Drug Delivery Challenges and Current Progress in Nanocarrier-Based Ocular Therapeutic System

Oleogels for the ocular delivery of epalrestat: formulation, in vitro, in ovo, ex vivo and in vivo evaluation

The ocular administration of lipophilic and labile drugs such as epalrestat, an aldose reductase inhibitor with potential for diabetic retinopathy treatment, demands the development of topical delivery systems capable of providing sufficient ocular bioavailability. The aim of this work was to develop non-aqueous oleogels based on soybean oil and gelators from natural and sustainable sources (ethyl cellulose, beeswax and cocoa butter) and to assess their reproducibility, safety and efficiency in epalrestat release and permeation both ex vivo and in vivo. Binary combinations of gelators at 10% w/w resulted in solid oleogels (oleorods), while single gelator oleogels at 5% w/w remained liquid at room temperature, with most of the oleogels displaying shear thinning behavior. The oleorods released up to 4 µg epalrestat per mg of oleorod in a sustained or burst pattern depending on the gelator (approx. 10% dose in 24 h). The HET-CAM assay indicated that oleogel formulations did not induce ocular irritation and were safe for topical ocular administration. Corneal and scleral ex vivo assays evidenced the permeation of epalrestat from the oleorods up to 4 and 2.5 µg/cm2 after six hours, respectively. Finally, the capacity of the developed oleogels to sustain release and provide significant amounts of epalrestat to the ocular tissues was demonstrated in vivo against aqueous-based niosomes and micelles formulations loaded with the same drug concentration. Overall, the gathered information provides valuable insights into the development of oleogels for ocular drug delivery, emphasizing their safety and controlled release capabilities, which have implications for the treatment of diabetic neuropathy and other ocular conditions.

Aqueous eye drop formulations: Cyclodextrins as enabling excipients

Cyclodextrins are enabling pharmaceutical excipients that solubilize and stabilize drugs in aqueous formulations. Cyclodextrins possess very favorable pharmacokinetic and toxicological profiles and are commonly used in marketed drug products for oral and parenteral administration. However, their use in ophthalmic products is still very limited. Cyclodextrins have a broad range of physical properties that are specifically appropriate for designing topical ophthalmic dosage forms. Additionally, both the regulatory and intellectual property environments have been cleared over the last years and should foster their use for designing new drugs for ophthalmic use.

Advancements in Ocular Therapy: A Review of Emerging Drug Delivery Approaches and Pharmaceutical Technologies

Eye disorders affect a substantial portion of the global population, yet the availability of efficacious ophthalmic drug products remains limited. This can be partly ascribed to a number of factors: (1) inadequate understanding of physiological barriers, treatment strategies, drug and polymer properties, and delivery systems; (2) challenges in effectively delivering drugs to the anterior and posterior segments of the eye due to anatomical and physiological constraints; and (3) manufacturing and regulatory hurdles in ocular drug product development. The present review discusses innovative ocular delivery and treatments, encompassing implants, liposomes, nanoparticles, nanomicelles, microparticles, iontophoresis, in situ gels, contact lenses, microneedles, hydrogels, bispecific antibodies, and gene delivery strategies. Furthermore, this review also introduces advanced manufacturing technologies such as 3D printing and hot-melt extrusion (HME), aimed at improving bioavailability, reducing therapeutic dosages and side effects, facilitating the design of personalized ophthalmic dosage forms, as well as enhancing patient compliance. This comprehensive review lastly offers insights into digital healthcare, market trends, and industry and regulatory perspectives pertaining to ocular product development.

Age-Related Macular Degeneration (AMD): Pathophysiology, Drug Targeting Approaches, and Recent Developments in Nanotherapeutics

The most prevalent reason for vision impairment in aging inhabitants is age-related macular degeneration (AMD), a posterior ocular disease with a poor understanding of the anatomic, genetic, and pathophysiological progression of the disease. Recently, new insights exploring the role of atrophic changes in the retinal pigment epithelium, extracellular drusen deposits, lysosomal lipofuscin, and various genes have been investigated in the progression of AMD. Hence, this review explores the incidence and risk factors for AMD, such as oxidative stress, inflammation, the complement system, and the involvement of bioactive lipids and their role in angiogenesis. In addition to intravitreal anti-vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) therapy and other therapeutic interventions such as oral kinase inhibitors, photodynamic, gene, and antioxidant therapy, as well as their benefits and drawbacks as AMD treatment options, strategic drug delivery methods, including drug delivery routes with a focus on intravitreal pharmacokinetics, are investigated. Further, the recent advancements in nanoformulations such as polymeric and lipid nanocarriers, liposomes, etc., intended for ocular drug delivery with pros and cons are too summarized. Therefore, the purpose of this review is to give new researchers an understanding of AMD pathophysiology, with an emphasis on angiogenesis, inflammation, the function of bioactive lipids, and therapy options. Additionally, drug delivery options that focus on the development of drug delivery system(s) via several routes of delivery can aid in the advancement of therapeutic choices.

A one-platform comparison study of brinzolamide-loaded liposomes, niosomes, transfersomes, and transniosomes for better management of glaucoma

Ocular drug delivery presents significant challenges due to various anatomical and physiological barriers. Ultradeformable vesicles have emerged as better vesicular systems for achieving deeper corneal penetration and enhanced ocular bioavailability. This research aims to develop a hybrid vesicular system with improved deformability and compare it to conventional vesicular carriers. The ultradeformable vesicle, termed "transniosomes," is a combination of niosomes, liposomes, and transfersomes, loaded with brinzolamide as model drug. The brinzolamide-loaded transniosomes (BRZ-TN) was formulated and compared with different vesicular systems through in vitro, ex vivo, and in vivo characterizations. The optimized BRZ-TN demonstrated a vesicle size of 112.06 ± 4.13 nm and an entrapment efficiency of 93.63 ± 0.30 %. With a deformability index of 6.405, the BRZ-TN exhibited a permeability of 86.68 ± 2.51 % over 10 h, which is approximately 1.3 times higher than other conventional vesicular systems. Additionally, the BRZ-TN showed a drug flux of 0.247 ± 0.01 mg/cm2/h and an apparent permeability of 0.09 ± 1.21 cm/s. Pre-clinical experiments confirmed the superiority of the optimized BRZ-TN, achieving a 37 % reduction in intraocular pressure (IOP), post 6hr of administration, indicating its prolonged therapeutic effect and improved ocular bioavailability. The findings of this study suggest that transniosomes are superior to other carriers and hold great promise as a nanocarrier for ocular drug delivery.

Lipid-based nanoparticles: innovations in ocular drug delivery

Ocular drug delivery presents significant challenges due to intricate anatomy and the various barriers (corneal, tear, conjunctival, blood-aqueous, blood-retinal, and degradative enzymes) within the eye. Lipid-based nanoparticles (LNPs) have emerged as promising carriers for ocular drug delivery due to their ability to enhance drug solubility, improve bioavailability, and provide sustained release. LNPs, particularly solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs), nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs), and cationic nanostructured lipid carriers (CNLCs), have emerged as promising solutions for enhancing ocular drug delivery. This review provides a comprehensive summary of lipid nanoparticle-based drug delivery systems, emphasizing their biocompatibility and efficiency in ocular applications. We evaluated research and review articles sourced from databases such as Google Scholar, TandFonline, SpringerLink, and ScienceDirect, focusing on studies published between 2013 and 2023. The review discusses the materials and methodologies employed in the preparation of SLNs, NLCs, and CNLCs, focusing on their application as proficient carriers for ocular drug delivery. CNLCs, in particular, demonstrate superior effectiveness attributed due to their electrostatic bioadhesion to ocular tissues, enhancing drug delivery. However, continued research efforts are essential to further optimize CNLC formulations and validate their clinical utility, ensuring advancements in ocular drug delivery technology for improved patient outcomes.

