Thyroid Disruption in Zebrafish Larvae by Short-Term Exposure to Bisphenol AF

Thyroid disrupting effects and the developmental toxicity of hexafluoropropylene oxide oligomer acids in zebrafish during early development

As perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) alternatives, hexafluoropropylene oxide dimeric acid (HFPO-DA) and hexafluoropropylene oxide trimeric acid (HFPO-TA) have been increasingly used and caused considerable water pollution. However, their toxicities to aquatic organisms are still not well known. Therefore, in this study, zebrafish embryos were exposed to PFOA (0, 1.5, 3 and 6 mg/L), HFPO-DA (0, 3, 6 and 12 mg/L) and HFPO-TA (0, 1, 2 and 4 mg/L) to comparatively investigate their thyroid disrupting effects and the developmental toxicity. Results demonstrated that waterborne exposure to PFOA and its two alternatives decreased T4 contents, the heart rate and swirl-escape rate of zebrafish embryos/larvae. The transcription levels of genes related to thyroid hormone regulation (crh), biosynthesis (tpo and tg), function (trα and trβ), transport (transthyretin, ttr), and metabolism (dio1, dio2 and ugt1ab), were differently altered after the exposures, which induced the thyroid disrupting effects and decreased the heart rate. In addition, the transcription levels of some genes related to the nervous system development were also significantly affected, which was associated with the thyroid disrupting effects and consequently affected the locomotor activity of zebrafish. Therefore, HFPO-DA and HFPO-TA could not be safe alternatives to PFOA. Further studies to uncover the underlying mechanisms of these adverse effects are warranted.

Iopanoic acid alters thyroid hormone-related gene expression, thyroid hormone levels, swim bladder inflation, and swimming performance in Japanese medaka

Disruption of the thyroid hormone system by synthetic chemicals is gaining attention owing to its potential negative effects on organisms. In this study, the effects of the dio-inhibitor iopanoic acid (IOP) on the levels of thyroid hormone and related gene expression, swim bladder inflation, and swimming performance were investigated in Japanese medaka. Iopanoic acid exposure suppressed thyroid-stimulating hormone β (tshβ), tshβ-like, iodotyronin deiodinase 1 (dio1), and dio2 expression, and increased T4 and T3 levels. In addition, IOP exposure inhibited swim bladder inflation, reducing swimming performance. Although adverse outcome pathways of thyroid hormone disruption have been developed using zebrafish, no adverse outcome pathways have been developed using Japanese medaka. This study confirmed that IOP inhibits dio expression (a molecular initiating event), affects T3 and T4 levels (a key event), and reduces swim bladder inflation (a key event) and swimming performance (an adverse outcome) in Japanese medaka.

Cyhexatin causes developmental toxic effects by disrupting endocrine system and inducing behavioral inhibition, apoptosis and DNA hypomethylation in zebrafish (Danio rerio) larvae

Cyhexatin (CYT), an organotin acaricide, is extensively utilized in developing countries to mitigate plant diseases caused by mites and minimize agricultural crop losses. However, the comprehensive mechanisms underlying the developmental stage of non-target organisms remain largely unexplored. In this study, zebrafish embryos were firstly exposed to CYT (0.06, 0.12, and 0.20 ng/mL, referred to as CYTL, CYTM, and CYTH, respectively) from 2 hpf (hours post fertilization) to 30 dpf (days post fertilization). No developmental toxicity was observed in the CYTL and CYTM groups, except for induced deformed phenotypes in the CYTM group at 120 hpf. However, exposure to CYTH resulted in significant reductions in spontaneous movement (24 hpf), heart rate (48 hpf), hatching rate (48 and 72 hpf), body weight (30 dpf), whole body length (30 dpf), and locomotion (30 dpf). Additionally, CYTH exposure induced morphological malformations, including spinal curvature, pericardial edema, and tail curvature in zebrafish larvae. Moreover, CYTH treatment induced apoptosis, increased reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, and resulted in significant reductions in free T3, cholesterol, estradiol, and testosterone levels in zebrafish larvae, while free T4 levels were increased. RNA-Seq analysis indicated that CYTH exposure led to significant alterations in the genome-wide gene expression profiles of zebrafish, particularly in the thyroid hormone and steroid biosynthesis signaling pathways, indicating endocrine disruption. Furthermore, CYTH exposure induced global DNA hypomethylation, reduced S-adenosylmethionine (SAM) levels and the SAM/S-adenosylhomocysteine (SAH) ratio, elevated SAH levels, and suppressed the mRNA expression of DNA methyltransferases (DNMTs) while also downregulating DNMT1 at both the gene and protein levels in zebrafish larvae. Overall, this study partially elucidated the developmental toxicity and endocrine disruption caused by CYT in zebrafish, providing evidence of the environmental hazards associated with this acaricide.

Toxic effects of bisphenol AF on the embryonic development of marine medaka (Oryzias melastigma)

Bisphenol AF (BPAF), an emerging environmental endocrine disruptor, has been detected in surface waters worldwide and has adverse effects on aquatic organisms. The accumulation of BPAF in oceans and its potential toxic effect on marine organisms are important concerns. In this study, the effects of BPAF (10, 100, 1, and 5 mg/L) on marine medaka (Oryzias melastigma) were evaluated, including effects on the survival rate, heart rate, hatchability, morphology, and gene expression in embryos. The survival rate of marine medaka embryos was significantly lower after treatment with 5 mg/L BPAF than in the solvent control group. Exposure to 1 mg/L and 5 mg/L BPAF significantly reduced hatchability. Low-dose BPAF (10 μg/L) significantly accelerated the heart rate of embryos, while high-dose BPAF (5 mg/L) significantly decreased the heart rate. BPAF exposure also resulted in notochord curvature, pericardial edema, yolk sac cysts, cardiovascular bleeding, and caudal curvature in marine medaka. At the molecular level, BPAF exposure affected the transcript levels of genes involved in the thyroid system (dio1, dio3a, trhr2, tg, and thra), cardiovascular system (gata4, atp2a1, and cacna1da), nervous system (elavl3 and gap43), and antioxidant and inflammatory systems (sod, pparβ, and il-8) in embryos. These results indicate that BPAF exposure can alter the expression of functional genes, induce abnormal development, and reduce the hatching and survival rates in marine medaka embryos. Overall, BPAF can adversely affect the survival and development of marine medaka embryos, and BPAF may not be an ideal substitute for BPA.

The associations between concentrations of gestational bisphenol analogues and thyroid related hormones in cord blood: A prospective cohort study

Animal studies indicated that Bisphenol analogues (BPs) exhibited potential thyroid toxicity. However, little is known of the associations between maternal BPs exposure and offspring's thyroid related hormones in humans. On the basis of Shanghai-Minhang Birth Cohort study, we analyzed BPs in maternal urine collected at the third trimester of pregnancy. Thyroid related hormones (THs), including total triiodothyronine (TT3), free triiodothyronine (FT3), total thyroxine (TT4), free thyroxine (FT4), and thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) were measured in cord blood samples. We performed multiple linear regression and Bayesian kernel machine regression (BKMR) models to explore the single and joint effects of gestational BPs exposure on thyroid related hormones in cord blood among 258 mother-child pairs. Statistically significant inverse associations of categorized BPA with FT3 and TT4 concentrations were observed. We also found a significant association between the mixture of BPs in maternal urine and increased concentration of TT3 in cord blood and a marginally significant association between BPs mixture and increased FT3 concentrations. Further associations of BPA with lower TT4/FT4 and of Bisphenol AF (BPAF) with higher TT3/FT3 were also suggestive, by BKMR model, when other BPs were fixed at 25th percentiles. It was concluded that prenatal BPs exposure was associated with THs in cord blood. Exposure to BPA and BPAF might have large contributions to the effects on thyroid function than other bisphenols.

