The Impact of Active Workstations on Workplace Productivity and Performance: A Systematic Review

Investigating the influence of keyboard inclinations on sitting and standing workstations

Given the growing global computer workforce, concerns exist about the escalation of computer related injury with Carpal tunnel syndrome (CTS) being one of the most reported work-related musculoskeletal disorders (WMSDs) among office workers. The optimal range of keyboard angles for sitting and standing positions based on wrist posture, forearm muscle activities and user preference as well as the keyboard location in relation to user position were analysed. 30 volunteers with an above 40 words per minute typing speed participated in this study. Result show that, although user prefer to use positive keyboard angle, the negatively tilted keyboard is more ergonomically friendly at both sitting and standing workstations, reducing muscle activity and awkward wrist posture while maintaining performance. The findings indicate that negative sloped keyboard might have the possibility to reduce the risk of developing CTS in office workers.Practitioner summary: This study determines the range of optimal slope of keyboard angle in a sit and stand workstation. Our results indicate a trend in the negative slope keyboard as an ergonomically friendly option for the intervention to Carpal tunnel pressure.

Workplace Productivity, Health and Wellbeing: Findings From a Cluster Randomised Controlled Trial of a Workplace Intervention to Reduce Sitting in Office Workers

OBJECTIVE

The aim of the study was to evaluate the feasibility and potential effects of a workplace intervention to reduce and break up sitting.

METHODS

Office workers were randomized in clusters to intervention ( n = 22) or control ( n = 22). The intervention included a height-adjustable workstation, education, computer prompt software, and line manager support. Outcomes included device-measured workplace sitting and ecological momentary assessed workplace productivity. Recruitment, retention, and data completion rates were assessed.

RESULTS

Recruitment ( N = 44), retention (91%), and workplace sitting measurement rates demonstrated study feasibility. At 8 weeks, workplace sitting was 11% lower (95% CI: -20.71, -1.30) in the intervention group compared with control participants. Intervention participants were also more engaged, motivated, and productive while sitting ( P ≤ 0.016).

CONCLUSIONS

It was feasible to implement and evaluate this office workplace intervention, with potential benefits on workplace sitting and ecological momentary assessed productivity.

Effect of Active Workstations on Neurocognitive Performance and Typing Skills: A Randomized Clinical Trial

BACKGROUND

Extended sedentary behavior is a risk factor for chronic disease and mortality, even among those who exercise regularly. Given the time constraints of incorporating physical activity into daily schedules, and the high likelihood of sitting during office work, this environment may serve as a potentially feasible setting for interventions to reduce sedentary behavior.

METHODS AND RESULTS

A randomized cross-over clinical trial was conducted at an employee wellness center. Four office settings were evaluated on 4 consecutive days: stationary or sitting station on day 1 (referent), and 3 subsequent active workstations (standing, walking, or stepper) in randomized order. Neurocognitive function (Selective Attention, Grammatical Reasoning, Odd One Out, Object Reasoning, Visuospatial Intelligence, Limited-Hold Memory, Paired Associates Learning, and Digit Span) and fine motor skills (typing speed and accuracy) were tested using validated tools. Average scores were compared among stations using linear regression with generalized estimating equations to adjust standard errors. Bonferroni method adjusted for multiple comparisons. Healthy subjects were enrolled (n=44), 28 (64%) women, mean±SD age 35±11 years, weight 75.5±17.1 kg, height 168.5±10.0 cm, and body mass index 26.5±5.2 kg/m2. When comparing active stations to sitting, neurocognitive test either improved or remained unchanged, while typing speed decreased without affecting typing errors. Overall results improved after day 1, suggesting habituation. We observed no major differences across active stations, except decrease in average typing speed 42.5 versus 39.7 words per minute with standing versus stepping (P=0.003).

CONCLUSIONS

Active workstations improved cognitive performance, suggesting that these workstations can help decrease sedentary time without work performance impairment.

REGISTRATION

URL: https://www.clinicaltrials.gov; Unique identifier: NCT06240286.

Active time at work following the introduction of a standing and a cycling workstation into worker's office space

Objectives. Active workstations have been proposed to counteract sedentary behavior at work. This study describes office workers' use of and perceptions toward standing and cycling workstations, and assesses whether the two active workstations were sufficient to break sitting time and replace it with 2-4 h of light activity per workday. Methods. This mixed-method study utilized video recording, semi-structured interviews and a questionnaire. The quantitative data covered time spent sitting, standing and on a cycling workstation. The qualitative data were analyzed based on preferences, barriers and facilitators. Results. Participants (n = 15) used active workstations 125.3 (74.5) min/day and spent 79.0 (63.6) min/day using standing versus 46.3 (47.6) min/day using cycling workstations (p = 0.153, d = 0.58). Following the interviews, the standing workstation was preferred over cycling. The ergonomics of the cycling workstation were not optimal and caused discomfort in use. Seven participants broke their sitting time and accumulated 2+ h of light physical activity per workday. Those participants meeting recommendations were older, had a higher body fat percentage and engaged in less physical activity per week. Conclusion. With a preference for standing workstations, our results showed that 47% of workers used standing and cycling workstations to accumulate 2+ h of active time per day.

Preliminary investigation of the effects of sitting with and without short active breaks on muscle stiffness assessed with shear-wave elastography

Purpose

The purpose of this preliminary study was to compare the effects of 1-h sitting with and without short active breaks on muscle stiffness as measured by shear-wave elastography (SWE).

Methods

The participants (7 females, 3 males; age: 24.9 ± 1.2 years) completed two (with and without active breaks) 1-h sitting exposures on separate days. Active breaks (2–3 min) were performed at 20 min and 40 min time marks and comprised simple stretching and activation exercises. Before, during (30 min) and after (1 h) of sitting, shear modulus of upper trapezius, lumbar region of erector spinae and rectus femoris muscles was measured with SWE.

Results

Statistically significant effects of sitting exposure in erector spinae muscle stiffness were noted (p = 0.041; η2 = 0.38). There were no other statistically significant effects of sitting exposure or condition (with/without breaks).

Conclusions

Although few statistically significant effects were detected, the trends in this preliminary trial suggest that prolonged sitting increases muscle stiffness and warrants further investigation of short active breaks with larger sample sizes.