How Advanced are Nanocarriers for Effective Subretinal Injection?

Subretinal injection (SR injection) is a commonly used method of ocular drug delivery and has been mainly applied for the treatment of neovascular age-associated macular degeneration (nAMD) and sub-macular hemorrhage (SMH) caused by nAMD, as well as various types of hereditary retinopathies (IRD) such as Stargardt's disease (STGD), retinitis pigmentosa (RP), and a series of fundus diseases such as Leber's congenital dark haze (LCA), choroidal defects, etc. The commonly used carriers of SR injection are mainly divided into viral and non-viral vectors. Leber's congenital amaurosis (LCA), choroidal agenesis, and a series of other fundus diseases are also commonly treated using SR injection. The commonly used vectors for SR injection are divided into two categories: viral vectors and non-viral vectors. Viral vectors are a traditional class of SR injection drug carriers that have been extensively studied in clinical treatment, but they still have many limitations that cannot be ignored, such as poor reproduction efficiency, small loading genes, and triggering of immune reactions. With the rapid development of nanotechnology in the treatment of ocular diseases, nanovectors have become a research hotspot in the field of non-viral vectors. Nanocarriers have numerous attractive properties such as low immunogenicity, robust loading capacity, stable structure, and easy modification. These valuable features imply greater safety, improved therapeutic efficacy, longer duration, and more flexible indications. In recent years, there has been a growing interest in nanocarriers, which has led to significant advancements in the treatment of ocular diseases. Nanocarriers have not only successfully addressed clinical problems that viral vectors have failed to overcome but have also introduced new therapeutic possibilities for certain classical disease types. Nanocarriers offer undeniable advantages over viral vectors. This review discusses the advantages of subretinal (SR) injection, the current status of research, and the research hotspots of gene therapy with viral vectors. It focuses on the latest progress of nanocarriers in SR injection and enumerates the limitations and future perspectives of nanocarriers in the treatment of fundus lesions. Furthermore, this review also covers the research progress of nanocarriers in the field of subretinal injection and highlights the value of nanocarrier-mediated SR injection in the treatment of fundus disorders. Overall, it provides a theoretical basis for the application of nanocarriers in SR injection.

Review: Neuroprotective Nanocarriers in Glaucoma

Glaucoma stands as a primary cause of irreversible blindness globally, characterized by the progressive dysfunction and loss of retinal ganglion cells (RGCs). While current treatments primarily focus on controlling intraocular pressure (IOP), many patients continue to experience vision loss. Therefore, the research focus has shifted to therapeutic targets aimed at preventing or delaying RGC death and optic nerve degeneration to slow or halt disease progression. Traditional ocular drug administration, such as eye drops or oral medications, face significant challenges due to the eye's unique structural and physiological barriers, which limit effective drug delivery. Invasive methods like intravitreal injections can cause side effects such as bleeding, inflammation, and infection, making non-invasive delivery methods with high bioavailability very desirable. Nanotechnology presents a promising approach to addressing these limitations in glaucoma treatment. This review summarizes current approaches involving neuroprotective drugs combined with nanocarriers, and their impact for future use.

Deepening insights into cholinergic agents for intraocular pressure reduction: systems genetics, molecular modeling, and in vivo perspectives

Parasympathetic activation in the anterior eye segment regulates various physiological functions. This process, mediated by muscarinic acetylcholine receptors, also impacts intraocular pressure (IOP) through the trabecular meshwork. While FDA-approved M3 muscarinic receptor (M3R) agonists exist for IOP reduction, their systemic cholinergic adverse effects pose limitations in clinical use. Therefore, advancing our understanding of the cholinergic system in the anterior segment of the eye is crucial for developing additional IOP-reducing agents with improved safety profiles. Systems genetics analyses were utilized to explore correlations between IOP and the five major muscarinic receptor subtypes. Molecular docking and dynamics simulations were applied to human M3R homology model using a comprehensive set of human M3R ligands and 1,667 FDA-approved or investigational drugs. Lead compounds from the modeling studies were then tested for their IOP-lowering abilities in mice. Systems genetics analyses unveiled positive correlations in mRNA expressions among the five major muscarinic receptor subtypes, with a negative correlation observed only in M3R with IOP. Through modeling studies, rivastigmine and edrophonium emerged as the most optimally suited cholinergic drugs for reducing IOP via a potentially distinct mechanism from pilocarpine or physostigmine. Subsequent animal studies confirmed comparable IOP reductions among rivastigmine, edrophonium, and pilocarpine, with longer durations of action for rivastigmine and edrophonium. Mild cholinergic adverse effects were observed with pilocarpine and rivastigmine but absent with edrophonium. These findings advance ocular therapeutics, suggesting a more nuanced role of the parasympathetic system in the anterior eye segment for reducing IOP than previously thought.

Multifunctional nano-in-micro delivery systems for targeted therapy in fundus neovascularization diseases

Fundus neovascularization diseases are a series of blinding eye diseases that seriously impair vision worldwide. Currently, the means of treating these diseases in clinical practice are continuously evolving and have rapidly revolutionized treatment opinions. However, key issues such as inadequate treatment effectiveness, high rates of recurrence, and poor patient compliance still need to be urgently addressed. Multifunctional nanomedicine can specifically respond to both endogenous and exogenous microenvironments, effectively deliver drugs to specific targets and participate in activities such as biological imaging and the detection of small molecules. Nano-in-micro (NIM) delivery systems such as metal, metal oxide and up-conversion nanoparticles (NPs), quantum dots, and carbon materials, have shown certain advantages in overcoming the presence of physiological barriers within the eyeball and are widely used in the treatment of ophthalmic diseases. Few studies, however, have evaluated the efficacy of NIM delivery systems in treating fundus neovascular diseases (FNDs). The present study describes the main clinical treatment strategies and the adverse events associated with the treatment of FNDs with NIM delivery systems and summarizes the anatomical obstacles that must be overcome. In this review, we wish to highlight the principle of intraocular microenvironment normalization, aiming to provide a more rational approach for designing new NIM delivery systems to treat specific FNDs.

Fostering the unleashing potential of nanocarriers-mediated delivery of ocular therapeutics

Ocular delivery is the most challenging aspect in the field of pharmaceutical research. The major hurdle for the controlled delivery of drugs to the eye includes the physiological static barriers such as the complex layers of the cornea, sclera and retina which restrict the drug from permeating into the anterior and posterior segments of the eye. Recent years have witnessed inventions in the field of conventional and nanocarrier drug delivery which have shown considerable enhancement in delivering small to large molecules across the eye. The dynamic challenges associated with conventional systems include limited drug contact time and inadequate ocular bioavailability resulting from solution drainage, tear turnover, and dilution or lacrimation. To this end, various bioactive-based nanosized carriers including liposomes, ethosomes, niosomes, dendrimer, nanogel, nanofibers, contact lenses, nanoprobes, selenium nanobells, nanosponge, polymeric micelles, silver nanoparticles, and gold nanoparticles among others have been developed to circumvent the limitations associated with the conventional dosage forms. These nanocarriers have been shown to achieve enhanced drug permeation or retention and prolong drug release in the ocular tissue due to their better tissue adherence. The surface charge and the size of nanocarriers (10-1000 nm) are the important key factors to overcome ocular barriers. Various nanocarriers have been shown to deliver active therapeutic molecules including timolol maleate, ampicillin, natamycin, voriconazole, cyclosporine A, dexamethasone, moxifloxacin, and fluconazole among others for the treatment of anterior and posterior eye diseases. Taken together, in a nutshell, this extensive review provides a comprehensive perspective on the numerous facets of ocular drug delivery with a special focus on bioactive nanocarrier-based approaches, including the difficulties and constraints involved in the fabrication of nanocarriers. This also provides the detailed invention, applications, biodistribution and safety-toxicity of nanocarriers-based therapeutcis for the ophthalmic delivery.