Thyroid endocrine disruption induced by [C8mim]Br: An integrated in vivo, in vitro, and in silico study

Conventional thyroid-disrupting chemicals (TDCs) such as polybrominated diphenyl ethers, polychlorinated biphenyls, and bisphenols perturb animal's thyroid endocrine system by mimicking the action of endogenous thyroid hormones (THs), since they share a similar backbone structure of coupled benzene rings with THs. 1-methyl-3-octylimidazolium bromide ([C₈mim]Br), a commonly used ionic liquid (IL), has no structural similarity to THs. Whether it interferes with thyroid function and how its mode of action differs from conventional TDCs is largely unknown. Herein, zebrafish embryo-larvae experiments (in vivo), GH3 cell line studies (in vitro), and molecular simulation analyses (in silico) were carried out to explore the effect of [C₈mim]Br on thyroid homeostasis and its underlying mechanism. Molecular docking results suggested that [C₈mim]⁺ likely bound to retinoid X receptors (RXRs), which may compromise the formation of TH receptor/RXR heterodimers. This then perturbed the negative regulation of thyroid-stimulating hormone β (tshβ) transcription by T3 in GH3 cell line. The resulting enhancement of tshβ expression further caused hyperthyroidism and developmental toxicity in larval zebrafish. These findings provided a crucial aspect of the ecological risks of ILs, and presented a new insight into the thyroid-disrupting mechanisms for emerging pollutants that do not have structural similarity to THs.

Zebrafish as an emerging tool for drug discovery and development for thyroid diseases

Zebrafish is a useful model for understanding human genetics and diseases and has evolved into a prominent scientific research model. The genetic structure of zebrafish is 70% identical to that of humans. Its small size, low cost, and transparent embryo make it a valuable tool in experimentation. Zebrafish and mammals possess the same molecular mechanism of thyroid organogenesis and development. Thus, thyroid hormone signaling, embryonic development, thyroid-related disorders, and novel genes involved in early thyroid development can all be studied using zebrafish as a model. Here in this review, we emphasize the evolving role of zebrafish as a possible tool for studying the thyroid gland in the context of physiology and pathology. The transcription factors nkx2.1a, pax2a, and hhex which contribute a pivotal role in the differentiation of thyroid primordium are discussed. Further, we have described the role of zebrafish as a model for thyroid cancer, evaluation of defects in thyroid hormone transport, thyroid hormone (TH) metabolism, and as a screening tool to study thyrotoxins. Hence, the present review highlights the role of zebrafish as a novel approach to understand thyroid development and organogenesis.

Effects of tetramethyl bisphenol F on thyroid and growth hormone-related endocrine systems in zebrafish larvae

Trimethyl bisphenol F (TMBPF) has recently been used as a bisphenol A substitute in polymer coatings for metal cans containing beverages or food. This study investigated whether TMBPF disrupts the endocrine system associated with thyroid hormones and growth hormones employing zebrafish embryos and larvae. After 14 days of exposure, body weight was significantly reduced when zebrafish were exposed to a TMBPF concentration greater than 50 μg/L. The triiodothyronine levels were significantly increased, while growth hormone levels were significantly decreased in larvae exposed to 5 μg/L TMBPF. The transcription of genes associated with thyroid hormone production (trα, tpo, tg, and nis), deiodination (deio2), growth hormone production (gh1, ghrh, and ghra), and insulin-like growth factor (igf2a, igf2b, igf2r, igfbp1a, igfbp1b, igfbp2a, igfbp2b, and igfbp5a) was significantly upregulated, whereas the transcription of genes association with thyrotropin-releasing hormone (trh and trhr1) was significantly downregulated. These results suggest that hyperthyroidism, decrease in growth hormone, and regulation of genes involved in the hypothalamus-pituitary-thyroid and growth hormone/insulin-like growth factor might be responsible for the observed growth inhibition in larvae exposed to TMBPF. The bioaccumulation of TMBPF and its effects on the endocrine system after chronic exposure requires further investigation.

Effect of Acute Exposure to the Ionic Liquid 1-Methyl-3-octylimidazolium Chloride on the Embryonic Development and Larval Thyroid System of Zebrafish

Simple Summary

In this study, we aimed to evaluate the effect of acute exposure to the ionic liquid 1-methyl-3-octylimidazolium chloride on the embryonic development and larval thyroid system of zebrafish. The results showed that the fish embryonic development, thyroid hormone level, and expression of HPTs-related genes were altered, suggesting that the ionic liquid [C8mim]Cl might pose an aquatic environmental threat to fish.

Abstract

Previous studies have shown that ILs can induce toxicity in animals, plants, and cells. However, the effect of imidazolium-based ILs on the hypothalamus–pituitary–thyroid (HPT) axis of fish remains unknown. The present study aimed to evaluate the acute effect of [C8mim]Cl on the embryonic development and thyroid-controlled internal secretion system of zebrafish by determining the thyroid hormone level and the expression of HPT-related genes. The results obtained for embryonic developmental toxicity showed the survival rate, heart beats, and body length of fish had decreased 96 h after exposure to [C8mim]Cl, but the hatching rate had increased by the 48 h time point. The transcription levels of HTP-related genes showed that the genes dio3, tg, ttr, tsh, trhrα, trhrβ, trhr2, and tpo were up-regulated, while the expression levels of dio1, trh, tshr, and nis were significantly suppressed. Furthermore, we found that exposure to [C8mim]Cl induced an alteration in the levels of thyroid hormones that increased the T3 but decreased the T4 content. In conclusion, our study indicated that acute exposure to [C8mim]Cl altered the expression of HTP-related genes and disturbed the thyroid hormone level, suggesting that the ionic liquid [C8mim]Cl might pose an aquatic environmental threat to fish.

Thyroid endocrine disruption and hepatotoxicity induced by bisphenol AF: Integrated zebrafish embryotoxicity test and deep learning

Bisphenol AF (BPAF) is an emerging contaminant prevalent in the environment as one of main substitutes of bisphenol A (BPA). It was found that BPAF exhibited estrogenic effects in zebrafish larvae in our previous study, while little is known about its effects on the thyroid and liver. A 7 d zebrafish embryotoxicity test was conducted to study the potential thyroid disruption and hepatotoxicity of BPAF. BPAF decreased levels of thyroid hormones and deiodinases but increased expressions of transthyretin at 12.5 and 125 μg/L after 7 d exposure, indicating that both the metabolism and transport of thyroid hormones were perturbed. The thyroid hormone receptor (TR) levels decreased significantly upon exposure to ≥12.5 μg/L BPAF, implying that BPAF acts as a TR antagonist, which coincided well with the prediction from the Direct Message Passing Neural Network. The liver impairment (mainly cell necrosis of hepatocytes) and apoptosis were triggered by 125 μg/L and ≥12.5 μg/L BPAF respectively, accompanied by the increased activities of caspase 3 and caspase 9. Thus BPAF might not be a safe alternative to BPA given the thyroid and liver toxicity. DMPNN appears useful to screen for thyroid disrupting activity from molecular structures.

Effects of methylisothiazolinone and octylisothiazolinone on development and thyroid endocrine system in zebrafish larvae

Methylisothiazolinone (MIT) and octylisothiazolinone (OIT) are used as preservatives and biocides to prevent product decay or deterioration. In the present study, developmental toxicity and the effect on the thyroid endocrine system were investigated in zebrafish embryos exposed to MIT and OIT for 96 h. Coagulation was significantly increased when zebrafish embryos were exposed to a concentration of 300 μg/L MIT and ≥ 0.3 μg/L OIT, resulting in a significant decrease in hatchability and larvae survival. The body length in zebrafish larvae exposed to 30 μg/L OIT was significantly shorter than that of the control group. The whole-body levels of triiodothyronine and thyroxine were significantly decreased in larvae exposed to MIT and OIT. Significant upregulation of crh, trh, tshβ, and tshr genes and downregulation of trαa, tg, ttr, and deio2 genes were observed in fish exposed to two isothiazolinones. The expression of dre-miR-193b and dre-miR-499 was significantly increased in zebrafish larvae exposed to MIT and OIT, indicating that epigenetic deregulation of miRNAs modulated genes involved in thyroid hormone regulation. OIT has a higher magnitude of toxicity than MIT, corresponding to the observed changes in thyroid hormones and developmental toxicity.