Task type, preference, and occupation affect standing desk utilization in office workers

BACKGROUND

Adjustable height sit-stand desks are becoming the norm in many workplaces. It is not known how task type, worker preference, and occupation impact utilization of the adjustable height feature.

OBJECTIVE

This survey-based study aimed to determine how task type, preference and occupation affect office workers' sitting and standing behaviors at work.

METHODS

Office workers (n = 123) from different occupations completed surveys about actual and preferred positions (sit, stand, either/both) during 39 common tasks from 4 different categories, as well as barriers to use. Each position was analyzed by task type, behavior, and occupation.

RESULTS

There were differences between actual and preferred behavior for each position, with participants sitting more and standing less than preferred across all task categories. There were differences between task categories with participants sitting less for generative and routine, and standing more for communication tasks. The highest rates of either/both responses were for routine tasks. Engineers reported the lowest standing rates, and also indicated standing more than preferred. Information Tech and Engineering had the highest either/both responses. Finance reported the highest sitting rates. Personal, task-based and workplace limitations were cited as barriers to preferred use.

CONCLUSION

Office workers would prefer to stand more at work. Occupation-specific needs and preferences, as well as types of tasks should be considered when providing workplace standing options.

The Influence of Sports Activities on Workplace Productivity in Vietnam: The Mediating Role of Stress Management and Work-life Balance

Objectives: Workplace productivity has always been affected by a high-stress level and lack of sports activities. This aspect requires the researchers' emphasis and the present research performs this role by examining the much neglected impact of sports activities, stress management, and work-life balance on workplace productivity of manufacturing firms in Vietnam. The study also investigated the mediating impact of stress management and work-life balance among sports activities and workplace productivity of manufacturing firms in Vietnam. Methods: The primary data was collected through survey questionnaires from the employees of manufacturing companies in Vietnam. The research also applied the PLS-SEM using Smart-PLS to check the reliability and association among variables. Results: The outcomes indicated that sports activities, stress management, and work-life balance have a positive linkage with the workplace productivity of manufacturing firms in Vietnam. The outcomes also revealed that stress management and work-life balance significantly mediate among sports activities and workplace productivity of manufacturing firms in Vietnam. Conclusion: This research guides the policymakers in making policies related to workplace productivity improvement using sports activities, work-life balance, and stress management.

"Are We Working (Too) Comfortably?": Understanding the Nature of and Factors Associated with Sedentary Behaviour When Working in the Home Environment

Home working has increased due to COVID-19, but little is known about how this change has impacted the health risk behaviour of elevated sedentary time. The aim of this cross-sectional exploratory study was to assess occupational sitting behaviour when working at home, and use the Capability Opportunity Motivation-Behaviour (COM-B) model to identify influences on this behaviour. University staff (n = 267; 69% female; 92% white) who were predominantly working from home completed a questionnaire to assess sitting time, sitting breaks, demographic and occupational characteristics, and a 7-item COM-B questionnaire and open-ended questions to assess influences on time spent sitting whilst working from home. Data were analysed descriptively, a repeated measures ANOVA was used to determine differences in the COM-B items, and binary logistic regression was used to examine predictors of sitting time. Staff spent on average 89.5% (SD = 17.1) of their time sitting whilst working at home, and took an average of 1.36 (1.38) sitting breaks per hour. There were significant and meaningful differences in the influence of the COM factors on ability and willingness to reduce sitting behaviour (p < .0001; η_p ² = .38), and the open-ended responses added further context. The included variables accounted for 20.7% of variance in sitting behaviour, with age, sitting breaks, motivation-automatic, and opportunity-physical contributing significantly. Working from home leads to elevated levels of sitting, and the COM-B provides a useful model to identify key influences on ability and willingness to reduce sitting. Strategies incorporating regular breaks, habit formation/reversal, and restructuring the physical environment may be beneficial.

Effects of reducing sedentary behaviour duration by increasing physical activity, on cognitive function, brain function and structure across the lifespan: a systematic review protocol

INTRODUCTION

Greater engagement in sedentary behaviours has been related to poorer cognitive functions in epidemiological research. However, the effects of reducing sedentary behaviour duration on cognitive function, brain function, and structure remain poorly understood. This systematic review aims to synthesise the evidence on the effects of reducing sedentary behaviour duration by increasing time spent in physical activity on cognitive function, brain structure and function in apparently healthy children, adolescents and adults.

METHODS AND ANALYSIS

The protocol follows Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses. The literature search will be conducted (search dates: August-September 2022) across six databases: PubMed, Scopus, Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature (via EBSCO Host), PsycINFO (via ProQuest), SPORTDiscus and Web of Science (Science and Social Science Citation Index). The inclusion criteria are as follows: randomised and non-randomised experimental studies as defined by the Cochrane Handbook, published in English, in peer-reviewed journals, and as theses or dissertations. References of included papers will be screened for additional studies. Acute and chronic interventions targeting children (≥ 4 years), adolescents, younger adults (≥ 18-40 years), middle-aged (40-64 years) and older adults (65+ years) will be eligible. Methodological quality will be assessed with the Effective Public Health Practice Project quality assessment tool for quantitative studies. Qualitative synthesis will be stratified by intervention type (acute vs chronic), intervention content (reducing sedentary time or interrupting prolonged sitting) and outcome (cognitive, brain structure and function).

ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION

No primary data collection will be conducted as part of this systematic review. Study findings will be disseminated through peer-reviewed publications, conference presentations and social media.

PROSPERO REGISTRATION NUMBER

CRD42020200998.

Classroom Movement Breaks and Physically Active Learning Are Feasible, Reduce Sedentary Behaviour and Fatigue, and May Increase Focus in University Students: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Background: University students are mostly sedentary in tertiary education settings which may be detrimental to their health and learning. This review aimed to examine the feasibility and efficacy of classroom movement breaks (CMB) and physically active learning (PAL) on physical and cognitive outcomes in university students in the tertiary setting. Methods: Five electronic databases (MEDLINE, CINAHL, Embase, PsychINFO, and PubMed) were searched for articles published up until November 2021. Manual searching of reference lists and citation tracking were also completed. Two reviewers independently applied inclusion and exclusion criteria and completed quality assessment. Articles were included if they evaluated CMB or PAL interventions delivered to university students in a tertiary setting. Results: Of the 1691 articles identified, 14 studies with 5997 participants met the inclusion criteria. Average study quality scores were poor for both CMB and PAL studies. CMBs and PAL are feasible in the tertiary setting and increase physical activity, reduce sedentary behaviour, increase wellbeing, and reduce fatigue in university students. In addition, CMBs increased student focus and attention in class and PAL had no detrimental effect on academic performance. Conclusions: University educators should feel confident in introducing CMB and/or PAL interventions into their classes to improve student health and wellbeing.