Development and optimization of vildagliptin solid lipid nanoparticles loaded ocuserts for controlled ocular delivery: A promising approach towards treating diabetic retinopathy

Diabetes mellitus (DM) is the most prevalent cause of diabetic retinopathy (DRP). DRP has been recognized for a long time as a microvascular disease. Many drugs were used to treat DRP, including vildagliptin (VLD). In addition to its hypoglycemic effect, VLD minimizes ocular inflammation and improves retinal blood flow for individuals with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Nevertheless, VLD can cause upper respiratory tract infections, diarrhea, nausea, hypoglycemia, and poor tolerability when taken orally regularly due to its high water solubility and permeability. Effective ocular administration of VLD is achieved using solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNPs), which improve corneal absorption, prolonged retention, and extended drug release. Ocuserts (OCUs) are sterile, long-acting ocular dosage forms that diminish the need for frequent dosing while improving residence time and stability. Therefore, this study intends to develop VLD solid lipid nanoparticle OCUs (VLD-SLNPs-OCUs) to circumvent the issues commonly associated with VLD. SLNPs were prepared using the double-emulsion/melt dispersion technique. The optimal formula has been implemented in OCUs. Optimization and development of VLD-SLNPs-OCUs were performed using a Box-Behnken Design (BBD). VLD-SLNPs-OCUs loading efficiency was 95.28 ± 2.87%, and differential scanning calorimetry data (DSC) showed the full transformation of VLD to an amorphous state and the excellent distribution in the prepared OCUs matrices. The in vivo release of VLD from the optimized OCUs after 24 h was 35.12 ± 2.47%, consistent with in vitro drug release data of 36.89 ± 3.11. The optimized OCUs are safe to use in the eye, as shown by the ocular irritation test. VLD-SLNPs-OCUs provide extended VLD release, an advantageous alternative to conventional oral dose forms, resulting in fewer systemic adverse effects and less variation in plasma drug levels. VLD-SLNPs-OCUs might benefit retinal microvascular blood flow beyond blood glucose control and may be considered a promising approach to treating diabetic retinopathy.

The new preservative-free ophthalmic formulation of bilastine 0.6% preserves the ocular surface epithelial integrity in a comparative in vitro study

Allergic conjunctivitis (AC) is the most common form of allergic eye disease and an increasingly prevalent condition. Topical eye drop treatments are the usual approach for managing AC, although their impact on the ocular surface is not frequently investigated. The aim of this study was to perform a comparative physicochemical characterization, and in vitro biological evaluations in primary conjunctival and corneal epithelial cells of the new multidose preservative-free bilastine 0.6% and main commercially available eye drops. MTT assay was used to measure cell viability; oxidative stress was analyzed with a ROS-sensitive probe; and apoptosis was evaluated monitoring caspase 3/7 activation. Differences in pH value, osmolarity, viscosity and phosphate levels were identified. Among all formulations, bilastine exhibited pH, osmolarity and viscosity values closer to tear film (7.4, 300 mOsm/l and ~ 1.5-10 mPa·s, respectively), and was the only phosphates-free solution. Single-dose ketotifen did not induce ROS production, and single-dose azelastine and bilastine only induced a mild increase. Bilastine and single-dose ketotifen and azelastine showed high survival rates attributable to the absence of preservative in its formulation, not inducing caspase-3/7-mediated apoptosis after 24 h. Our findings support the use of the new bilastine 0.6% for treating patients with AC to preserve and maintain the integrity of the ocular surface.

Recent Advances in Nanotechnology for the Treatment of Dry Eye Disease

Dry eye disease (DED) incidence is continuously growing, positioning it to become an emergent health issue over the next few years. Several topical treatments are commonly used to treat DED; however, reports indicate that only a minor proportion of drug bioavailability is achieved by the majority of eye drops available on the market. In this context, enhancing drug ability to overcome ocular barriers and prolonging its residence time on the ocular surface represent a new challenge in the field of ocular carrier systems. Therefore, research has focused on the development of multi-functional nanosystems, such as nanoemulsions, liposomes, dendrimers, hydrogels, and other nanosized carriers. These systems are designed to improve topical drug bioavailability and efficacy and, at the same time, require fewer daily administrations, with potentially reduced side effects. This review summarizes the different nanotechnologies developed, their role in DED, and the nanotechnology-based eyedrops currently approved for DED treatment.

Polymeric microneedles for the eye: An overview of advances and ocular applications for minimally invasive drug delivery

Ocular drug delivery is challenging due to the presence of tissue barriers and clearance mechanisms. Most widely used topical formulations need frequent application because of poor permeability, short retention, and low bioavailability. Invasive intraocular injections and implants that deliver drugs at the target site are associated with infections, inflammation, and even vision loss post-use. These gaps can be addressed by a delivery platform that can efficiently deliver drug with minimal tissue damage. Microneedles were introduced as a delivery platform for overcoming dermal barriers with minimal tissue damage. After the successful clinical transition of microneedles in the transdermal drug delivery, they are now being extensively studied for ocular applications. The attributes of minimally invasive application and the capability to deliver a wide range of therapeutics make microneedles an attractive candidate for ocular drug delivery. The current manuscript provides a detailed overview of the recent advancements in the field of microneedles for ocular use. This paper reviews research focusing on polymeric microneedles and their pharmaceutical and biopharmaceutical properties. A brief discussion about their clinical translation and regulatory concerns is also covered. The multitude of research articles supports the fact that microneedles are a potential, minimally invasive drug delivery platform for ophthalmic use.

Nanoparticle-Mediated Cell Delivery: Advancements in Corneal Endothelial Regeneration

Corneal endothelial dysfunction poses significant challenges in ophthalmology, leading to corneal edema and vision loss. Traditional treatments, including corneal transplantation, are limited by donor scarcity and potential complications. Nanoparticle-mediated cell delivery emerges as a promising approach for corneal endothelial regeneration, offering targeted and minimally invasive solutions. This comprehensive review provides insights into the role of nanoparticles in enhancing cell survival, integration, and therapeutic efficacy. We discuss the current understanding of corneal endothelial dysfunction, emphasizing the importance of regeneration. Furthermore, we explore the potential implications of nanoparticle-mediated approaches in clinical practice, highlighting opportunities for personalized treatment strategies. Future directions are also discussed, including optimization of nanoparticle design and exploration of combination therapies. Overall, this review elucidates the promising advancements in nanoparticle-mediated cell delivery for corneal endothelial regeneration and underscores the importance of continued research efforts in this evolving field.