The Effect of Early Life Exposure to Triclosan on Thyroid Follicles and Hormone Levels in Zebrafish

Triclosan (TCS) is an antimicrobial chemical widely used in personal care products. Most of the TCS component is discharged and enters the aquatic ecosystem after usage. TCS has a similar structure as thyroid hormones that are synthesized by thyroid follicular epithelial cells, thus TCS has a potential endocrine disrupting effect. It is still not clear how the different levels of the environmental TCS would affect early development in vivo. This study examines the effects of TCS on thyroid hormone secretion and the early development of zebrafish. The fertilized zebrafish eggs were exposed to TCS at 0 (control), 3, 30, 100, 300, and 900 ng/mL, and the hatching rate and the larvae mortality were inspected within the first 14 days. The total triiodothyronine (TT₃), total thyroxine (TT₄), free triiodothyronine (FT₃), and free thyroxine (FT₄) were measured at 7, 14, and 120 days post-fertilization (dpf). The histopathological examinations of thyroid follicles were conducted at 120 dpf. TCS exposure at 30-300 ng/mL reduced the hatching rate of larvae to 34.5% to 28.2 % in the first 48 hours and 93.8 .7 % to 86.8 % at 72 h. Extremely high TCS exposure (900 ng/mL) strongly inhibited the hatching rate, and all the larvae died within 1 day. Exposure to TCS from 3 to 300 ng/mL reduced the thyroid hormones production. The mean TT₃ and FT₃ levels of zebrafish decreased in 300 ng/mL TCS at 14 dpf (300 ng/mL TCS vs. control : TT₃ , 0.19 ± 0.08 vs. 0.39 ± 0.06; FT₃, 19.21 ± 3.13 vs. 28.53 ± 1.98 pg/mg), and the FT₄ decreased at 120 dpf ( 0.09 ± 0.04 vs. 0.20 ± 0.14 pg/mg). At 120 dpf , in the 300 ng/mL TCS exposure group, the nuclear area and the height of thyroid follicular epithelial cells became greater, and the follicle cell layer got thicker. This happened along with follicle hyperplasia, nuclear hypertrophy, and angiogenesis in the thyroid. Our study demonstrated that early life exposure to high TCS levels reduces the rate and speed of embryos hatching, and induces the histopathological change of thyroid follicle, and decreases the TT₃, FT₃, and FT₄ production in zebrafish.

Fish toxicity testing for identification of thyroid disrupting chemicals

Identification of thyroid disrupting chemicals (TDCs), one of the most studied types of endocrine disruptors (EDs), is required according to EU regulations on industrial chemicals, pesticides, and biocides. Following that requirement, the use of fish as a unique non-mammalian model species for identification of EDs may be warranted. This study summarized and evaluated effects of TDCs on fish thyroid sensitive endpoints including thyroid hormones, thyroid related gene expression, immunostaining for thyroid follicles, eye size and pigmentation, swim bladder inflation as well as effects of TDCs on secondary sex characteristics, sex ratio, growth and reproduction. Changes in thyroid sensitive endpoints may reflect the balanced outcome of different processes of the thyroid cascade. Thyroid sensitive endpoints may also be altered by non-thyroid molecular or endocrine pathways as well as non-specific factors such as general toxicity, development, stress, nutrient, and the environmental factors like temperature and pH. Defining chemical specific effects on thyroid sensitive endpoints is important for identification of TDCs. Application of the AOP (adverse outcome pathway) concept could be helpful for defining critical events needed for testing and identification of TDCs in fish.

The possible hormetic effects of fluorene-9-bisphenol on regulating hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid axis in zebrafish

Fluorene-9-bisphenol (BHPF) is a bisphenol A substitute, which has been introduced for the production of so-called 'bisphenol A (BPA)-free' plastics. However, it has been reported that BHPF can enter living organisms through using commercial plastic bottles and cause adverse effects. To date, the majority of the toxicologic study of BHPF focused on investigating its doses above the toxicological threshold. Here, we studied the effects of BHPF on development, locomotion, neuron differentiation of the central nervous system (CNS), and the expression of genes in the hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid (HPT) axis in zebrafish exposed to different doses of BHPF ranging from 1/5 of LD1 to LD50 (300, 500, 750, 1500, 3000, and 4500 nM). As a result, the possible hormetic effects of BHPF on regulating the HPT axis were revealed, in which low-dose BHPF positively affected the HPT axis while this regulation was inhibited as the dose increased. Underlying mechanism investigation suggested that BHPF disrupted myelination through affecting HPT axis including related genes expression and TH levels, thus causing neurotoxic characteristics. Collectively, this study provides the full understanding of the environmental impact of BHPF and its toxicity on living organisms, highlighting a substantial and generalized ongoing dose-response relationship with great implications for the usage and risk assessment of BHPF.

Crosstalk of cholinergic pathway on thyroid disrupting effects of the insecticide chlorpyrifos in zebrafish (Danio rerio)

Chlorpyrifos is a widely used organophosphate insecticide and ubiquitously detected in the environment. However, little attention has been paid to its endocrine disrupting effect to non-target organisms. In the present study, zebrafish was exposed to 13 and 65 μg/L of chlorpyrifos for 7 and 10 days to determine the induced neurotoxicity and the alteration of thyroid metabolism. The 120 h LC₅₀ and LC₁₀ of chlorpyrifos was estimated as 1.35 mg/L and 0.62 mg/L based on the acute embryo toxicity assay, respectively. The acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibitory was detected by 13 μg/L chlorpyrifos and could be reversed by the co-exposure of 100 and 1000 μg/L anticholinergic agent atropine. For thyroid hormone level, 13 and 65 μg/L of chlorpyrifos induced increased free T₃ levels in 10 dpf (days post-fertilization). The expression of thyroid related genes in 7 and 10 dpf exposed zebrafish were measured by the quantitative Real-Time PCR (qRT-PCR) assay. The mRNA expression of tshba, thrb, crhb, ttr, tpo, ugt1ab and slc5a5 had significant change. However, the alterations of thyroid hormone and mRNA expression could be partly rescued by the addition of atropine. The molecular docking of chlorpyrifos and T₃ to the thyroid receptor β in zebrafish using homology modelling and CDOCKER procedures shown weaker binding ability of chlorpyrifos compared to T₃. Therefore, we concluded that the disturbance of thyroid signaling in zebrafish might arise from the developmental neurotoxicity induced by chlorpyrifos.

An investigation of systemic exposure to bisphenol AF during critical periods of development in the rat

Due to structural similarity to bisphenol A and lack of safety data, the National Toxicology Program (NTP) is evaluating the potential toxicity of bisphenol AF (BPAF) in rodent models. The current investigation reports the internal exposure data for free (unconjugated BPAF) and total (free and conjugated forms) BPAF during critical stages of development following perinatal dietary exposure in Hsd:Sprague Dawley®SD® rats to 0 (vehicle control), 338, 1125, and 3750 ppm BPAF from gestation day (GD) 6 to postnatal day (PND) 28. Free and total BPAF concentrations in maternal plasma at GD 18, PND 4, and PND 28 increased with the exposure concentration; free BPAF concentrations were ≤ 1.61% those of total BPAF demonstrating extensive first pass metabolism of BPAF following dietary exposure in adults. Free and total BPAF were quantified in GD 18 fetuses and PND 4 pups with free concentrations 11.7-53.4% that of corresponding total concentrations. In addition, free concentrations were higher (130-571%) and total concentrations were lower (1.71-7.23%) than corresponding concentrations in dams, demonstrating either preferential transfer of free BPAF and/or inability of fetuses and pups to conjugate BPAF. Free and total concentrations in PND 28 pups were similar to maternal concentrations demonstrating direct exposure of pups via feed and that conjugating enzymes are developed in PND 28 pups. In conclusion, these data demonstrate considerable gestational and lactational transfer of parent aglycone from the mother to offspring. Since the ontogeny of conjugating enzymes in humans is similar to that of rodents, the data from rodent BPAF studies may be useful in predicting human risk from exposure to BPAF.