Workplace Intervention for Reducing Sitting Time in Sedentary Workers: Protocol for a Pilot Study Using the Behavior Change Wheel

The workplace is a major contributor to excessive sitting in office workers. There are a wide array of adverse effects of high volumes of sitting time, including an increased risk of type 2 diabetes and depression. Active workstations can be used in effective interventions to decrease workplace sitting. However, there are a lack of interventions that have been developed using a systematic process that is informed by participant needs and a framework for identifying the most appropriate content for the intervention. Applying these methods could increase adherence and potential effectiveness of the intervention. Therefore, the purpose of this pilot study is to examine the feasibility, acceptability, and efficacy of a tailored workplace intervention to reduce and break up sitting in office workers that has been developed using the Behavior Change Wheel and the APEASE (Acceptability, Practicability, Effectiveness/cost-effectiveness, Affordability, Safety/side-effects, Equity) criteria. This article reports the protocol for this study that is currently ongoing. Participants will be cluster-randomized (by offices) to control and intervention groups. The evaluation of the intervention includes determining feasibility by assessing participant recruitment, retention and data completion rates. Adherence to the intervention will be assessed based on daily sitting and standing time relative to guidelines provided to participants as part of the intervention. Outcome measures also include productivity measured using Ecological Momentary Assessment, absenteeism, presenteeism, cardiometabolic risk markers, and wellbeing. The findings of this study will inform the effective design and implementation of interventions for reducing and breaking up sitting in office workers.

Evaluating a multi-component intervention to reduce and break up office workers' sitting with sit-stand desks using the APEASE criteria

Objective

Sedentary workplace interventions have had success in reducing excessive sitting time in office workers, but barriers to implementation and uptake remain. This study formally assessed a theory-derived, sit-stand desk intervention using the APEASE (Acceptability, Practicability, Effectiveness, Affordability, Side-effects, Equity) criteria.

Methods

Thirteen adults (eight female, mean age 38 ± 10 years) from the treatment arm of a sedentary behaviour intervention participated in semi-structured interviews. Thematic codes were inductively assigned to data items followed by deductive charting using the APEASE criteria.

Results

The intervention was highly acceptable, practicable, safe to deploy, and helped workers reduce workplace sitting time, though individual preferences and workload mediated engagement. Affordability of sit-stand desks and Equity of access were potential barriers to uptake.

Conclusions

Through the lens of the APEASE criteria, this theory-derived, multi-component sit-stand desk intervention showed acceptability, practicability and effectiveness in reducing and breaking up sedentary time at work with minimal side effects. Using this approach with further tailoring and personalisation may help workers achieve greater reductions in workplace sitting, though affordability and equity should be considered further.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12889-022-12794-w.

Workplace interventions for increasing physical activity in employees: A systematic review

Background

There is scattered evidence of the impact of workplace interventions in improving employees' physical activity. This systematic review was performed to evaluate the strategies of workplace interventions and their effectiveness, as reported in primary studies.

Method

Primary experimental trials, both randomized controlled trials (RCTs) and non‐RCTs, which examined interventions to increase healthy adult employees' physical activity were included in this review. Studies in English or Persian published between 2009 and 2019 with access to full text of resources were considered. Google Scholar, PubMed, Web of Science, Scopus and Cochrane Library, ProQuest (Thesis) and World Health Organization Clinical Trial Registration Databases and Persian databases such as SID, Magiran, IranMedex, Irandoc were searched. All the stages of review were conducted based on PRISMA. RoB and ROBINS‐I were used to assess the risk of bias of the primary studies.

Results

Thirty‐nine studies, with a total of 18 494 participants, met the inclusion criteria. Of these, 22 were RCTs, 17 were non‐RCTs. Effective interventions were reported in 15 RCTs and 14 non‐RCTs. Four main strategies of interventions were identified, consisting of motivation and support; monitoring and feedback; information and education; and activity. Thirteen different behavior change techniques (BCT) were identified with self‐determination theory (SDT) being the most frequent behavior change theory used.

Conclusion

It seems that a multi‐strategy intervention that one of the strategies of which is physical activity in the workplace (Activity), the use of behavioral change theories, especially SDT, may be indicative of a more effective intervention. It is recommended that BCTs be considered when designing physical activity interventions.

Guiding principles for determining work shift duration and addressing the effects of work shift duration on performance, safety, and health: guidance from the American Academy of Sleep Medicine and the Sleep Research Society

CITATION

Risks associated with fatigue that accumulates during work shifts have historically been managed through working time arrangements that specify fixed maximum durations of work shifts and minimum durations of time off. By themselves, such arrangements are not sufficient to curb risks to performance, safety, and health caused by misalignment between work schedules and the biological regulation of waking alertness and sleep. Science-based approaches for determining shift duration and mitigating associated risks, while addressing operational needs, require: (1) a recognition of the factors contributing to fatigue and fatigue-related risks; (2) an understanding of evidence-based countermeasures that may reduce fatigue and/or fatigue-related risks; and (3) an informed approach to selecting workplace-specific strategies for managing work hours. We propose a series of guiding principles to assist stakeholders with designing a shift duration decision-making process that effectively balances the need to meet operational demands with the need to manage fatigue-related risks.

Exposure to Short Wavelength-Enriched White Light and Exercise Improves Alertness and Performance in Operational NASA Flight Controllers Working Overnight Shifts

OBJECTIVE

We evaluated the efficacy of a combined short-wavelength-enriched white light and exercise fatigue countermeasure during breaks for flight controllers working overnight shifts.

METHODS

Twenty NASA flight controllers were studied for two blocks of nightshifts in ISS mission control, randomized to either the control or countermeasure condition. The countermeasure constituted passive exposure to blue-enriched polychromatic lighting for three 20-minute intervals, which included 10 minutes of exercise and occurred before and twice during their shifts. Alertness, performance, and mood were evaluated.