A comparison between the effects of two liposome-encapsulated bevacizumab formulations on ocular neovascularization inhibition

Bevacizumab (BVZ), an anti-VEGF antibody, has demonstrated reliable outcomes in the treatment of irritating ocular neovascularization. Frequent intravitreal injections are necessitated due to rapid clearance and short local accessibility. We recruited liposome as a highly prevailing drug delivery system to enhance drug availability. Two liposome formulations were characterized and their in vitro stability was analyzed. The toxicity of the formulations on some ocular cell lines was also evaluated. In addition, the anti-angiogenic effects of formulations were examined. Drug permeation was measured across ARPE-19 and HCE cell lines as in vitro cellular barrier models. Results revealed that NLP-DOPE-BVZ acquired high stability at 4 °C, 24 °C, and 37 °C for 45 days. It also showed more capacity to entrap BVZ in NLP-DOPE-BVZ (DEE% 69.1 ± 1.4 and DLE% 55.66 ± 1.15) as compared to NLP-BVZ (DEE% 43.57 ± 14.64, and DLE% 37.72 ± 12.01). Although both formulations inhibited the migration and proliferation of HUVECs, NLP-DOPE-BVZ was more effective at inhibiting angiogenesis. Furthermore, NLP-DOPE-BVZ better crossed our established barrier cellular models. Based on the findings, the inclusion of DOPE in NLPs has significantly enhanced the features of drug carriers. This makes them a potential candidate for treating ocular neovascularization and other related ailments.

Overview of processed excipients in ocular drug delivery: Opportunities so far and bottlenecks

Ocular drug delivery presents a unique set of challenges owing to the complex anatomy and physiology of the eye. Processed excipients have emerged as crucial components in overcoming these challenges and improving the efficacy and safety of ocular drug delivery systems. This comprehensive overview examines the opportunities that processed excipients offer in enhancing drug delivery to the eye. By analyzing the current landscape, this review highlights the successful applications of processed excipients, such as micro- and nano-formulations, sustained-release systems, and targeted delivery strategies. Furthermore, this article delves into the bottlenecks that have impeded the widespread adoption of these excipients, including formulation stability, biocompatibility, regulatory constraints, and cost-effectiveness. Through a critical evaluation of existing research and industry practices, this review aims to provide insights into the potential avenues for innovation and development in ocular drug delivery, with a focus on addressing the existing challenges associated with processed excipients. This synthesis contributes to a deeper understanding of the promising role of processed excipients in improving ocular drug delivery systems and encourages further research and development in this rapidly evolving field.

Enhancing Ocular Drug Delivery: The Effect of Physicochemical Properties of Nanoparticles on the Mechanism of Their Uptake by Human Cornea Epithelial Cells

This study investigates the effect of nanoparticle size and surface chemistry on interactions of the nanoparticles with human cornea epithelial cells (HCECs). Poly(lactic-co-glycolic) acid (PLGA) nanoparticles were synthesized using the emulsion-solvent evaporation method and surface modified with mucoadhesive (alginate [ALG] and chitosan [CHS]) and mucopenetrative (polyethylene glycol [PEG]) polymers. Particles were found to be monodisperse (polydispersity index (PDI) below 0.2), spherical, and with size and zeta potential ranging from 100 to 250 nm and from -25 to +15 mV, respectively. Evaluation of cytotoxicity with the 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyl-2H-tetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay indicated that incubating cells with nanoparticles for 24 h at concentrations up to 100 μg/mL caused only mild toxicity (70-100% cell viability). Cellular uptake studies were conducted using an in vitro model developed with a monolayer of HCECs integrated with simulated mucosal solution. Evaluation of nanoparticle uptake revealed that energy-dependent endocytosis is the primary uptake mechanism. Among the different nanoparticles studied, 100 nm PLGA NPs and PEG-PLGA-150 NPs showed the highest levels of uptake by HCECs. Additionally, uptake studies in the presence of various inhibitors suggested that macropinocytosis and caveolae-mediated endocytosis are the dominant pathways. While clathrin-mediated endocytosis was found to also be partially responsible for nanoparticle uptake, phagocytosis did not play a role within the studied ranges of size and surface chemistries. These important findings could lead to improved nanoparticle-based formulations that could improve therapies for ocular diseases.

Developments in Emerging Topical Drug Delivery Systems for Ocular Disorders

According to the current information, using nano gels in the eyes have therapeutic benefits. Industry growth in the pharmaceutical and healthcare sectors has been filled by nanotechnology. Traditional ocular preparations have a short retention duration and restricted drug bioavailability because of the eye's architectural and physiological barriers, a big issue for physicians, patients, and chemists. In contrast, nano gels can encapsulate drugs within threedimensional cross-linked polymeric networks. Because of their distinctive structural designs and preparation methods, they can deliver loaded medications in a controlled and sustained manner, enhancing patient compliance and therapeutic efficacy. Due to their excellent drugloading capacity and biocompatibility, nano-gels outperform other nano-carriers. This study focuses on using nano gels to treat eye diseases and provides a brief overview of their creation and response to stimuli. Our understanding of topical drug administration will be advanced using nano gel developments to treat common ocular diseases such as glaucoma, cataracts, dry eye syndrome, bacterial keratitis, and linked medication-loaded contact lenses and natural active ingredients.

An Updated Review on Nanoemulsion: Factory for Food and Drug Delivery

BACKGROUND

A nanoemulsion is a colloidal system of small droplets dispersed in another liquid. It has attracted considerable attention due to its unique properties and various applications. Throughout this review, we provide an overview of nanoemulsions and how they can be applied to various applications such as drug delivery, food applications, and pesticide formulations.

OBJECTIVE

This updated review aims to comprehensively overview nanoemulsions and their applications as a versatile platform for drug delivery, food applications, and pesticide formulations.

METHODS

Research relevant scientific literature across various databases, including PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science. Suitable keywords for this purpose include "nanoemulsion," "drug delivery," and "food applications." Ensure the search criteria include recent publications to ensure current knowledge is included.

RESULTS

Several benefits have been demonstrated in the delivery of drugs using nanoemulsions, including improved solubility, increased bioavailability, and controlled delivery. Nanoemulsions have improved some bioactive compounds in food applications, including vitamins and antioxidants. At the same time, pesticide formulations based on nanoemulsions have also improved solubility, shelf life, and effectiveness.

CONCLUSION

The versatility of nanoemulsions makes them ideal for drug delivery, food, and pesticide formulation applications. These products are highly soluble, bioavailable, and targeted, providing significant advantages. More research and development are required to implement nanoemulsion-based products on a commercial scale.

Polymeric Nanoparticles for Retinal Drug Delivery

This is an Editorial and does not have an abstract. Please download the PDF or view the article in HTML.

Hydrogels in Ophthalmology: Novel Strategies for Overcoming Therapeutic Challenges

The human eye's intricate anatomical and physiological design necessitates tailored approaches for managing ocular diseases. Recent advancements in ophthalmology underscore the potential of hydrogels as a versatile therapeutic tool, owing to their biocompatibility, adaptability, and customizability. This review offers an exploration of hydrogel applications in ophthalmology over the past five years. Emphasis is placed on their role in optimized drug delivery for the posterior segment and advancements in intraocular lens technology. Hydrogels demonstrate the capacity for targeted, controlled, and sustained drug release in the posterior segment of the eye, potentially minimizing invasive interventions and enhancing patient outcomes. Furthermore, in intraocular lens domains, hydrogels showcase potential in post-operative drug delivery, disease sensing, and improved biocompatibility. However, while their promise is immense, most hydrogel-based studies remain preclinical, necessitating rigorous clinical evaluations. Patient-specific factors, potential complications, and the current nascent stage of research should inform their clinical application. In essence, the incorporation of hydrogels into ocular therapeutics represents a seminal convergence of material science and medicine, heralding advancements in patient-centric care within ophthalmology.