Bisphenols emerging in Norwegian and Czech aquatic environments show transthyretin binding potency and other less-studied endocrine-disrupting activities

Bisphenols are increasingly recognized as environmental pollutants with endocrine-disrupting potential. Nonetheless, the study of environmental occurrence and some endocrine-disrupting activities of some bisphenols came widely into focus of research only recently. The aims of the present study were to: 1) determine the predominant bisphenols in Norwegian sewage sludge and sediment and in Czech surface waters, and 2) characterize the binding of bisphenols to a transport protein transthyretin (TTR) and their (anti-)thyroid, (anti-)progestagenic, and (anti-)androgenic activities. High-performance liquid chromatography with atmospheric pressure chemical ionization or photoionization coupled with high resolution mass spectrometry (HPLC-APCI/APPI-HRMS) and Chemically Activated LUciferase gene eXpression (CALUX) in vitro reporter gene bioassays were used to detect the target compounds and to determine endocrine-disrupting activities, respectively. Bisphenol A (BPA), 4,4'-bisphenol F (BPF), bisphenol S (BPS), and bisphenol E (BPE) were the most frequently found compounds in municipal sewage sludge. Furthermore, bisphenol TMC (BPTMC) and bisphenol AF (BPAF) frequently occurred in sediment and surface waters, respectively. BPA was the major contributor to Ʃ of bisphenols in Norwegian sewage sludge with exception of one sample where BPF predominated. We also monitored a few bisphenols in sediment but only BPTMC was found. BPA, BPAF and BPF were the dominant bisphenols in Czech surface waters. Some bisphenols have shown TTR binding potency (BPAF = BPF > BPA = BPE) and some have displayed the following endocrine-disrupting activities: anti-thyroid (BPAF), anti-progestagenic (BPTMC > BPA = BPAF), and anti-androgenic (BPAF > BPE > BPA > BPTMC > BPF > BPS). It is noteworthy that BPAF exhibited stronger or similarly potent endocrine-disrupting activities compared to BPA. Our results provide new insights into these less-studied endocrine-disrupting activities of environmentally relevant bisphenols and may be useful in prioritizing those compounds that deserve further attention in environmental monitoring and eco-toxicological research.

Detrimental Effects of Bisphenol Compounds on Physiology and Reproduction in Fish: A Literature Review

Bisphenol-A is one of the most studied endocrine-chemicals, which is widely used all over the world in plastic manufacture. Because of its extensive use, it has become one of the most abundant chemical environmental pollutants, especially in aquatic environments. BPA is known to affect fish reproduction via estrogen receptors but many studies advocate that BPA affects almost all aspects of fish physiology. The possible modes of action include genomic, as well as and non-genomic mechanisms, estrogen, androgen, and thyroid receptor-mediated effects. Due to the high detrimental effects of BPA, various analogs of BPA are being used as alternatives. Recent evidence suggests that the analogs of BPA have similar modes of action, with accompanying effects on fish physiology and reproduction. In this review, a detailed comparison of effects produced by BPA and analogs and their mode of action is discussed.

Zebrafish Embryonic Exposure to BPAP and Its Relatively Weak Thyroid Hormone-Disrupting Effects

Safe endocrine-disrupting alternatives for bisphenol A (BPA) are needed because its adverse health effects have become a public concern. Some bisphenol analogues (bisphenol F and S) have been applied, but their endocrine-disrupting potential is either not negligible or weaker than that of BPA. However, the endocrine-disrupting potential of bisphenol AP (BPAP), another BPA alternative, has not yet been fully assessed. Hence, we evaluated the thyroid hormone (TH)-disrupting potency of BPAP because THs are essential endocrine hormones. Zebrafish embryos were exposed to BPAP (0, 18.2, 43.4, or 105.9 μg/L) for 120 h, and TH levels, the transcription of 16 TH-related genes, the transcriptome, development, and behavior were evaluated. In our study, a decrease in T4 level was observed only at the maximum nonlethal concentration, but significant changes in the T3 and TSHβ levels were not detected. BPAP did not cause significant changes in transcription and gene ontology enrichment related to the TH system. Developmental and behavioral changes were not observed. Despite T4 level reduction, other markers were not significantly affected by BPAP. These might indicate that BPAP has weak or negligible potency regarding TH disruption as a BPA alternative. This study might provide novel information on the TH-disrupting potential of BPAP.

The effects of diazinon on the cell types and gene expression of the olfactory epithelium and whole-body hormone concentrations in the Persian sturgeon (Acipenser persicus)

The olfactory function and imprinting of odorant information of the native stream play a critical role during the homing migration in fish. Pesticides may impair olfactory imprinting by altering olfaction and hormone functions. The present study aimed to determine how diazinon impacts olfactory epithelium morphology and cell composition, as well as hormone concentrations in Persian sturgeon (Acipenser persicus) during their lifetime in freshwater and, also during diazinon-free saltwater acclimation. Fingerlings were exposed to 0, 150, 300, and 450 μg·L^-1 of diazinon in freshwater for 7 days and then were transferred to diazinon-free saltwater by gradually increasing salinity up to 12 ppt. After diazinon exposure, the number of olfactory receptor cells (ORCs) and goblet cells (GCs) decreased and increased, respectively, and the expression of G-protein αolf (GPαolf) and calmodulin-dependent kinase II delta (CAMKIId) was down-regulated and up-regulated, respectively. Transferring the fish to diazinon-free saltwater (8 and 12 ppt) raised the number of ORCs, supporting cells (SCs), GCs, and GPαolf expression, and down-regulated CAMKIId without any significant differences among treatments. Exposure to diazinon increased whole-body cortisol at the high concentration, while decreased whole-body thyroxin (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3) in a dose-dependent manner. Although whole-body T4 and T3 increased in all the treatments after saltwater acclimation (8 and 12 ppt), the level of these hormones was lower in fish that had been exposed to diazinon than in the control. These results showed that diazinon can disrupt olfactory epithelium morphology and cell composition as well as hormone concentrations, which in turn may affect the olfactory imprinting in Persian sturgeon fingerlings.

Single-Cell Sequencing Reveals Heterogeneity Effects of Bisphenol A on Zebrafish Embryonic Development

The embryonic period is a sensitive window for bisphenol A (BPA) exposure. However, embryonic development is a highly dynamic process with changing cell populations. The heterogeneity effects of BPA on fish embryo cells during development remain unclear. We applied single-cell RNA sequencing to analyze the impact of BPA exposure on transcriptome heterogeneity of 64 683 cells from zebrafish embryos at 8, 12, and 30 h postfertilization (hpf). Thirty-eight cell populations were identified and gene expression profiles of 16 cell populations were significantly altered by BPA. At 8 hpf, BPA mainly influenced the outer layer cell populations of embryos, such as neural plate border and enveloping layer cells. At 12 and 30 hpf, nervous system formation and heart morphogenesis were disturbed. The altered differential processes of the neural plate border, neural crest, and neuronal cells were found to lead to increased neurogenesis in zebrafish larvae. In the forebrain, midbrain, neurons, and optic cells, pathways related to cell division and DNA replication and repair were altered. Moreover, BPA also changed transforming growth factor (TGF) β signaling and heart tube morphogenesis in heart cells, leading to a decreased heartbeat in zebrafish larvae. Our study provides a comprehensive understanding of BPA toxicity on fish embryonic development at a single-cell level.