RESULTS

Flight controllers reported being significantly more alert (P < 0.0001) and happy (P = 0.003) and had faster reaction times (10% slowest responses; P < 0.05) during the countermeasure condition compared to control.

CONCLUSIONS

The combined light and exercise countermeasure improved alertness, performance, and mood in shift workers overnight. Further research is necessary to determine their relative contribution.

Sedentary Lifestyle Matters as Past Sedentariness, Not Current Sedentariness, Predicts Cognitive Inhibition Performance among College Students: An Exploratory Study

Background: Currently, sedentariness is assessed over a short period of time, thus it is difficult to study its cognitive implications. To investigate the cognitive consequences of a sedentary lifestyle, the past level (i.e., the sedentary time accumulated over the years) and current level of sedentariness should be considered. This pilot study aimed to investigate the negative association between a sedentary lifestyle and cognition by considering both the current and past sedentariness. It was expected that the physical activity level moderates the potential negative association between sedentariness and cognition. Methods: 52 college students (M_age = 20.19, SD_age = 2; 36 women) participated in the study. Current sedentariness (ratio of sedentary time in the last year), past sedentariness (ratio of sedentary time accumulated in previous years), and physical activity (ratio of time spent in physical activity in years) were assessed using a questionnaire. Cognitive inhibition, cognitive flexibility, and working memory updating were measured through three specific tests. Results: Past sedentariness significantly explained the inhibition performance when controlled for physical activity, whereas current sedentariness did not. More precisely, past sedentariness only negatively predicted cognitive inhibition when the physical activity level was low (β = -3.15, z(48) = -2.62, p = 0.01). Conclusions: The impact of sedentariness on cognitive functioning might only be revealed when past sedentariness and physical activity are controlled.

Guiding principles for determining work shift duration and addressing the effects of work shift duration on performance, safety, and health: guidance from the American Academy of Sleep Medicine and the Sleep Research Society

Risks associated with fatigue that accumulates during work shifts have historically been managed through working time arrangements that specify fixed maximum durations of work shifts and minimum durations of time off. By themselves, such arrangements are not sufficient to curb risks to performance, safety, and health caused by misalignment between work schedules and the biological regulation of waking alertness and sleep. Science-based approaches for determining shift duration and mitigating associated risks, while addressing operational needs, require: (1) a recognition of the factors contributing to fatigue and fatigue-related risks; (2) an understanding of evidence-based countermeasures that may reduce fatigue and/or fatigue-related risks; and (3) an informed approach to selecting workplace-specific strategies for managing work hours. We propose a series of guiding principles to assist stakeholders with designing a shift duration decision-making process that effectively balances the need to meet operational demands with the need to manage fatigue-related risks.

Feasibility of Reducing and Breaking Up University Students' Sedentary Behaviour: Pilot Trial and Process Evaluation

Background: Accumulating high levels of sedentary behaviour has been linked to poor health outcomes. This study examined the feasibility and preliminary, short-term effects of a theory-based intervention aimed at reducing total and prolonged sedentary behaviour in University students.

Design: A quasi-experimental (pre-post) pilot study. Methods: Nine ambulatory undergraduate students (Mean age = 22 ± 2.32) participated in a one-on-one session, including an educational component around the health effects of sedentary behaviour and three distinct activities (feedback, “pros and cons” exercise, and suggested behaviour change strategies). In addition, automated daily text messages targeting sedentary behaviour were sent for 6 days (four messages per day at fixed intervals). The Behaviour Change Wheel framework guided the intervention design process. Outcomes were assessed over 6 days in pre- and post-intervention periods and included accelerometer-based (activPAL) and self-reported (Nightly-Week-U) total sedentary time, as well as accelerometer-based number of steps and prolonged sedentary time. Students completed a process evaluation interview upon completing the trial.

Results: From pre- to post-intervention, there was a significant reduction in accelerometer-based total and prolonged sedentary time during weekend days. In addition, there was a significant increase in accelerometer-based standing time and stepping during weekend days. There were no statistically significant changes in accelerometer-based sedentary time, standing time or number of steps during weekdays. Process evaluation results indicated that the intervention and its assessment is feasible. Reductions in sedentary time were likely to be mediated by positive changes in the student's reflective and automatic motivation.

Conclusions: Findings from this small, short-term intervention suggest that a single one-on-one session, together with automated text messages, may help University students reduce sedentary behaviour and enhance movement during weekend days. Additional strategies to maximise the intervention effects are discussed (e.g., establishing a collaboration with University staff, introducing sit-to-stand desks, and/or facilitating social support). A randomised control trial assessing sedentary behaviour over a longer period is needed to adequately study the intervention's effectiveness.

Effects of two types of dynamic office workstations (DOWs) used at two intensities on cognitive performance and office work in tasks with various complexity

This study examines the possible effects on objective work performance while using two types of dynamic office workstations (DOWs). 20 participants each used one type with three intensities (seated, light, moderate) and completed a task battery assessing cognitive performance and office work with two levels of complexity. Repeated measures MANOVA showed a significant interaction effect for work performance between the type of workstation and intensity for the simple level and a significant main effect for intensity for the complex level. Comparing the types of DOWs to each other, accuracy of text processing differed when working sedentary. Using both devices with light and moderate intensity had a significant detrimental effect on mouse tasks compared to working sedentary, but none comparing the intensities. No further results indicated neither a detrimental nor an enhancing effect of using DOWs on cognitive performance and office-work related tasks, regardless of the intensity of use or the task complexity. Practitioner Summary: By using DOWs, light physical activity can be integrated while working at a desk. Results showed that using different types of DOWs with different intensities does have a detrimental effect on tasks requiring a high motor control, but not on cognitive or further office work-related tasks of various complexity. Abbreviations: DOW: dynamic office workstation; aLT: activeLife Trainer; DB: deskbike; RPE: rated perceived exertion; MANOVA: multivariate analysis of variance; ANOVA: analysis of variance.

"It Feels Unhealthy to be Sitting for 40 hours a Week": A Qualitative Analysis of Employee Perceptions of Standing Desk Use in the Workplace

OBJECTIVE

Reducing sedentary behavior (SB) is an important public health concern. The purpose of this study was to explore motivation to acquire a standing desk and strategies for using a standing desk through one-on-one interviews.