PLGA Nanoparticles Containing Natural Flavanones for Ocular Inflammation

Flavanones are natural compounds that display anti-inflammatory activity. The aim of this work was to prepare PLGA nanoparticles (NPs) containing natural flavanones I ((2S)-5,7-dihydroxy-6-methyl-8-(3-methyl-2-buten-1-il)-2-phenyl-2,3-dihydro-4H-1-Benzopyran-4-one) and II (2S)-5,7-dihydroxy-2-(4'-methoxyphenyl)-6-methyl-8-(3-methyl-2-buten-1-yl)-2,3-dihydro-4H-1-Benzopyran-4-one) (NP I and NP II, respectively) so as to evaluate their potential for topical anti-inflammatory ocular therapy. An in silico study was carried out using the Molinspiration® and PASS Online web platforms before evaluating the in vitro release study and the ex vivo porcine cornea and sclera permeation. The HPLC analytical method was also established and validated. Finally, the in vitro anti-inflammatory efficacy of NPs was studied in the HCE-2 model. The flavanones I and II could be released following a kinetic hyperbolic model. Neither of the two NPs was able to permeate through the tissues. NP I and NP II were found to be respectful of any changes in the tissues' morphology, as evidenced by histological studies. In HCE-2 cells, NP I and NP II were not cytotoxic at concentrations up to 25 µM. NP I showed higher anti-inflammatory activity than NP II, being able to significantly reduce IL-8 production in LPS-treated HCE-2 cells. In summary, ocular treatment with NP I and NP II could be used as a promising therapy for the inhibition of ocular inflammation.

Optimization of hyaluronan-enriched cubosomes for bromfenac delivery enhancing corneal permeation: characterization, ex vivo, and in vivo evaluation

To design and evaluate hyaluronan-based cubosomes loaded with bromfenac sodium (BS) for ocular application to enhance the corneal permeation and retention in pterygium and cataract treatment. BS-loaded cubosomes were prepared by the emulsification method, employing 2³ full factorial design using Design-Expert® software. Glycerol monoolein (GMO) and poloxamer 407 (P407) as lipid phase and polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) as stabilizer were the used ingredients. The optimized formulation (OBC; containing GMO (7% w/w), P407 (0.7% w/w) and PVA (2.5% w/w)) was further evaluated. OBC had an entrapment efficiency of 61.66 ± 1.01%, a zeta potential of -30.80 ± 0.61 mV, a mean particle size of 149.30 ± 15.24 nm and a polydispersity index of 0.21 ± 0.02. Transmission electron microscopy confirmed its cubic shape and excellent dispersibility. OBC exhibited high stability and no ocular irritation that was ensured by histopathology. Ex vivo permeation study showed a significant increase in drug deposition and permeability parameters through goat cornea, besides, confocal laser microscopy established the superior permeation capability of OBC, as compared to drug solution. In vivo pharmacokinetics in aqueous humor indicated higher AUC_0-tlast (18.88 µg.h/mL) and mean residence time (3.16 h) of OBC when compared to the marketed eye drops (7.93 µg.h/mL and 1.97 h, respectively). Accordingly, hyaluronan-enriched cubosomes can be regarded as a promising carrier for safe and effective topical ocular delivery.

Ophthalmic Bimatoprost-Loaded Niosomal In Situ Gel: Preparation, Optimization, and In Vivo Pharmacodynamics Study

This study aimed at formulating the antiglaucoma agent, Bimatoprost (BMT), into niosomal in situ gel (BMT-ISG) for ocular delivery. Niosomes containing cholesterol/span 60 entrapping BMT were fabricated using a thin-film hydration method. The fabricated niosomes were optimized and characterized for entrapment efficiency (%EE) and size. The optimized BMT-loaded niosomal formulation prepared at a cholesterol/span 60 ratio of 1:2 exhibited the highest entrapment (81.2 ± 1.2%) and a small particle size (167.3 ± 9.1 nm), and they were selected for incorporation into in situ gelling systems (BMT-ISGs) based on Pluronic F127/Pluronic F68. Finally, the in vivo efficiency of the BMT-ISG formulation, in terms of lowering the intraocular pressure (IOP) in normotensive male albino rabbits following ocular administration, was assessed and compared to that of BMT ophthalmic solution. All the formulated BMT-ISGs showed sol-gel transition temperatures ranging from 28.1 °C to 40.5 ± 1.6 °C. In addition, the BMT-ISG formulation sustained in vitro BMT release for up to 24 h. Interestingly, in vivo experiments depicted that topical ocular administration of optimized BMT-ISG formulation elicited a significant decline in IOP, with maximum mean decreases in IOP of 9.7 ± 0.6 mm Hg, compared to BMT aqueous solution (5.8 ± 0.6 mm Hg). Most importantly, no signs of irritation to the rabbit's eye were observed following topical ocular administration of the optimized BMT-ISG formulation. Collectively, our results suggested that niosomal in situ gels might be a feasible delivery vehicle for topical ocular administration of anti-glaucoma agents, particularly those with poor ocular bioavailability.

Recent advancements in nanomaterial-laden contact lenses for diagnosis and treatment of glaucoma, review and update

Despite the existence of numerous eye drops in the market, most of them are not sufficiently effective because of quick clearance and the barriers within the eye. To increase the delivery of the drugs to the eye, various new formulations have been explored in recent decades. These formulations aim to enhance drug retention and penetration, while enabling sustained drug release over extended periods. One such innovative approach is the utilization of contact lenses, which were originally designed for cosmetic purposes and vision correction. Contact lenses have appeared as a promising formulation for ocular drug delivery, as they can increase the bioavailability of drugs in the eye and diminish unwanted side effects. They are specifically appropriate for treating chronic eye conditions, making them an area of interest for researchers in the field of ophthalmology. This review outlines the promising potential of nanomaterial-laden contact lenses for diagnosis and treatment of glaucoma. It classifies therapeutic approaches based on nanomaterial type, summarizes diagnostic advances, discusses improvement of contact lenses properties, covers marketing perspectives, and acknowledges the challenges of these innovative contact lenses for glaucoma management.

Exploring the Potential of Nanoporous Materials for Advancing Ophthalmic Treatments

The landscape of ophthalmology is undergoing significant transformations, driven by technological advancements and innovations in materials science. One of the advancements in this evolution is the application of nanoporous materials, endowed with unique physicochemical properties ideal for a variety of ophthalmological applications. Characterized by their high surface area, tunable porosity, and functional versatility, these materials have the potential to improve drug delivery systems and ocular devices. This review, anchored by a comprehensive literature focusing on studies published within the last five years, examines the applications of nanoporous materials in ocular drug delivery systems (DDS), contact lenses, and intraocular lenses. By consolidating the most current research, this review aims to serve as a resource for clinicians, researchers, and material scientists engaged in the rapidly evolving field of ophthalmology.