Bisphenols as Environmental Triggers of Thyroid Dysfunction: Clues and Evidence

Bisphenols (BPs), and especially bisphenol A (BPA), are known endocrine disruptors (EDCs), capable of interfering with estrogen and androgen activities, as well as being suspected of other health outcomes. Given the crucial role of thyroid hormones and the increasing incidence of thyroid carcinoma in the last few decades, this review analyzes the effects of BPS on the thyroid, considering original research in vitro, in vivo, and in humans published from January 2000 to October 2019. Both in vitro and in vivo studies reported the ability of BPs to disrupt thyroid function through multiple mechanisms. The antagonism with thyroid receptors (TRs), which affects TR-mediated transcriptional activity, the direct action of BPs on gene expression at the thyroid and the pituitary level, the competitive binding with thyroid transport proteins, and the induction of toxicity in several cell lines are likely the main mechanisms leading to thyroid dysfunction. In humans, results are more contradictory, though some evidence suggests the potential of BPs in increasing the risk of thyroid nodules. A standardized methodology in toxicological studies and prospective epidemiological studies with individual exposure assessments are warranted to evaluate the pathophysiology resulting in the damage and to establish the temporal relationship between markers of exposure and long-term effects.

Protective role of lycopene against metabolic disorders induced by chronic bisphenol A exposure in rats

This study was conducted to elucidate the ameliorative potential of lycopene (LYC) against the metabolic toxicity induced by bisphenol A (BPA) in rats. Male rats (n = 28) were divided into 4 equal groups: control group, LYC group was given lycopene (10 mg/kg BW), BPA group was given 10 mg/kg BW of BPA, and the last group was administered BPA and LYC at 10 mg/kg via gavage for 90 consecutive days. Body weight (BW) gain, lipid profile, and total antioxidant capacity (TAC) were assessed. Oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT), homeostasis model assessment-estimated insulin resistance (HOMA-IR), thyroid hormones, interleukin-1 beta (IL-1β), leptin, and resistin were assayed. Moreover, immunohistochemistry of TNF-α was performed in adipose tissue. BPA-treated rats showed significant reduction in BW gain and deteriorations in lipid profile, TAC, OGTT, and thyroid hormones as well as significant increases in HOMA-IR, IL-1β, leptin, and resistin. While, improvement of metabolic parameters was observed when LYC was administrated with BPA. Intense TNF-α immunostaining was detected in the fat of BPA-treated rats but the intensity decreased when LYC was administrated with BPA. In conclusion, LYC ameliorated the adverse effects of BPA on metabolism through its antioxidant potential and its reduction of TNF-α expression in adipose tissue.

Determination of bisphenol analogues in food-contact plastics using diode array detector, charged aerosol detector and evaporative light-scattering detector

Freshness protection packages and preservative films are widely used food-contact plastic made of polyethylene. Diode array detector (DAD), charged aerosol detector (CAD) and evaporative light-scattering detector (ELSD) were evaluated for determination of 6 bisphenols (bisphenol A, bisphenol S, bisphenol F, bisphenol B, bisphenol AF and tetrabromobisphenol A.) in polyethylene. DAD presented better parameters including limit of quantification (LOQs) ranging from 0.05 to 0.5 μg/g with relative standard deviations (RSDs, n = 5) lower than 1% at two concentration levels. CAD and ELSD are universal detectors with relative consistent response parameters for different analogues which have potential application by using single calibrant for quantification of multiple analytes. Matrix effects were barely observed on three detectors. Samples of freshness protection packages and preservative films were further analyzed and preliminary profiles of bisphenols in products from Beijing market was obtained. Bisphenol S have become most abundant analogue instead of bisphenol A in investigated products.

Bisphenol F-Induced Neurotoxicity toward Zebrafish Embryos

In this study, the influence of bisphenol F (BPF) toward central nervous system (CNS) was assessed using zebrafish embryos. We found that BPF could induce significant neurotoxicity toward zebrafish embryos, including inhibited locomotion, reduced moving distance, and CNS cell apoptosis at an effective concentration of 0.0005 mg/L. Immunofluorescence assay showed that both microglia and astrocyte in zebrafish brain were significantly activated by BPF, indicating the existence of neuroinflammatory response. Peripheral motor neuron development was significantly inhibited by BPF at 72 hpf. RNA-seq data indicated that neuronal developmental processes and cell apoptosis pathways were significantly affected by BPF exposure, which was consistent with the phenotypic results. Chip-seq assay implied that the transcriptional changes were not mediated by ERα. Additionally, no significant change was found in neurotransmitter levels (5-hydroxytryptamine, dopamine, and acetylcholine) or acetylcholinesterase (Ache) enzyme activity after BPF exposure, indicating that BPF may not affect neurotransmission. In conclusion, BPF could lead to abnormal neural outcomes during zebrafish early life stage through inducing neuroinflammation and CNS cell apoptosis even at environmentally relevant concentration.

Embryonic exposure to soil samples from a gangue stacking area induces thyroid hormone disruption in zebrafish

The total accumulative stockpiles of gangue from long-term coal mining exceed 1 billion tons and occupy 182 square kilometers, and 50 million tons of additional gangue are generated per year in Shanxi, a major energy province in China. The objective of this study was to examine whether exposure to village soils affected by gangue stacking would disrupt thyroid hormone system homeostasis and eventually affect endocrine system and development, using zebrafish (Danio rerio) as a model organism. The zebrafish embryos were exposed to village soil leachates at 0, 1:9, 1:3 and 1:1 from 1 to 120 h postfertilization (hpf), and the sample caused a dose-dependent increase in the mortality and malformation rate, and decrease in the heart rate, hatching rate and body length of zebrafish larvae. Importantly, the soil leachate alleviated the whole-body triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4) levels at higher concentrations, and altered the expression of the hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid (HPT) axis-regulating genes crh, trh, tshβ, nis, tg, nkx2.1, pax8, hhex, ttr, dio1, dio2, ugt1ab, trα, and trβ and the PAH exposure-related genes ahr2 and cyp1a. These findings highlight the potential risk of thyroid hormone disruption and developmental toxicity from soil samples around coal gangue stacking areas.

A scoping review of the health and toxicological activity of bisphenol A (BPA) structural analogues and functional alternatives

Recent studies report widespread usage or exposure to a variety of chemicals with structural or functional similarity to bisphenol A (BPA), referred to as BPA analogues or derivatives. These have been detected in foodstuffs, house dust, environmental samples, human urine or blood, and consumer products. Compared to BPA, relatively little is known about potential toxicity of these compounds. This scoping review aimed to summarize the human, animal, and mechanistic toxicity data for 24 BPA analogues of emerging interest to research and regulatory communities. PubMed was searched from March 1, 2015 to January 5, 2019 and combined with the results obtained from literature searches conducted through March 23, 2015, in The National Toxicology Program's Research Report 4 (NTP RR-04), "Biological Activity of Bisphenol A (BPA) Structural Analogues and Functional Alternatives". Study details are presented in interactive displays using Tableau Public. In total, 5748 records were screened for inclusion. One hundred sixty seven studies were included from NTP RR-04 and 175 studies were included from the updated literature search through January 2019. In total, there are 22, 117, and 221 human epidemiological, experimental animal, or in vitro studies included. The most frequently studied BPA analogues are bisphenol S (BPS), bisphenol F (4,4-BPF), and bisphenol AF (BPAF). Notable changes in the literature since 2015 include the growing body of human epidemiological studies and in vivo studies conducted in zebrafish. Numerous new endpoints were also evaluated across all three evidence streams including diabetes, obesity, and oxidative stress. However, few studies have addressed endpoints such as neurodevelopmental outcomes or impacts on the developing mammary or prostate glands, which are known to be susceptible to disruption by BPA. Further, there remains a critical need for better exposure information in order to prioritize experimental studies. Moving forward, researchers should also ensure that full dose responses are performed for all main effects in order to support hazard and risk characterization efforts. The evidence gathered here suggests that hazard and risk characterizations should expand beyond BPA in order to consider BPA structural and functional analogues.