METHODS

Thirty-seven university employees (89% staff; 51% women) participated in the study. Data were collected using a semi-structured interview guide and brief demographic questionnaire.

RESULTS

Data analysis yielded five themes about motivation to acquire a standing desk: (1) pain management; (2) health risk; (3) movement opportunity; (4) workspace flexibility; and (5) productivity and three themes about typical use strategy: (1) task-dependent; (2) time-dependent; and (3) threshold.

CONCLUSIONS

Motivating factors for using a standing desk should be considered when encouraging standing desk use. Interventions should provide realistic strategies to establish a sit-stand routine that address employees' unique job demands and preferences.

Sedentary behaviour in the workplace: prevalence, health implications and interventions

INTRODUCTION

This paper reviews the prevalence and health risks of excess sedentary behaviour in office workers, and the effectiveness of sedentary workplace interventions in a manner accessible to practitioners.

SOURCES OF DATA

A narrative review of empirical studies obtained from PubMed and Web of Science.

AREAS OF AGREEMENT

Office workers are highly sedentary, increasing their risk of health problems. Interventions using individual, organisational and environmental level strategies can be effective for reducing workplace sitting.

AREAS OF CONTROVERSY

The effects of sedentary workplace interventions on health are inconsistent. This may be due to a lack of randomized controlled trials powered to detect changes in health outcomes.

GROWING POINTS

Multicomponent interventions that use a combination of the strategies above may be the most effective for reducing sitting.

AREAS TIMELY FOR DEVELOPING RESEARCH

Determining the long-term health and cost-effectiveness of sedentary workplace interventions is a priority to encourage employer buy-in for their implementation.

Concurrent and discriminant validity of ActiGraph waist and wrist cut-points to measure sedentary behaviour, activity level, and posture in office work

Background

Sedentary Behaviour (SB) gets an increasing attention from ergonomics and public health due to its associated detrimental health effects. A large number of studies record SB with ActiGraph counts-per-minute cut-points, but we still lack valid information about what the cut-points tell us about office work. This study therefore analysed the concurrent and discriminant validity of commonly used cut-points to measure SB, activity level, and posture.

Methods

Thirty office workers completed four office tasks at three workplaces (conventional chair, activity-promoting chair, and standing desk) while wearing two ActiGraphs (waist and wrist). Indirect calorimetry and prescribed posture served as reference criteria. Generalized Estimation Equations analysed workplace and task effects on the activity level and counts-per-minute, and kappa statistics and ROC curves analysed the cut-point validity.

Results

The activity-promoting chair (p < 0.001, ES ≥ 0.66) but not the standing desk (p = 1.0) increased the activity level, and both these workplaces increased the waist (p ≤ 0.003, ES ≥ 0.63) but not the wrist counts-per-minute (p = 0.74) compared to the conventional chair. The concurrent and discriminant validity was higher for activity level (kappa: 0.52–0.56 and 0.38–0.45, respectively) than for SB and posture (kappa ≤0.35 and ≤ 0.19, respectively). Furthermore, the discriminant validity for activity level was higher for task effects (kappa: 0.42–0.48) than for workplace effects (0.13–0.24).

Conclusions

ActiGraph counts-per-minute for waist and wrist placement were – independently of the chosen cut-point – a measure for activity level and not for SB or posture, and the cut-points performed better to detect task effects than workplace effects. Waist cut-points were most valid to measure the activity level in conventional seated office work, but they showed severe limitations for sit-stand desks. None of the placements was valid to detect the increased activity on the activity-promoting chair. Caution should therefore be paid when analysing the effect of workplace interventions on activity level with ActiGraph waist and wrist cut-points.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12889-021-10387-7.

Association between physical activity and sickness absenteeism in university workers

BACKGROUND

Sedentary occupations have increased by more than 10% in Western countries over the last two decades, and the yearly global cost of physical inactivity has been estimated to be $53.8 billion. As workers tend to move less in the workplace, they are more likely to develop a sedentarism-related chronic condition and to be absent from work due to illness, although research evidence on the issue remains unclear.

AIMS

To investigate associations between physical activity (PA) and sickness absenteeism in the workplace among Spanish university workers.

METHODS

We conducted cross-sectional research with data from 1025 workers aged 18-65 years (43% women) from a Spanish university. Physical Activity Vital Sign (PAVS) and International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ) short versions were used to evaluate levels of PA. Workplace absenteeism was self-reported by participants. Written questionnaires distributed during medical checks included PAVS, IPAQ and the question about absenteeism among other information. The association between PA and sickness absenteeism was examined using adjusted multiple linear regression.

RESULTS

After adjusting for age, sex, job function, chronic conditions, sedentarism and smoking, each weekly hour of PA reduced sickness absence by -1.20 (95% confidence interval: -2.40-0.00) days per year.

CONCLUSIONS

The implementation of PA promotion strategies aimed at university employees may lead to a reduction of days off work due to illness.

Workplace Sedentary Behavior and Productivity: A Cross-Sectional Study

Reducing sedentary behavior in the workplace has become an important public health priority; however, some employers have expressed concerns regarding the potential for reduced productivity if employees are not seated while at work. Therefore, the aim of this study was to determine the relationship between workplace sedentary behavior (sitting time) and work productivity among full-time office-based employees, and further to investigate other potential factors associated with productivity. A 19-item online self-report survey was completed by 2068 government employees in Kansas. The survey assessed workplace sedentary behavior, work productivity, job satisfaction, and fatigue. Overall, office workers reported high levels of sedentary time (mean > 78%). The primary results indicated that sitting time was not significantly associated with productivity (β = 0.013, p = 0.519), but job satisfaction and fatigue were positively (β = 0.473, p < 0.001) and negatively (β = −0.047, p = 0.023) associated with productivity, respectively. Furthermore, participants with the highest level of sitting time (>91% of the time) reported lower job satisfaction and greater fatigue as compared with the lowest level of sitting time (<75% of the time). Taken together, these results offer promising support that less sitting time is associated with positive outcomes that do not seem to come at the expense of productivity.