Chitosan-Based Nanogels Designed for Betanin-Rich Beetroot Extract Transport: Physicochemical and Biological Aspects

Nanotechnology has emerged as a possible solution to improve phytochemicals' limitations. The objective of the present study was to encapsulate beetroot extract (BR Ext) within a chitosan (CS)-based nanogel (NG) designed via ionic crosslinking with tripolyphosphate (TPP) for betanin (Bet) delivery, mainly in the ophthalmic environment. BR Ext is rich in betanin (Bet) according to thin layer chromatography (TLC), UV-visible spectroscopy, and HPLC analysis. NG presented a monodisperse profile with a size of 166 ± 6 nm and low polydispersity (0.30 ± 0.03). ζ potential (ζ-Pot) of +28 ± 1 is indicative of a colloidally stable system. BR Ext encapsulation efficiency (EE) was 45 ± 3%. TEM, with the respective 3D-surface plots and AFM, showed spherical-elliptical-shaped NG. The BR Ext release profile was biphasic with a burst release followed by slow and sustained phase over 12 h. Mucoadhesion assay demonstrated interactions between NG with mucin. Moreover, NG provided photoprotection and pH stability to BR Ext. FRAP and ABTS assays confirmed that BR Ext maintained antioxidant activity into NG. Furthermore, in vitro assays using human retinal cells displayed absence of cytotoxicity as well as an efficient protection against injury agents (LPS and H2O2). NGs are a promising platform for BR Ext encapsulation, exerting controlled release for ophthalmological use.

Challenges and strategies for ocular posterior diseases therapy via non-invasive advanced drug delivery

Posterior segment diseases, such as age-related macular degeneration (AMD) and diabetic retinopathy (DR) are vital factor that seriously threatens human vision health and quality of life, the treatment of which poses a great challenge to ophthalmologists and ophthalmic scientists. In particular, ocular posterior drug delivery in a non-invasive manner is highly desired but still faces many difficulties such as rapid drug clearance, limited permeability and low drug accumulation at the target site. At present, many novel non-invasive topical ocular drug delivery systems are under development aiming to improve drug delivery efficiency and biocompatibility for better therapy of posterior segment oculopathy. The purpose of this review is to present the challenges in the noninvasive treatment of posterior segment diseases, and to propose strategies to tackle these bottlenecks. First of all, barriers to ocular administration were introduced based on ocular physiological structure and behavior, including analysis and discussion on the influence of ocular structures on noninvasive posterior segment delivery. Thereafter, various routes of posterior drug delivery, both invasive and noninvasive, were illustrated, along with the respective anatomical obstacles that need to be overcome. The widespread and risky application of invasive drug delivery, and the need to develop non-invasive local drug delivery with alternative to injectable therapy were described. Absorption routes through topical administration and strategies to enhance ocular posterior drug delivery were then discussed. As a follow-up, an up-to-date research advances in non-invasive delivery systems for the therapy of ocular fundus lesions were presented, including different nanocarriers, contact lenses, and several other carriers. In conclusion, it seems feasible and promising to treat posterior oculopathy via non-invasive local preparations or in combination with appropriate devices.

Assessing the Efficacy of PLGA-Loaded Antimicrobial Peptide OH-CATH30 Microspheres for the Treatment of Bacterial Keratitis: A Promising Approach

Bacterial keratitis in animals presents challenges due to ocular structural barriers, hindering effective drug delivery. In this study, we used biocompatible and biodegradable poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) to encapsulate the naturally occurring antimicrobial peptide OH-CATH30, an alternative to conventional antibiotics, for the treatment of bacterial keratitis in animals. Microspheres (MS) were prepared using a modified water-in-oil-in-water (W/O/W) double-emulsion method with optimized osmotic pressure. We conducted comprehensive evaluations, including in vitro characterization, encapsulation efficiency determination, in vitro release kinetics, and in vivo/vitro assessments of irritation and bacterial inhibition. The optimized method yielded microspheres with impressive encapsulation efficiency of 75.2 ± 3.62% and a loading capacity of 18.25 ± 5.73%, exhibiting a well-defined particle size distribution (200-1000 nm) and a ζ-potential of -17.3 ± 1.91 mV. The microspheres demonstrated initial burst release followed by sustained and controlled release in vitro. Both in vitro and in vivo tolerance tests confirmed the biocompatibility of the drug-loaded microspheres, as they did not elicit significant irritation in ocular tissues. Remarkable antibacterial effects were observed in both in vitro and in vivo experiments. Our developed PLGA microspheres show promise as an alternative therapeutic option for topical administration in managing keratitis, offering exceptional drug delivery capabilities, improved bioavailability, and potent antibacterial efficacy.

Nanotechnology-based ocular drug delivery systems: recent advances and future prospects

Ocular drug delivery has constantly challenged ophthalmologists and drug delivery scientists due to various anatomical and physiological barriers. Static and dynamic ocular barriers prevent the entry of exogenous substances and impede therapeutic agents' active absorption. This review elaborates on the anatomy of the eye and the associated constraints. Followed by an illustration of some common ocular diseases, including glaucoma and their current clinical therapies, emphasizing the significance of drug therapy in treating ocular diseases. Subsequently, advances in ocular drug delivery modalities, especially nanotechnology-based ocular drug delivery systems, are recommended, and some typical research is highlighted. Based on the related research, systematic and comprehensive characterizations of the nanocarriers are summarized, hoping to assist with future research. Besides, we summarize the nanotechnology-based ophthalmic drugs currently on the market or still in clinical trials and the recent patents of nanocarriers. Finally, inspired by current trends and therapeutic concepts, we provide an insight into the challenges faced by novel ocular drug delivery systems and further put forward directions for future research. We hope this review can provide inspiration and motivation for better design and development of novel ophthalmic formulations.

A New Era in Ocular Therapeutics: Advanced Drug Delivery Systems for Uveitis and Neuro-Ophthalmologic Conditions

The eye's intricate anatomical barriers pose significant challenges to the penetration, residence time, and bioavailability of topically applied medications, particularly in managing uveitis and neuro-ophthalmologic conditions. Addressing this issue, polymeric nano-based drug delivery systems (DDS) have surfaced as a promising solution. These systems enhance drug bioavailability in hard-to-reach target tissues, extend residence time within ocular tissues, and utilize biodegradable and nanosized polymers to reduce undesirable side effects. Thus, they have stimulated substantial interest in crafting innovative treatments for uveitis and neuro-ophthalmologic diseases. This review provides a comprehensive exploration of polymeric nano-based DDS used for managing these conditions. We discuss the present therapeutic hurdles posed by these diseases and explore the potential role of various biopolymers in broadening our treatment repertoire. Our study incorporates a detailed literature review of preclinical and clinical studies from 2017 to 2023. Owing to advancements in polymer science, ocular DDS has made rapid strides, showing tremendous potential to revolutionize the treatment of patients with uveitis and neuro-ophthalmologic disorders.

Nanocarriers significantly augment the absorption of ocular-delivered drugs: A comparative meta-analysis study

This study presents a meta-analysis that compiles information collected from several studies aiming to prove, by evidence, that nanocarriers out-perform conventional formulations in augmenting the bioavailability of ocular topically administered drugs. Data was further categorized into two subgroups; polymeric-based nanocarriers versus their lipid-based counterparts, as well as, naturally-driven carriers versus synthetically-fabricated ones. After normalization, the pharmacokinetic factor, area under the curve (AUC), was denoted as the "effect" in the conducted study, and the corresponding Forest plots were obtained. Our meta-analysis study confirmed the absorption enhancement effect of loading drugs into nanocarriers as compared to conventional topical ocular dosage forms. Interestingly, no significant differences were recorded between the polymeric and lipidic nanocarriers included in the study, while naturally-driven nanoplatforms were proven superior to the synthetic alternatives.