Changes in thyroid hormone activity disrupt photomotor behavior of larval zebrafish

High throughput in vitro, in silico, and computational approaches have identified numerous environmental chemicals that interfere with thyroid hormone (TH) activity, and it is posited that human exposures to such chemicals are a contributing factor to neurodevelopmental disorders. However, whether hits in screens of TH activity are predictive of developmental neurotoxicity (DNT) has yet to be systematically addressed. The zebrafish has been proposed as a second tier model for assessing the in vivo DNT potential of TH active chemicals. As an initial evaluation of the feasibility of this proposal, we determined whether an endpoint often used to assess DNT in larval zebrafish, specifically photomotor behavior, is altered by experimentally induced hyper- and hypothyroidism. Developmental hyperthyroidism was simulated by static waterborne exposure of zebrafish to varying concentrations (3-300 nM) of thyroxine (T4) or triiodothyronine (T3) beginning at 6 h post-fertilization (hpf) and continuing through 5 days post-fertilization (dpf). Teratogenic effects and lethality were observed at 4 and 5 dpf in fish exposed to T4 or T3 at concentrations >30 nM. However, as early as 3 dpf, T4 (> 3 nM) and T3 (> 10 nM) significantly increased swimming activity triggered by sudden changes from light to dark, particularly during the second dark period (Dark 2). Conversely, developmental hypothyroidism, which was induced by treatment with 6-propyl-2-thiouracil (PTU), morpholino knockdown of the TH transporter mct8, or ablation of thyroid follicles in adult females prior to spawning, generally decreased swimming activity during dark periods, although effects did vary across test days. All effects of developmental hypothyroidism on photomotor behavior occurred independent of teratogenic effects and were most robust during Dark 2. Treatment with the T4 analog, Tetrac, restored photomotor response in mct8 morphants to control levels. Collectively, these findings suggest that while the sensitivity of photomotor behavior in larval zebrafish to detect TH disruption is influenced by test parameters, this test can distinguish between TH promoting and TH blocking activity and may be useful for assessing the DNT potential of TH-active chemicals.

Toxicokinetics and bioavailability of bisphenol AF following oral administration in rodents: A dose, species, and sex comparison

We investigated the toxicokinetics and bioavailability of bisphenol AF (BPAF) in male and female Harlan Sprague Dawley rats and B6C3F1/N mice following a single gavage administration of 34, 110, or 340 mg/kg. A validated analytical method was used to quantitate free (unconjugated parent) and total (unconjugated and conjugated) BPAF in plasma. BPAF was rapidly absorbed in rats with the maximum plasma concentration, C_max, of free BPAF reached at ≤2.20 h. BPAF was cleared rapidly with a plasma elimination half-life of ≤3.35 h. C_max and the area under the concentration versus time curve, AUC_0-∞, increased proportionally to the dose. Total BPAF C_max was reached ≤1.07 h in rats with both C_max (≥27-fold) and AUC_0-∞ (≥52-fold) much higher than corresponding free values demonstrating rapid and extensive conjugation of BPAF following oral administration. Absorption of BPAF following a 34 mg/kg gavage dose in mice was more rapid than in rats with free BPAF C_max reached ≤0.455 h. Free BPAF was cleared rapidly in mice with an elimination half-life of ≤4.22 h. Similar to rats, total BPAF was much higher than corresponding free BPAF. There was no apparent sex-related effect in plasma toxicokinetic parameters of free or total BPAF in mice and rats. Bioavailability in rats was ~ 1% with no apparent dose-related effect. Bioavailability in mice was slightly higher than in rats (male ~ 6%, female 3%). These data demonstrate that BPAF was rapidly absorbed following gavage administration in rodents, rapidly and extensively conjugated with low bioavailability.

Comparison of thyroid hormone disruption potentials by bisphenols A, S, F, and Z in embryo-larval zebrafish

Several structural analogues of bisphenol A (BPA), e.g., bisphenol F (BPF), bisphenol S (BPS), and bisphenol Z (BPZ), have been used as its substitutes in many applications and consequently detected in the environment, and human specimen such as urine and serum. While BPA has been frequently reported for thyroid hormone disruption in both experimental and epidemiological studies, less is known for the BPA analogues. In the present study, thyroid hormone disrupting effects of BPF, BPS and BPZ, were investigated, and compared with those of BPA, using embryo-larval zebrafish (Danio rerio). At 120 hpf, significant increases in T3 and/or T4 were observed in the larval fish following exposure to BPA, BPF, or BPS. Moreover, transcriptional changes of the genes related to thyroid development (hhex and tg), thyroid hormone transport (ttr) and metabolism (ugt1ab) were observed as well. Thyroid hormone (T4) disruption by BPF was observed even at the concentration (2.0 mg/L) lower than the effective concentration determined for BPA (>2.0 mg/L). Delayed hatching was observed by all tested bisphenols. Our results clearly show that these BPA analogues can disrupt thyroid function of the larval fish, and their thyroid hormone disruption potencies could be even greater than that of BPA. The concentrations which disrupt thyroid function of the larval fish were orders of magnitude higher than those occurring in the ambient environment. However, thyroid hormone disruption by longer term exposure and its consequences in the fish population, deserve further investigation.

Toxic Effects of TiO₂ NPs on Zebrafish

Titanium dioxide nanoparticles (TiO₂ NPs) have become a widely used nanomaterial due to the photocatalytic activity and absorption of ultraviolet light of specific wavelengths. This study investigated the toxic effects of rutile TiO₂ NPs on zebrafish by examining its embryos and adults. In the embryo acute toxicity test, exposure to 100 mg/L TiO₂ NPs didn’t affect the hatching rate of zebrafish embryos, and there was no sign of deformity. In the adult toxicity test, the effects of TiO₂ NPs on oxidative damage in liver, intestine and gill tissue were studied. Enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and fluorescence-based quantitative real-time reverse transcription PCR (qRT-PCR) were used to detect the three antioxidant enzymes: superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT) and glutathione S transferase (GSTs) in the above mentioned zebrafish organs at protein and gene levels. The results showed that long-term exposure to TiO₂ NPs can cause oxidative damage to organisms; and compared with the control group, the activity of the three kinds of enzyme declined somewhat at the protein level. In addition, long-term exposure to TiO₂ NPs could cause high expression of CAT, SOD and GSTs in three organs of adult zebrafish in order to counter the adverse reaction. The effects of long-term exposure to TiO₂ NPs to adult zebrafish were more obvious in the liver and gill.

Effects of thyroid hormone disruption on the ontogenetic expression of thyroid hormone signaling genes in developing zebrafish (Danio rerio)

Thyroid hormones (THs) regulate neurodevelopment, thus TH disruption is widely posited as a mechanism of developmental neurotoxicity for diverse environmental chemicals. Zebrafish have been proposed as an alternative model for studying the role of TH in developmental neurotoxicity. To realize this goal, it is critical to characterize the normal ontogenetic expression profile of TH signaling molecules in the developing zebrafish and determine the sensitivity of these molecules to perturbations in TH levels. To address these gaps in the existing database, we characterized the transcriptional profiles of TH transporters, deiodinases (DIOs), receptors (TRs), nuclear coactivators (NCOAs), nuclear corepressors (NCORs), and retinoid X receptors (RXRs) in parallel with measurements of endogenous TH concentrations and tshβ mRNA expression throughout the first five days of zebrafish development. Transcripts encoding these TH signaling components were identified and observed to be upregulated around 48-72 h post fertilization (hpf) concurrent with the onset of larval production of T4. Exposure to exogenous T4 and T3 upregulated mct8, dio3-b, trα-a, trβ, and mbp-a levels, and downregulated expression of oatp1c1. Morpholino knockdown of TH transporter mct8 and treatment with 6-propyl-2-thiouracil (PTU) was used to reduce cellular uptake and production of TH, an effect that was associated with downregulation of dio3-b at 120 hpf. Collectively, these data confirm that larval zebrafish express orthologs of TH signaling molecules important in mammalian development and suggest that there may be species differences with respect to impacts of TH disruption on gene transcription.