Does type of active workstation matter? A randomized comparison of cognitive and typing performance between rest, cycling, and treadmill active workstations

Active workstations are associated with improved health outcomes, but differences in cognitive and typing outcomes between the types of active workstations are unclear. We addressed two main questions: (1) Are there differences in cognitive and typing performance between seated and active workstations? (2) Are there differences in cognitive and typing performance between cycling and treadmill workstations, specifically? Participants included 137 healthy young adults (74 female, mean age = 20.8 years) who completed two sessions. At session one (baseline), all participants completed cognitive and typing tests including the Rey-Auditory Verbal Learning Test, Paced Auditory Serial Addition Test, a typing test, and a flanker task while sitting at rest. At session two, participants were randomized to an active workstation group (treadmill or cycling desk) during which they performed the tests listed above in a randomized fashion, using alternate versions when available. Participants showed significantly better attention and cognitive control scores during the active session as compared to the seated session, but worse verbal memory scores during the active session. Participants were faster and more accurate at typing during the active session relative to the seated session. There were no significant differences between cycling or treadmill workstations on any cognitive or typing outcomes. Improvements during active sessions may be influenced by practice effects, although alternate forms were used when possible. We conclude that active workstations do not seem to largely impact cognitive abilities, with the exception of a slight decrease in verbal memory performance. Findings suggest active workstations, whether walking or cycling, are useful to improve physical activity, particularly when completing tasks that do not require verbal memory recall.

The user and non-user perspective: Experiences of office workers with long-term access to sit-stand workstations

OBJECTIVE

Sit-stand workstations have been shown to be effective in reducing sitting time in office workers. The aim of this study was to explore reasons for use and non-use of sit-stand workstations and strategies to decrease sitting and increase physical activity in the workplace from perspectives of users and non-users, as well as from managers and ergo-coaches.

METHODS

Six group interviews with employees who have had access to sit-stand workstations for several years were conducted in a large semi-governmental organisation in the Netherlands. Verbatim transcripts were analysed using thematic analysis. Open coding was conducted by three researchers and codes and themes were discussed within the research team.

RESULTS

Thematic analysis resulted in two major themes: 1) Reasons for use and non-use and 2) Strategies to increase standing and physical activity in the workplace. Shared and distinct reasons for use and non-use were identified between users and non-users of the sit-stand workstations. The most important reasons for use indicated by users were that they had experiencing immediate benefits, including staying alert and increasing focus; these benefits were not acknowledged by non-users. Non-users indicated that sitting was comfortable for them and that they were therefore not motivated to use the standing option. Strategies to increase the use of the standing option included an introductory phase to become familiar with working while standing and to experience the immediate benefits that come from using the standing option. Furthermore, providing reminders to use the standing option was suggested as a strategy to increase and sustain the use of sit-stand workstations. Increased use may lead to a change in the sitting culture within the organisation, as more employees would adopt active movement behaviours.

CONCLUSION

Immediate benefits of the use of the standing option-only mentioned by the users-was the most distinct reason to use sit-stand workstations. Future research should explore how to motivate potential users to adhere to an introductory phase in order to experience these immediate benefits, whether it is linked to the use of sit-stand workstations or other interventions to reduce sitting time.

Natural Patterns of Sitting, Standing and Stepping During and Outside Work-Differences between Habitual Users and Non-Users of Sit-Stand Workstations

Sit-stand workstations have shown to reduce sitting time in office workers on a group level. However, movement behaviour patterns might differ between subgroups of workers. Therefore, the objective of this study was to examine sitting, standing and stepping outcomes between habitual users and non-users of sit-stand workstations. From an international office population based in the Netherlands, 24 users and 25 non-users of sit-stand workstations were included (all had long-term access to these workstations). Using the ActivPAL, sitting, standing and stepping were objectively measured during and outside working hours. Differences in outcomes between users and non-users were analysed using linear regression. During working hours, users sat less (-1.64; 95% IC= -2.27--1.01 hour/8 hour workday) and stood more (1.51; 95% IC= 0.92-2.10 hour/8 hour workday) than non-users. Attenuated but similar differences were also found for total sitting time over the whole week. Furthermore, time in static standing bouts was relatively high for users during working hours (median= 0.56; IQR = 0.19-1.08 hour/8 hour workday). During non-working hours on workdays and during non-working days, no differences were found between users and non-users. During working hours, habitual users of their sit-stand workstation sat substantially less and stood proportionally more than non-users. No differences were observed outside working hours, leading to attenuated but similar differences in total sitting and standing time between users and non-users for total days. This indicated that the users of sit-stand workstations reduced their sitting time at work, but this seemed not to be accompanied by major carry-over or compensatory effects outside working hours.

Determinants of weekly sitting time: construct validation of an initial COM-B model and comparison of its predictive validity with the Theory of Planned Behaviour

OBJECTIVE

In relation to sitting behaviour, to investigate which theoretical domains best formed the Capability, Opportunity, and Motivation constructs of the COM-B, and compare the predictive validity to the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB), taking habit strength into consideration.

DESIGN

Using a prospective design, 186 adults completed measures capturing domains from the Theoretical Domains Framework for the three COM-B constructs, and habit strength, which were examined using a formative measurement model. Predictive validity was then compared to the TPB.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Self-reported sitting behaviour.

RESULTS

Self-monitoring (behavioural regulation domain) formed Capability; subjective norm (social influences domain) formed Opportunity; intention (intentions domain), positive affect (emotion domain), and perceived behavioural control (beliefs about capabilities domain), formed Motivation. The COM-B strongly predicted sitting behaviour (27% variance explained), with Capability, Opportunity, and habit strength as key drivers. The TPB explained a large amount of variance (23%) in sitting behaviour, with intention and habit strength as key drivers.

CONCLUSIONS

The behavioural regulation domain of Capability, the social influences domain of Opportunity, and habit strength were important drivers of sitting behaviour, with comparable variance predicted in the COM-B and TPB. Future research should consider this approach to conceptualise the COM-B for specific populations and behaviours.

