan-2-one, ethyl butanoate, and nonan-2-one. The aroma releases of the emulsions comprising MWP and CD were most similar to that of the full-fat emulsion. Therefore, CD was identified as a promising fat replacer for reduced-fat emulsions.

Characterization of Reduced-Fat Mayonnaise and Comparison of Sensory Perception, Rheological, Tribological, and Textural Analyses

Reduced-fat products can help to fight obesity and its associated health risks. To develop appealing products, both product-specific fat replacers and suitable analytical methods for the characterization of fat-associated properties are important. The rheology, tribology, texture, and spreadability of a reduced-fat mayonnaise with different concentrations of corn dextrin were analyzed to determine properties such as flow behavior, viscosity, lubricity, firmness, and stickiness. Additionally, a sensory panel analyzed the samples for their mouthfeel (creaminess, firmness, and stickiness). Correlations between the results of the instrumental methods suggested that the analytical effort for the future development of appealing reduced-fat food products can be reduced. In addition, several correlations were identified between the instrumental and the sensory data. Results from tribological measurements correlated with the sensory attribute of stickiness, suggesting that tribometry can complement or constitute an alternative to complex and expensive human sensory tests. Additionally, the use of Stevens' power law showed a high correlation between the Kokini oral shear stress and the sensory attribute of creaminess. The instrumental texture properties (firmness, stickiness) also correlated with the sensory sensation. The identified correlations obtained from comparing different methods may help to estimate the possible applications of new fat replacers and facilitate innovative product development.

Beetroot By-Product as a Functional Ingredient for Obtaining Value-Added Mayonnaise

Beetroot peel is a by-product obtained during the processing of beetroots and is an essential source of bioactive substances beneficial to health. This study used antioxidant-rich beetroot peels powder (BPP) in different concentrations (1.5, 3, 5, and 7%) to obtain value-added mayonnaise. The impact of BPP on the phytochemical composition, sensory characteristics, viscosity, color, and textural properties of the mayonnaises were also investigated. The BPP was characterized by a high betalain content (1.18 ± 0.03 mg/g DW) and rich polyphenolic content (225.36 ± 1.97 mg GAE/g DW) and showed high antioxidant activity. The purple-red colored powders added to the mayonnaise allowed a significant increase in total phenolic content and the antioxidant activity of purple-red colored powders added to the mayonnaise. The total color difference ΔE value in the mayonnaise samples increased with extract concentration. The instrumental texture analysis findings revealed that BPP addition to the mayonnaise increased the firmness, adhesiveness, and cohesiveness and improved the samples’ chewiness. The viscosity of mayonnaise was also significantly improved. The inclusion of BPP improved the color, according to sensory evaluation and overall acceptability of the mayonnaise formulation. The results give a novel formulation and technological insights into the influence of BPP-powder enrichment on the physical, sensory, and textural qualities of mayonnaise. BPP could be employed as a natural ingredient in several value-added emulsions, including sauces, mayonnaise, dressings, and creams.

Role of Flaxseed Gum and Whey Protein Microparticles in Formulating Low-Fat Model Mayonnaises

Flaxseed gum (FG) and whey protein microparticles (WPMs) were used to substitute fats in model mayonnaises. WPMs were prepared by grinding the heat-set whey protein gel containing 10 mM CaCl₂ into small particles (10–20 µm). Then, 3 × 4 low-fat model mayonnaises were prepared by varying FG (0.3, 0.6, 0.9 wt%) and WPM (0, 8, 16, 24 wt%) concentrations. The effect of the addition of FG and WPMs on rheology, instrumental texture and sensory texture and their correlations were investigated. The results showed that all samples exhibited shear thinning behavior and ‘weak gel’ properties. Although both FG and WPMs enhanced rheological (e.g., viscosity and storage modulus) and textural properties (e.g., hardness, consistency, adhesiveness, cohesiveness) and kinetic stability, this enhancement was dominated by FG. FG and WPMs affected bulk properties through different mechanisms, (i.e., active filler and entangled polysaccharide networks). Panellists evaluated sensory texture in three stages: extra-oral, intra-oral and after-feel. Likewise, FG dominated sensory texture of model mayonnaises. With increasing FG concentration, sensory scores for creaminess and mouth-coating increased, whereas those of firmness, fluidity and spreadability decreased. Creaminess had a linear negative correlation with firmness, fluidity and spreadability (R² > 0.985), while it had a linear positive correlation with mouth-coating (R² > 0.97). A linear positive correlation (R² > 0.975) was established between creaminess and viscosity at different shear rates/instrumental texture parameters. This study highlights the synergistic role of FG and WPMs in developing low-fat mayonnaises.

Functionalization of a Vegan Mayonnaise with High Value Ingredient Derived from the Agro-Industrial Sector

This work aimed to evaluate the antioxidant effect determined by the addition of phenolic extract on the oxidative stability and quality of vegan mayonnaise. Two different antioxidant extracts containing 100 mg L⁻¹ of hydroxytyrosol and obtained by olive mill wastewater were used in the preparation. After preliminary studies, already evaluated in other works, on hydrophilic and lipophilic food matrices, the results of this study could contribute to understanding the effects of the enrichment on emulsified food systems with phenolic extracts. The functionalized mayonnaise samples were monitored up to 45 days of storage at 10 °C in comparison with a control sample for microbiological, physicochemical, antioxidant, sensory properties and for oxidative stability. The results achieved through this work showed the efficacy of the use of phenolic extract as ingredients for its positive effect on chemical properties of mayonnaise. The adding extracts lead to the increase of oxidative stability with an induction period higher (about 24 h) than the control sample (about 12 h).

Sustainability of the Olive Oil System

Sustainability is a widely accepted goal across many sectors of our society and, according to new concepts, it includes resilience and adaptive capacity [...].

Environmental Impact of Food Preparations Enriched with Phenolic Extracts from Olive Oil Mill Waste

Reducing food waste as well as converting waste products into second-life products are global challenges to promote the circular economy business model. In this context, the aim of this study is to quantify the environmental impact of lab-scale food preparations enriched with phenolic extracts from olive oil mill waste, i.e., wastewater and olive leaves. Technological (oxidation induction time) and nutritional (total phenols content) parameters were considered to assess the environmental performance based on benefits deriving by adding the extracts in vegan mayonnaise, salad dressing, biscuits, and gluten-free breadsticks. Phenolic extraction, encapsulation, and addiction to the four food preparations were analyzed, and the input and output processes were identified in order to apply the life cycle assessment to quantify the potential environmental impact of the system analyzed. Extraction and encapsulation processes characterized by low production yields, energy-intensive and complex operations, and the partial use of chemical reagents have a non-negligible environmental impact contribution on the food preparation, ranging from 0.71% to 73.51%. Considering technological and nutritional aspects, the extraction/encapsulation process contributions tend to cancel out. Impacts could be reduced approaching to a scale-up process.