Endocrine activities and adipogenic effects of bisphenol AF and its main metabolite

Bisphenol AF (BPAF) is a fluorinated analog of bisphenol A (BPA), and it is a more potent estrogen receptor (ER) agonist. BPAF is mainly metabolized to BPAF-glucuronide (BPAF-G), which has been reported to lack ER agonist activity and is believed to be biologically inactive. The main goal of the current study was to examine the influence of the metabolism of BPAF via glucuronidation on its ER activity and adipogenesis. Also, as metabolites can have different biological activities, the effects of BPAF-G on other nuclear receptors were evaluated. First, in-vitro BPAF glucuronidation was investigated using recombinant human enzymes. Specific reporter-gene assays were used to determine BPAF and BPAF-G effects on estrogen, androgen, glucocorticoid, and thyroid receptor pathways, and on PXR, FXR, and PPARγ pathways. Their effects on lipid accumulation and differentiation were determined in murine 3T3L1 preadipocytes using Nile Red, with mRNA expression analysis of the adipogenic markers adiponectin, Fabp4, Cebpα, and PPARγ. BPAF showed strong agonistic activity for hERα and moderate antagonistic activities for androgen and thyroid receptors, and for PXR. BPAF-G was antagonistic for PXR and PPARγ. BPAF (0.1 μM) and BPAF-G (1.0 μM) induced lipid accumulation and increased expression of key adipogenic markers in murine preadipocytes. BPAF-G is therefore not an inactive metabolite of BPAF. Further toxicological and epidemiological investigations of BPAF effects on human health are warranted, to provide better understanding of the metabolic end-elimination of BPAF.

Bisphenol A, Bisphenol AF, di-n-butyl phthalate, and 17β-estradiol have shared and unique dose-dependent effects on early embryo cleavage divisions and development in Xenopus laevis

Bisphenol A (BPA), Bisphenol AF (BPAF), and di-n-butyl phthalate (DBP) are widespread compounds used in the production of plastics. We used Xenopus laevis to compare their effects on early embryo cell division and development. Directly after in vitro fertilizations, embryos were exposed to BPA, BPAF, DBP, or 17β-estradiol (E2) for up to 96 h. BPA (1-50 μM) and BPAF (0.003-25 μM) caused disrupted cleavage divisions, slowed cytokinesis, and cellular dissociation within 1-6 h. Flexures of the spinal cord, shorter body axis/tail, craniofacial malformations, and significant mortality occurred with environmentally relevant doses of BPAF (LC₅₀ = 0.013 μM). DBP (10-200 μM) showed similar effects, but with severe ventral edema. There were both shared and unique effects of all compounds, with BPAF having the greatest potency and toxicity (BPAF > BPA > estradiol > DBP). These findings underscore the pleiotropic effects of widespread toxicants on early development and highlight the need for better toxicological characterization.

Effects of bisphenol analogs on thyroid endocrine system and possible interaction with 17β-estradiol using GH3 cells

This study was conducted using a rat pituitary (GH3) cell line to understand the effects of bisphenol analogs (BPs) on the thyroid endocrine system, in the presence of 17β-estradiol (E2). In the first series of experiments, changes in cell proliferation were examined after exposure to each of ten BPs, in the absence or presence of a median effective concentration (6.4 × 10-10 M) of triiodothyronine (T3). All tested BPs significantly increased cell proliferation, suggesting thyroid hormone (TH) agonistic effects of BPs. BPs did not potentiate the T3-induced cell proliferation at 48 h exposure, while several tested BPs including BPA, BPAF, BPB, BPF, BPS, and BPZ elicited a potentiating effect on the T3-induced cell proliferation at 96 h exposure. These results indicate that TH-antagonistic effects of BPs depend on the tested dose and exposure time. In the second set of experiments, one of the most potent BPs, i.e., BPAF, was selected, and its possible interaction with E2 on the thyroid endocrine system was evaluated. Co-exposure of GH3 cells to 10-12 M E2 showed an additive-like effect. The extent of increase in cell proliferation was more pronounced with a combination of BPAF and E2 than with that of BPA and E2. Significant down-regulation of Trα, Trβ, and Dio2 genes and up-regulation of the Tshβ gene were observed in GH3 cells following co-exposure to BPAF and E2. Our results showed that some BP analogs might influence the thyroid endocrine system, and such perturbation appeared to be enhanced in the presence of E2.

Bioconcentration and effects of hexabromocyclododecane exposure in crucian carp (Carassius auratus)

As a cycloaliphatic brominated flame retardant, hexabromocyclododecane (HBCD) has been widely used in building thermal insulation and fireproof materials. However, there is little information on the bioconcentration as well as effects with respect to HBCD exposure in the aquatic environment. To investigate the bioconcentration of HBCD in tissues (muscle and liver) and its biochemical and behavioural effects, juvenile crucian carp (Carassius auratus) were exposed to different concentrations of technical HBCD (nominal concentrations, 2, 20, 200 μg/L) for 7 days, using a flow-through exposure system. HBCD was found to concentrate in the liver and muscle with a terminal concentration of 0.60 ± 0.22 μg/g lw (lipid weight) and 0.18 ± 0.02 μg/g lw, respectively, at an environmentally-relevant concentration (2 μg/L). The total thyroxine and total triiodothyronine in the fish plasma were lowered as a result of exposure to the HBCD. Acetylcholinesterase activity in the brain was increased, while swimming activity was inhibited and shoaling inclination was enhanced after exposure to 200 μg/L HBCD. Feeding rate was suppressed in the 20 and 200 μg/L treatment groups. In summary, HBCD concentrations 10-100× higher than the current environmentally-relevant exposures induced adverse effects in the fish species tested in this study. These results suggest that increasing environmental concentrations and/or species with higher sensitivity than carp might be adversely affected by HBCD.

Exposure to PFDoA causes disruption of the hypothalamus-pituitary-thyroid axis in zebrafish larvae

Perfluorododecanoic acid (PFDoA), a kind of perfluorinated carboxylic acid (PFCA) with 12 carbon atoms, has an extensive industrial utilization and is widespread in both wildlife and the water environment, and was reported to have the potential to cause a disruption in the thyroid hormone system homeostasis. In this study, zebrafish embryos/larvae were exposed to different concentrations of PFDoA (0, 0.24, 1.2, 6 mg/L) for 96 h post-fertilization (hpf). PFDoA exposure caused obvious growth restriction connected with the reduced thyroid hormones (THs) contents in zebrafish larvae, strengthening the interference effect on the growth of fish larvae. The transcriptional level of genes within the hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid (HPT) axis was analyzed. The gene expression levels of thyrotropin-releasing hormone (trh) and corticotrophin-releasing hormone (crh) were upregulated upon exposure to 6 mg/L of PFDoA, and iodothyronine deiodinases (dio2) was upregulated in the 1.2 mg/L PFDoA group. The transcription of thyroglobulin (tg) and thyroid receptor (trβ) were significantly downregulated upon exposure to 1.2 mg/L and 6 mg/L of PFDoA. PFDoA could also decrease the levels of sodium/iodide symporter (nis) and transthyretin (ttr) gene expression in a concentration-dependent manner after exposure. A significant decrease in thyroid-stimulating hormoneβ (tshβ), uridinediphosphate-glucuronosyltransferase (ugt1ab) and thyroid receptor (trα) gene expression were observed at 6 mg/L PFDoA exposure. Upregulation and downregulation of iodothyronine deiodinases (dio1) gene expression were observed upon the treatment of 1.2 mg/L and 6 mg/L PFDoA, respectively. All the data demonstrated that gene expression in the HPT axis altered after different PFDoA treatment and the potential mechanisms of the disruption of thyroid status could occur at several steps in the process of synthesis, regulation, and action of thyroid hormones.