Controversies in the Science of Sedentary Behaviour and Health: Insights, Perspectives and Future directions from the 2018 Queensland Sedentary Behaviour Think Tank

The development in research concerning sedentary behaviour has been rapid over the past two decades. This has led to the development of evidence and views that have become more advanced, diverse and, possibly, contentious. These include the effects of standing, the breaking up of prolonged sitting and the role of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) in the association between sedentary behaviour and health outcomes. The present aim is to report the views of experts (n = 21) brought together (one-day face-to-face meeting in 2018) to consider these issues and provide conclusions and recommendations for future work. Each topic was reviewed and presented by one expert followed by full group discussion, which was recorded, transcribed and analysed. The experts concluded that (a). standing may bring benefits that accrue from postural shifts. Prolonged (mainly static) standing and prolonged sitting are both bad for health; (b). ‘the best posture is the next posture’. Regularly breaking up of sitting with postural shifts and movement is vital; (c). health effects of prolonged sitting are evident even after controlling for MVPA, but high levels of MVPA can attenuate the deleterious effects of prolonged sitting depending on the health outcome of interest. Expert discussion addressed measurement, messaging and future directions.

Effects of Active Sitting on Reading and Typing Task Productivity

Increased sedentary behavior and reduced physical activity among children and adults has led to the advent of various active devices to combat these behaviors. Active sitting, consisting of modified chairs or stability balls, allows the body to stay dynamic while seated. While research has evaluated the health benefits of active sitting, minimal research has shown the effects of active sitting on productivity in adult populations. The purpose was to evaluate the effects of various chairs (active versus non-active) on typing and reading task productivity. Twenty adult participants performed typing and reading tasks for 10-minutes while sitting on each of the following: standard chair (SC), stability ball (SB), and active sitting chair (ST). Reading comprehension (RC), words per minute (WPM), accuracy, and errors were measured following each task. Additionally, perceived productivity was measured using a self-reported rating of difficulty scale (1-10). In terms of RC, there was no difference between the chairs (p = 0.16). However, perceived productivity was significantly greater on the SC as compared to SB (p < 0.01) and ST (p < 0.01). For the typing task, no differences were demonstrated for errors (p = 0.87) or accuracy (p = 0.91). However, WPM was significantly greater on SC (38.8 ± 10.5) compared to ST (35.9 ± 9.5) (p = 0.02). For perceived typing productivity, SC and SB demonstrated significantly greater values compared to ST (p < 0.01). Results suggest that various types of active sitting may have a minimal negative effect on workplace performance and perceived productivity.

The effect of using a cycling workstation on mouse dexterity

This study investigated the effect of using a cycling workstation on mouse dexterity, including if and how this changed with practice. Thirty-four healthy adults were allocated to a sitting group (n = 17) or cycling group (n = 17). All participants completed standardised computer tasks on 6 occasions: baseline and final—all participants were seated; practice 1 to 4—sitting group participants were seated, cycling group participants pedalled on an under desk cycle. Three computer tasks were employed: (1) Tracking (continuous task)—participants used the mouse pointer to track a dot in a figure of 8 pattern at 3 different speeds without a guide then with a guide (2) Aiming (discrete task)—participants moved the mouse pointer to a dot which repeatedly disappeared then reappeared again in different locations, creating the outline of a pentagram (3) Steering (continuous task)—participants steered the mouse pointer around two different pathways. Accuracy was measured during the Tracking and Steering tasks as the root mean square error and penalised path accuracy respectively. Speed was measured during the Aiming task as the movement time. Data was analysed using frequentist and Bayes Factor analyses. During the continuous tasks (Tracking and Steering), accuracy was impaired among participants using the cycling workstation, both compared to their accuracy when seated and to the accuracy of participants in the sitting group. In contrast, no deficits in speed were noted among participants using the cycling work station during the discrete task (Aiming). No learning effects were observed among either group for any tasks. These findings suggest using a cycling workstation may impair the accuracy but not speed of mouse use, regardless of task practice. Overall this supports the implementation of cycling workstations in typical office settings, but suggests cycling workstations may impair productivity among workers performing high precision mouse tasks.

Breaking barriers: using the behavior change wheel to develop a tailored intervention to overcome workplace inhibitors to breaking up sitting time

BACKGROUND

The workplace is a prominent domain for excessive sitting. The consequences of increased sitting time include adverse health outcomes such as cardiovascular disease and poor mental wellbeing. There is evidence that breaking up sitting could improve health, however, any such intervention in the workplace would need to be informed by a theoretical evidence-based framework. The aim of this study was to use the Behaviour Change Wheel (BCW) to develop a tailored intervention to break up and reduce workplace sitting in desk-based workers.

METHODS

The BCW guide was followed for this qualitative, pre-intervention development study. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 25 office workers (26-59 years, mean age 40.9 [SD = 10.8] years; 68% female) who were purposively recruited from local council offices and a university in the East of England region. The interview questions were developed using the Theoretical Domains Framework (TDF). Transcripts were deductively analysed using the COM-B (Capability, Opportunity, Motivation - Behaviour) model of behaviour. The Behaviour Change Technique Taxonomy Version 1 (BCTv1) was thereafter used to identify possible strategies that could be used to facilitate change in sitting behaviour of office workers in a future intervention.

RESULTS

Qualitative analysis using COM-B identified that participants felt that they had the physical Capability to break up their sitting time, however, some lacked the psychological Capability in relation to the knowledge of both guidelines for sitting time and the consequences of excess sitting. Social and physical Opportunity was identified as important, such as a supportive organisational culture (social) and the need for environmental resources (physical). Motivation was highlighted as a core target for intervention, both reflective Motivation, such as beliefs about capability and intention and automatic in terms of overcoming habit through reinforcement. Seven intervention functions and three policy categories from the BCW were identified as relevant. Finally, 39 behaviour change techniques (BCTs) were identified as potential active components for an intervention to break up sitting time in the workplace.

CONCLUSIONS

The TDF, COM-B model and BCW can be successfully applied through a systematic process to understand the drivers of behaviour of office workers to develop a co-created intervention that can be used to break up and decrease sitting in the workplace. Intervention designers should consider the identified BCW factors and BCTs when developing interventions to reduce and break up workplace sitting.

Breaking up prolonged sitting with moderate-intensity walking improves attention and executive function in Qatari females

Background

Cultural, environmental and logistical factors promote a sedentary lifestyle within Qatar, particularly for females. Sedentary behaviour is acutely associated with poor cognitive function and fatigue, and chronically may be implicated with cognitive decline (i.e. Alzheimer’s disease).

Purpose

To examine the effects of breaking up sitting with short-duration frequent walking bouts on cognitive function and fatigue in Qatari females.