Innovative Strategies for Drug Delivery to the Ocular Posterior Segment

Innovative and new drug delivery systems (DDSs) have recently been developed to vehicle treatments and drugs to the ocular posterior segment and the retina. New formulations and technological developments, such as nanotechnology, novel matrices, and non-traditional treatment strategies, open new perspectives in this field. The aim of this mini-review is to highlight promising strategies reported in the current literature based on innovative routes to overcome the anatomical and physiological barriers of the vitreoretinal structures. The paper also describes the challenges in finding appropriate and pertinent treatments that provide safety and efficacy and the problems related to patient compliance, acceptability, effectiveness, and sustained drug delivery. The clinical application of these experimental approaches can help pave the way for standardizing the use of DDSs in developing enhanced treatment strategies and personalized therapeutic options for ocular pathologies.

Trans-corneal drug delivery strategies in the treatment of ocular diseases

The cornea is a remarkable tissue that possesses specialized structures designed to safeguard the eye against foreign objects. However, its unique properties also make it challenging to deliver drugs in a non-invasive manner. This review highlights recent advancements in achieving highly efficient drug transport across the cornea, focusing on nanomaterials. We have classified these strategies into three main categories based on their mechanisms and have analyzed their success and limitations in a systematic manner. The purpose of this review is to examine potential general principles that could improve drug penetration through the cornea and other natural barriers in the eye. We hope it will inspire the development of more effective drug delivery systems that can better treat ocular diseases.

Advances in Nanogels for Topical Drug Delivery in Ocular Diseases

Nanotechnology has accelerated the development of the pharmaceutical and medical technology fields, and nanogels for ocular applications have proven to be a promising therapeutic strategy. Traditional ocular preparations are restricted by the anatomical and physiological barriers of the eye, resulting in a short retention time and low drug bioavailability, which is a significant challenge for physicians, patients, and pharmacists. Nanogels, however, have the ability to encapsulate drugs within three-dimensional crosslinked polymeric networks and, through specific structural designs and distinct methods of preparation, achieve the controlled and sustained delivery of loaded drugs, increasing patient compliance and therapeutic efficiency. In addition, nanogels have higher drug-loading capacity and biocompatibility than other nanocarriers. In this review, the main focus is on the applications of nanogels for ocular diseases, whose preparations and stimuli-responsive behaviors are briefly described. The current comprehension of topical drug delivery will be improved by focusing on the advances of nanogels in typical ocular diseases, including glaucoma, cataracts, dry eye syndrome, and bacterial keratitis, as well as related drug-loaded contact lenses and natural active substances.

Overcoming Treatment Challenges in Posterior Segment Diseases with Biodegradable Nano-Based Drug Delivery Systems

Posterior segment eye diseases present a challenge in treatment due to the complex structures in the eye that serve as robust static and dynamic barriers, limiting the penetration, residence time, and bioavailability of topical and intraocular medications. This hinders effective treatment and requires frequent dosing, such as the regular use of eye drops or visits to the ophthalmologist for intravitreal injections, to manage the disease. Moreover, the drugs must be biodegradable to minimize toxicity and adverse reactions, as well as small enough to not affect the visual axis. The development of biodegradable nano-based drug delivery systems (DDSs) can be the solution to these challenges. First, they can stay in ocular tissues for longer periods of time, reducing the frequency of drug administration. Second, they can pass through ocular barriers, offering higher bioavailability to targeted tissues that are otherwise inaccessible. Third, they can be made up of polymers that are biodegradable and nanosized. Hence, therapeutic innovations in biodegradable nanosized DDS have been widely explored for ophthalmic drug delivery applications. In this review, we will present a concise overview of DDSs utilized in the treatment of ocular diseases. We will then examine the current therapeutic challenges faced in the management of posterior segment diseases and explore how various types of biodegradable nanocarriers can enhance our therapeutic arsenal. A literature review of the pre-clinical and clinical studies published between 2017 and 2023 was conducted. Through the advances in biodegradable materials, combined with a better understanding of ocular pharmacology, the nano-based DDSs have rapidly evolved, showing great promise to overcome challenges currently encountered by clinicians.

Recent Progress of Solid Lipid Nanoparticles and Nanostructured Lipid Carriers as Ocular Drug Delivery Platforms

Sufficient ocular bioavailability is often considered a challenge by the researchers, due to the complex structure of the eye and its protective physiological mechanisms. In addition, the low viscosity of the eye drops and the resulting short ocular residence time further contribute to the observed low drug concentration at the target site. Therefore, various drug delivery platforms are being developed to enhance ocular bioavailability, provide controlled and sustained drug release, reduce the number of applications, and maximize therapy outcomes. Solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) and nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs) exhibit all these benefits, in addition to being biocompatible, biodegradable, and susceptible to sterilization and scale-up. Furthermore, their successive surface modification contributes to prolonged ocular residence time (by adding cationic compounds), enhanced penetration, and improved performance. The review highlights the salient characteristics of SLNs and NLCs concerning ocular drug delivery, and updates the research progress in this area.

Nanosystems for Brain Targeting of Antipsychotic Drugs: An Update on the Most Promising Nanocarriers for Increased Bioavailability and Therapeutic Efficacy

Orally administered antipsychotic drugs are the first-line treatment for psychotic disorders, such as schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. Nevertheless, adverse drug reactions jeopardize clinical outcomes, resulting in patient non-compliance. The design formulation strategies for enhancing brain drug delivery has been a major challenge, mainly due to the restrictive properties of the blood-brain barrier. However, recent pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic in vivo assays confirmed the advantage of the intranasal route when compared to oral and intravenous administration, as it allows direct nose-to-brain drug transport via neuronal pathways, reducing systemic side effects and maximizing therapeutic outcomes. In addition, the incorporation of antipsychotic drugs into nanosystems such as polymeric nanoparticles, polymeric mixed micelles, solid lipid nanoparticles, nanostructured lipid carriers, nanoemulsions, nanoemulgels, nanosuspensions, niosomes and spanlastics, has proven to be quite promising. The developed nanosystems, having a small and homogeneous particle size (ideal for nose-to-brain delivery), high encapsulation efficiency and good stability, resulted in improved brain bioavailability and therapeutic-like effects in animal models. Hence, although it is essential to continue research in this field, the intranasal delivery of nanosystems for the treatment of schizophrenia, bipolar disorder and other related disorders has proven to be quite promising, opening a path for future therapies with higher efficacy.

Innovation in the Development of Synthetic and Natural Ocular Drug Delivery Systems for Eye Diseases Treatment: Focusing on Drug-Loaded Ocular Inserts, Contacts, and Intraocular Lenses

Nowadays, ocular drug delivery still remains a challenge, since the conventional dosage forms used for anterior and posterior ocular disease treatments, such as topical, systemic, and intraocular administration methods, present important limitations mainly related to the anatomical complexity of the eye. In particular, the blood-ocular barrier along with the corneal barrier, ocular surface, and lacrimal fluid secretion reduce the availability of the administered active compounds and their efficacy. These limitations have increased the need to develop safe and effective ocular delivery systems able to sustain the drug release in the interested ocular segment over time. In the last few years, thanks to the innovations in the materials and technologies employed, different ocular drug delivery systems have been developed. Therefore, this review aims to summarize the synthetic and natural drug-loaded ocular inserts, contacts, and intraocular lenses that have been recently developed, emphasizing the characteristics that make them promising for future ocular clinical applications.