How zebrafish research has helped in understanding thyroid diseases

Next-generation sequencing technologies have revolutionized the identification of disease-causing genes, accelerating the discovery of new mutations and new candidate genes for thyroid diseases. To face this flow of novel genetic information, it is important to have suitable animal models to study the mechanisms regulating thyroid development and thyroid hormone availability and activity. Zebrafish ( Danio rerio), with its rapid external embryonic development, has been extensively used in developmental biology. To date, almost all of the components of the zebrafish thyroid axis have been characterized and are structurally and functionally comparable with those of higher vertebrates. The availability of transgenic fluorescent zebrafish lines allows the real-time analysis of thyroid organogenesis and its alterations. Transient morpholino-knockdown is a solution to silence the expression of a gene of interest and promptly obtain insights on its contribution during the development of the zebrafish thyroid axis. The recently available tools for targeted stable gene knockout have further increased the value of zebrafish to the study of thyroid disease. All of the reported zebrafish models can also be used to screen small compounds and to test new drugs and may allow the establishment of experimental proof of concept to plan subsequent clinical trials.

Neuroendocrine disruption in animal models due to exposure to bisphenol A analogues

Animal and human studies provide evidence that exposure to the endocrine disrupting chemical (EDC), bisphenol A (BPA), can lead to neurobehavioral disorders. Consequently, there is an impetus to identify safer alternatives to BPA. Three bisphenol compounds proposed as potential safer alternatives to BPA are bisphenol S (BPS), bisphenol F (BPF), and bisphenol AF (BPAF). However, it is not clear whether these other compounds are safer in terms of inducing less endocrine disrupting effects in animals and humans who are now increasingly coming into contact with these BPA-substitutes. In the past few years, several animal studies have shown exposure to these other bisphenols induce similar neurobehavioral disruption as BPA. We will explore in this review article the current studies suggesting these other bisphenols result in neuroendocrine disruptions that may be estrogen receptor-dependent. Current work may aide in designing future studies to test further whether these BPA-substitutes can act as neuroendocrine disruptors.

Benzotriazole ultraviolet stabilizers alter the expression of the thyroid hormone pathway in zebrafish (Danio rerio) embryos

Benzotriazole ultraviolet stabilizers (BUVSs) are widely used in industrial products as well as personal-hygiene products to protect the material or skin from harmful UV-radiation. Due to their persistence and bioaccumulation, BUVSs have been ubiquitously detected in aquatic environments. Although the toxicological effects of BUVSs in aquatic organisms have been previously examined, the effects of BUVSs on the thyroid system have not been adequately addressed. In this study, we assessed putative thyroid disrupting effects of BUVSs (UV-234, UV-326, UV-329 and UV-P) in zebrafish embryos at 1, 10 and 100 μg/L for 96 h. The heart rate was assessed in zebrafish and was observed to be decreased by 6.9%-21.4% in exposure of tested BUVSs. We also observed that the transcript levels of HPT axis-related genes were affected by the 4 BUVSs tested in different ways. Specifically, mRNA levels of thyroid hormone receptors (thraa and thrb) in zebrafish embryos were differentially expressed and the direction of change in these transcripts was isoform and BUVSs dependent. Pathway analysis of the targeted genes measured indicated that cellular processes putatively affected by BUVSs included response to organic substance, regulation of transcription from RNA polymerase II promoter, intracellular receptor signaling pathway, and hypothyroidism. Upon expansion of the network, novel genes involved in this predicted gene network may provide insight into the mechanisms of thyroid disrupting mechanisms of BUVSs. Taken together, our results indicate that BUVSs can potentially impact the thyroid system, and that this is dependent upon the type or structure of BUVSs.

Waterborne exposure to BPS causes thyroid endocrine disruption in zebrafish larvae

Bisphenol S (BPS) is widely used as a raw material in industry, resulting in its ubiquitous distribution in natural environment, including the aqueous environment. However, the effect of BPS on the thyroid endocrine system is largely unknown. In this study, zebrafish (Danio rerio) embryos were exposed to BPS at 1, 3, 10, and 30 μg/L, from 2 h post-fertilization (hpf) to 168hpf. Bioconcentration of BPS and whole-body thyroid hormones (THs), thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) concentrations as well as transcriptional profiling of key genes related to the hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid (HPT) axis were examined. Chemical analysis indicated that BPS was accumulated in zebrafish larvae. Thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3) levels were significantly decreased at ≥ 10 and 30 μg/L of BPS, respectively. However, TSH concentration was significantly induced in the 10 and 30 μg/L BPS-treated groups. After exposure to BPS, the mRNA expression of corticotrophin releasing hormone (crh) and thyroglobulin (tg) genes were up-regulated at ≥10 μg/L of BPS, in a dose-response manner. The transcription of genes involved in thyroid development (pax8) and synthesis (sodium/iodide symporter, slc5a5) were also significantly increased in the 30 μg/L of BPS treatment group. Moreover, exposure to 10 μg/L or higher concentration of BPS significantly up-regulated genes related to thyroid hormone metabolism (deiodinases, dio1, dio2 and uridinediphosphate glucoronosyltransferases, ugt1ab), which might be responsible for the altered THs levels. However, the transcript of transthyretin (ttr) was significantly down-regulated at ≥ 3 μg/L of BPS, while the mRNA levels of thyroid hormone receptors (trα and trβ) and dio3 remained unchanged. All the results indicated that exposure to BPS altered the whole-body THs and TSH concentrations and changed the expression profiling of key genes related to HPT axis, thus triggering thyroid endocrine disruption.

Thyroid endocrine disruption in male zebrafish following exposure to binary mixture of bisphenol AF and sulfamethoxazole

Thyroid endocrine disruption by bisphenol AF (BPAF) alone or in combination with sulfamethoxazole (SMX) exposure was evaluated in adult male zebrafish. Changes in thyroid gene transcription were examined using microarrays and were linked to effects on thyroxine hormone production and transcription of genes related to the hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid axis. BPAF alone or in combination with SMX affected genes related to thyroid hormone production and receptor activity, thyroid gland development, and deiodinase activity. Increases in thyroxine levels, and gene transcription were more pronounced in the BPAF and SMX mixture group than in the BPAF group. Significant down-regulation of trh and tshβ genes in the brain suggested a negative feedback response resulting in increased thyroxine levels. The present study indicated that BPAF exposure alone alters transcription of genes associated with the thyroid endocrine system, and combination with SMX could increase the endocrine disrupting effect of BPAF.

Gestational and lactational exposure to bisphenol AF in maternal rats increases testosterone levels in 23-day-old male offspring

During prenatal and postnatal development, exposure to environmental chemicals with estrogenic activity, such as bisphenol AF (BPAF), may result in reproductive disorders. Currently, the mechanisms behind such disorders in male offspring induced by gestational and lactational exposure to BPAF remain poorly understood. Here, female rats from gestational day (GD) 3-19 were exposed to 100 mg BPAF/kg/day by oral gavage. On the day of birth (postnatal day (PD) 0), cross-fostering took place between treated and control litters, and cross-fostered mother rats were given BPAF 100 mg/kg/day during the postnatal period (PD 3 to PD 19). HPLC-MS/MS analysis showed that BPAF was transferred via cord blood and lactation, finally bio-accumulating in the offspring testes. Pups exposed to BPAF both prenatally and postnatally showed a significant increase in testis testosterone levels compared with that of the control, while all pups exposed to BPAF showed a significant decrease in testis inhibin B (INHB) levels. Compared with the control, RNA-seq revealed that 279 genes were significantly differentially expressed in the testes of pups exposed to BPAF both prenatally and postnatally, including genes involved in cell differentiation and meiosis. These results indicate that gestational and lactational exposure to BPAF in the mother can impair reproductive function in male offspring.