Method

Eleven sedentary (sitting ≥7 h/day) females completed three visits; the first being familiarisation. In a cross-over randomised manner, experimental visits two and three were identical, except participants either remained seated for 5-h (SIT) or interrupted their sitting every 30-min with a 3-min moderate-intensity walk (WALK) on a motorised treadmill. The Computerised Mental Performance Assessment System (COMPASS) assessed cognition at baseline (-15-min), and then at 2.5-h and 5-h into the experimental conditions. Specific COMPASS tasks employed were; serial-3 subtractions (2-min), serial-7 subtractions (2-min), simple reaction time (RT; 50 stimuli), rapid visual information processing [RVIP (5-min)], choice reaction time (CRT; 50 stimuli), and Stroop (60 stimuli); and a visual analogue scale for fatigue (VAS-F) was completed at the same time intervals.

Results

There was a significant condition effect for CRT (f = 26.7, p = 0.007). On average CRT was 101 s (95% CI = -47 to -156 s) quicker in WALK compared to SIT. There was a significant time effect for CRT (f = 15.5, p = 0.01). On average CRT was 134 s slower at 5-h compared to baseline (p = 0.006; 95% CI = -64 to -203 s), and 114 s slower at 5-h compared to 2.5-h (p = 0.01; 95% CI = -44 to -183 s). There was a significant interaction effect for RT in the Stroop incongruent task (f = 10.0, p = 0.03). On average RT was 210 s quicker at 2.5-h in WALK compared to SIT (p = 0.01; 95% CI = -76 to -346 s).

Conclusion

Breaking up prolonged sitting with moderate-intensity walking offers an ecologically valid intervention to enhance some aspects of cognitive function, whilst not affecting fatigue in sedentary Qatari females. Whilst these findings are promising, the long-term effects of breaking up sitting on cognitive function requires testing before population level recommendations can be made.

Executive Function Performance in Young Adults When Cycling at an Active Workstation: An fNIRS Study

BACKGROUND

This study aimed to investigate the effects of self-paced cycling at an active workstation on executive functions and cortical activity.

METHODS

In a crossover study design, 37 young adults (45.9% females) were randomly assigned to the following two task conditions: (1) performing cognitive tests during sitting, (2) performing cognitive tests while cycling at an active workstation. Executive functions were assessed by the Stroop color and word test and the task-switching paradigm. Cortical activity was monitored using a multi-channel functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) system.

RESULTS

The behavioral results showed that there were no significant differences on the Stroop interference effects (P = 0.66) between the sitting and the cycling conditions. In all probability, no differences on the global switch costs (P = 0.90) and local switch costs (P = 0.67) were observed between the sitting and the cycling conditions. For the fNIRS results, the oxygenated hemoglobin (oxy-Hb) in response to the Stroop interference in channels 5, 10, and 12 were decreased during the cycling condition (all Ps < 0.05, FDR-corrected). Conversely, the oxy-Hb associated with the global switch costs in channels 3, 29, and 31 were increased during the cycling condition (all Ps < 0.05, FDR-corrected).

CONCLUSIONS

The findings indicated that behavioral performances on executive functions were not affected by cycling at an active workstation, while cognitive resources were reallocated during cycling at an active workstation.

Effects of cycle and treadmill desks on energy expenditure and cardiometabolic parameters in sedentary workers: review and meta-analysis

Purpose. The aim of this article was to evaluate the effects of cycle and treadmill desks on energy expenditure and cardiovascular and biochemical indicators in sedentary workers. Materials and methods. In February 2018, six databases were searched. Both parallel and crossover design studies evaluating workplace cycle and treadmill desks compared to a conventional seated condition were included. Results. Twenty-two studies met the inclusion criteria. Cycle and treadmill desks significantly increased energy expenditure (standard mean difference [SMD] = 3.84, p < 0.001, I² = 95%) and the heart rate (SMD = 1.68, p < 0.001, I² = 91%), and lowered blood glucose and insulin levels (SMD = -0.54, p < 0.001, I² = 0% and SMD = -3.13, p < 0.001, I² = 76%, respectively). The interventions had no effect on blood pressure and other biochemical indicators. Conclusion. Cycle and treadmill desks may positively influence energy expenditure in sedentary workers and could be effective for reducing negative effects of workplace-related sedentary behaviour. However, considerable heterogeneity is present in the measuring protocols for energy expenditure.

Sedentary Behavior at Work and Cognitive Functioning: A Systematic Review

Background: It is now well-established that sedentarity has a negative impact on the physiological functioning and health of humans, whereas very little is known about the psychological repercussions, especially in cognitive functioning. Yet, studying the cognitive effects of the sedentary lifestyle is particularly relevant in the short term for productivity and in the long term for cognitive health (accelerated aging). This systematic review therefore aims to make an inventory of the potential cognitive effects of sedentarity at the workplace. Methods: Pubmed, PsycINFO, Cochrane, Web of Science, and Scopus were searched for English-language peer-reviewed articles published between January 1, 2000 and December 31, 2017 to identify studies including sedentary behavior and objective measures from cognitive domains (cognitive inhibition, cognitive flexibility, working memory, etc.). To carry out this systematic review, the 3 keywords "Sedentary" and "Cognition" and "Work" (and their derivatives) had to appear in the title or in the summary of the paper. Results: Of the 13 papers that met the inclusion criteria, 9 were short-term interventions, 3 medium-term interventions, and 1 long-term intervention. Nine of them reported non-significant results. Two studies study reported deterioration in cognitive performance. Two reported an improvement in performance in cognitive tasks with one study with overweight adults and the only one study with a long-term intervention. However, these studies intend to reduce sedentary behavior, but do not allow answering the question of the potential cognitive effects of the sedentary lifestyle. Conclusion: These data suggest that sedentary behavior is not associated with changes in cognitive performance in interventions that intend to reduce sedentary behavior. Then, and given the trend toward increased time in sedentary behavior, long-term prospective studies of high methodological quality are recommended to clarify the relationships between sedentary behavior and the cognitive functioning. Our systematic review identifies also the need for retrospective, longitudinal, or epidemiologic studies. It also recognizes the need to standardize methodology for collecting, defining, and reporting sedentary behavior and the need to standardize the cognitive tests used. The relationship between sedentary behavior and cognitive functioning remaining uncertain, further studies are warranted for which 8 recommendations are proposed.