Implantable sustained-release drug delivery systems: a revolution for ocular therapeutics

PURPOSE

Due to the inimitable anatomical structure of the eyeball and various physiological barriers, conventional ocular local administration is often complicated by apparent shortcomings, such as limited bioavailability and short drug retention. Thus, developing methods for sustainable, safe and efficient drug delivery to ocular target sites has long been an urgent need. This study briefly summarizes the barriers to ocular drug administration and various ocular drug delivery routes and highlights recent progress in ocular implantable sustained-release drug delivery systems (DDSs) to provide literature evidence for developing novel ocular implants for sustained drug delivery.

METHODS

We conducted a comprehensive search of studies on ocular implantable sustained-release DDSs in PubMed and Web of Science using the following keywords: ocular, implantable and drug delivery system. More than 400 papers were extracted. Publications focused on sustained and controlled drug release were primarily considered. Experimental articles involving DDSs that cannot be implanted into the eye through surgeries and cannot be inserted into ocular tissues in solid form were excluded. Approximately 143 publications were reviewed to summarize the most current information on the subject.

RESULTS

In recent years, numerous ocular sustained-release DDSs using lipids, nanoparticles and hydrogels as carriers have emerged. With unique properties and systematic design, ocular implantable sustained-release DDSs are able to continuously maintain drug release, effectively sustain the therapeutic concentration in target tissues, and substantially enhance the therapeutic efficacy. Nevertheless, few ocular implantable sustained-release DDSs have been available in clinical use.

CONCLUSIONS

Ocular implantable sustained-release DDSs have become a new focus in the field of ocular drug development through unique designs and improvements in the materials of drug carriers, administration methods and dosage forms. With more ocular implantable sustained-release DDSs being commercialized, ocular therapeutics may be revolutionized.

An Update on Novel Ocular Nanosystems with Possible Benefits in the Treatment of Corneal Neovascularization

Corneal neovascularization (CNV) is an ocular pathological change that results from an imbalance between angiogenic factors and antiangiogenic factors as a result of various ocular insults, including infection, inflammation, hypoxia, trauma, corneal degeneration, and corneal transplantation. Current clinical strategies for the treatment of CNV include pharmacological treatment and surgical intervention. Despite some degree of success, the current treatment strategies are restricted by limited efficacy, adverse effects, and a short duration of action. Recently, gene-based antiangiogenic therapy has become an emerging strategy that has attracted considerable interest. However, potential complications with the use of viral vectors, such as potential genotoxicity resulting from long-term expression and nonspecific targeting, cannot be ignored. The use of ocular nanosystems (ONS) based on nanotechnology has emerged as a great advantage in ocular disease treatment during the last two decades. The potential functions of ONS range from nanocarriers, which deliver drugs and genes to target sites in the eye, to therapeutic agents themselves. Various preclinical studies conducted to date have demonstrated promising results of the use of ONS in the treatment of CNV. In this review, we provide an overview of CNV and its current therapeutic strategies and summarize the properties and applications of various ONS related to the treatment of CNV reported to date. Our goal is to provide a comprehensive review of these considerable advances in ONS in the field of CNV therapy over the past two decades to fill the gaps in previous related reports. Finally, we discuss existing challenges and future perspectives of the use of ONS in CNV therapy, with the goal of providing a theoretical contribution to facilitate future practical growth in the area.

Lessons learned from immunological characterization of nanomaterials at the Nanotechnology Characterization Laboratory

Nanotechnology carriers have become common in pharmaceutical products because of their benefits to drug delivery, including reduced toxicities and improved efficacy of active pharmaceutical ingredients due to targeted delivery, prolonged circulation time, and controlled payload release. While available examples of reduced drug toxicity through formulation using a nanocarrier are encouraging, current data also demonstrate that nanoparticles may change a drug’s biodistribution and alter its toxicity profile. Moreover, individual components of nanoparticles and excipients commonly used in formulations are often not immunologically inert and contribute to the overall immune responses to nanotechnology-formulated products. Said immune responses may be beneficial or adverse depending on the indication, dose, dose regimen, and route of administration. Therefore, comprehensive toxicology studies are of paramount importance even when previously known drugs, components, and excipients are used in nanoformulations. Recent data also suggest that, despite decades of research directed at hiding nanocarriers from the immune recognition, the immune system’s inherent property of clearing particulate materials can be leveraged to improve the therapeutic efficacy of drugs formulated using nanoparticles. Herein, I review current knowledge about nanoparticles’ interaction with the immune system and how these interactions contribute to nanotechnology-formulated drug products’ safety and efficacy through the lens of over a decade of nanoparticle characterization at the Nanotechnology Characterization Laboratory.

Advances in in-vitro bioequivalence testing methods for complex ophthalmic generic products

The United States Food and Drug Administration (USFDA) demands that the generic industry prove topical ocular products' pharmaceutical and bioequivalence (BE). In contrast to generic oral drugs, topical ocular product BE testing has proved difficult. New generic versions are compared to an authorized drug product known as a Reference Listed Drug (RLD) to demonstrate their bioequivalence. If the excellent in-vitro results may support the presumption of equivalence in-vivo performance and the only clinically significant difference between the generic and RLD is in its physicochemical qualities and drug release rate, then in-vivo BE studies may be waived. Proving BE through dissolution tests is a golden standard for most conventional dosage forms. However, due to the limited number of biorelevant in-vitro drug release testing (IVRT) approaches capable of differentiating their performance based on product quality and physicochemical properties, the development of generic ophthalmic products has been slow and time-consuming. Often, BE of topical ophthalmic formulations cannot be proved using a single in-vitro test; therefore, an elaborated discussion on various IVRT methods performed to demonstrate bioequivalence of complex generis like ophthalmic emulsions, suspensions, ointments, and gels is necessary. This manuscript aims to review the status of biowaiver criteria for complex ophthalmic products concerning the product-specific FDA guidance to the generic industry.

Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor-Mediated Neuroprotection in Glaucoma: A Review of Current State of the Art

Retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) are neurons of the visual system that are responsible for transmitting signals from the retina to the brain via the optic nerve. Glaucoma is an optic neuropathy characterized by apoptotic loss of RGCs and degeneration of optic nerve fibers. Risk factors such as elevated intraocular pressure and vascular dysregulation trigger the injury that culminates in RGC apoptosis. In the event of injury, the survival of RGCs is facilitated by neurotrophic factors (NTFs), the most widely studied of which is brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF). Its production is regulated locally in the retina, but transport of BDNF retrogradely from the brain to retina is also crucial. Not only that the interruption of this retrograde transport has been detected in the early stages of glaucoma, but significantly low levels of BDNF have also been detected in the sera and ocular fluids of glaucoma patients, supporting the notion that neurotrophic deprivation is a likely mechanism of glaucomatous optic neuropathy. Moreover, exogenous NTF including BDNF administration was shown reduce neuronal loss in animal models of various neurodegenerative diseases, indicating the possibility that exogenous BDNF may be a treatment option in glaucoma. Current literature provides an extensive insight not only into the sources, transport, and target sites of BDNF but also the intracellular signaling pathways, other pathways that influence BDNF signaling and a wide range of its functions. In this review, the authors discuss the neuroprotective role of BDNF in promoting the survival of RGCs and its possible application as a therapeutic tool to meet the challenges in glaucoma management. We also highlight the possibility of using BDNF as a biomarker in neurodegenerative disease such as glaucoma. Further we discuss the challenges and future strategies to explore the utility of BDNF in the management of glaucoma.