The Age-Related Performance Decline in Marathon Running: The Paradigm of the Berlin Marathon

An analysis of the São Silvestre race between 2007-2021: An increase in participation but a decrease in performance

This study aimed to investigate the trends of finishers in the São Silvestre race in Brazil, taking into account sex, age, and performance levels. A total of 31 ​775 runners (women, n ​= ​13 ​847; men, n ​= ​17 ​928), aged (45.2 ​± ​16.8) years, finishers in the São Silvestre race between 2007 and 2021, were considered in the present analysis. Data (event year, date of birth, sex, and race times) were downloaded from the official race website. The man-Whitney U test, Spearman correlation, and robust regression model were computed. Participation increased over time for both sexes. Regarding age groups, "31-40 years" (women) and "> 60 years" (men) were those with the highest number of finishers. We found a decrease in performance across the years (β ​= ​2.45; p ​< ​0.005), as well as significant differences in race times for both sexes (U ​= ​42.844; p ​< ​0.001), with men presenting better performances than women. Over time, it was observed an increase in the performance gap between the sexes, but in general, the performance decreased (β ​= ​1.76; p ​< ​0.001). Stakeholders should consider improving the strategies to improve women and young people's participation in running events.

Differences in race history by distance of recreational endurance runners from The NURMI Study (Step 2)

Few studies were developed to understand the relationship between running characteristics and motivation. The purpose of this study was to assess the relationship between running event history, running experience, and best race performances in recreational distance runners. We used a web survey to obtain information regarding running experience, racing history, and periodization training routines/exercise habits, including weekly volumes and daily mileage and duration across periods and conditions. Associations between variables were conducted with the Chi-square test (χ2; nominal scale) and Wilcoxon test. Multiple linear regression analysis and multivariate linear regression were performed. Concerning the participants' motive for exercising, a significant difference was identified between the race distance subgroups (p < 0.001), where 58% of M/UM runners exercised for performance (n = 38) and 64% of HM runners (n = 57) and 57% of 10 km runners (n = 52) exercised for recreational purposes. A significant difference was found in the number of years of running completed without taking a break (p = 0.004), with marathoners/ultramarathoners reporting the most years. Runners competing in different race distances such as 10 km, half-marathon, marathon, and ultra-marathon presented differences in training background and habits according to the distance of preference.

Change in grip strength, hang time, and knot tying speed after 24 hours of endurance rock climbing

Background

Non-professional climbers are increasingly attempting long routes in a single day. Many suffer injury or rely on search and rescue teams when they become too fatigued to finish. Predicting fatigue is difficult, and existing studies have only studied climbers over durations less than an hour, while many outdoor multipitch climbs require more than an hour of climbing.

Objectives

To determine how strength, endurance, and dexterity reflect fatigue after 24 h of continuous climbing.

Methods

Volunteer competitors completed measurements of grip strength, static hang time to failure, and time to tie a figure-eight follow-through knot. Measurements were taken during the registration period before the competition and again within an hour after the competition ended. Measurements were compared using the paired t-test. Subgroup analysis was applied to competitors by division. Linear regression was applied to determine the relationship between vertical feet climbed and the number of routes climbed during the competition on each metric.

Results

Thirty-six total climbers (average age 29.4 years old) completed pre- and post-competition measurements. After 24 h of climbing (n = 36), mean grip strength decreased by 14.3-15 lbs or 14.7%-15.1% (p < 0.001) and static hang time decreased by 54.2 s or 71.2% (p < 0.001). There was no significant change in time to tie a figure-eight-follow-through knot. Grip strength and hang time decreases were significant in climbers with outdoor redpoints of 5.10a and above. Hang time decreased by 5.4 s per 1,000 vertical feet climbed (p = 0.044).

Conclusion

Climbers can expect to experience a 14.7%-15.1% decrease in grip strength and 71.2% decrease in static hang time after 24 h of continuous climbing. These changes may make it difficult to climb consistently over a long objective, and climbers can use these measures at home to train for longer climbing routes. Future studies on shorter climbing intervals can help determine rates of decline in performance measures.

Changes in pacing variation with increasing race duration in ultra-triathlon races

Despite the increasing scientific interest in the relationship between pacing and performance in endurance sports, little information is available about pacing and pacing variation in ultra-endurance events such as ultra-triathlons. Therefore, we aimed to investigate the trends of pacing, pacing variation, the influence of age, sex, and performance level in ultra-triathlons of different distances. We analysed 969 finishers (849 men, 120 women) in 46 ultra-triathlons longer than the original Ironman® distance (e.g., Double-, Triple-, Quintuple- and Deca Iron ultra-triathlons) held from 2004 to 2015. Pacing speed was calculated for every cycling and running lap. Pacing variation was calculated as the coefficient of variation (%) between the average speed of each lap. Performance level (i.e., fast, moderate, slow) was defined according to the 33.3 and 66.6 percentile of the overall race time. A multivariate analysis (two-way ANOVA) was applied for the overall race time as the dependent variable with 'sex' and 'age group' as independent factors. Another multivariate model with 'age' and 'sex' as covariates (two-way ANCOVA) was applied with pacing variation (cycling and running) as the dependent variable with 'race' and 'performance level' as independent factors. Different pacing patterns were observed by event and performance level. The general pacing strategy applied was a positive pacing. In Double and Triple Iron ultra-triathlon, faster athletes paced more evenly with less variation than moderate or slower athletes. The variation in pacing speed increased with the length of the race. There was no significant difference in pacing variation between faster, moderate, and slower athletes in Quintuple and Deca Iron ultra-triathlon. Women had a slower overall performance than men. The best overall times were achieved at the age of 30-39 years. Successful ultra-triathlon athletes adapted a positive pacing strategy in all race distances. The variation in pacing speed increased with the length of the race. In shorter ultra-triathlon distances (i.e., Double and Triple Iron ultra-triathlon), faster athletes paced more evenly with less variation than moderate or slower athletes. In longer ultra-triathlon distances (i.e., Quintuple and Deca Iron ultra-triathlon), there was no significant difference in pacing variation between faster, moderate, and slower athletes.

Nitric oxide, aging and aerobic exercise: Sedentary individuals to Master's athletes

Aging is associated with a decline in physiological function and exercise performance. These effects are mediated, at least in part, by an age-related decrease in the bioavailability of nitric oxide (NO), a ubiquitous gasotransmitter and regulator of myriad physiological processes. The decrease in NO bioavailability with aging is especially apparent in sedentary individuals, whereas older, physically active individuals maintain higher levels of NO with advancing age. Strategies which enhance NO bioavailability (including nutritional supplementation) have been proposed as a potential means of reducing the age-related decrease in physiological function and enhancing exercise performance and may be of interest to a range of older individuals including those taking part in competitive sport. In this brief review we discuss the effects of aging on physiological function and endurance exercise performance, and the potential role of changes in NO bioavailability in these processes. We also provide a summary of current evidence for dietary supplementation with substrates for NO production - including inorganic nitrate and nitrite, l-arginine and l-citrulline - for improving exercise capacity/performance in older adults. Additionally, we discuss the (limited) evidence on the effects of (poly)phenols and other dietary antioxidants on NO bioavailability in older individuals. Finally, we provide suggestions for future research.

Age-Related Differences in Motivation of Recreational Runners, Marathoners, and Ultra-Marathoners

Aim: This study was aimed to investigate the influence of age on the motivations of various types of runners, namely, marathoners, ultra-marathoners, and non-starters.

Methods: A total of 1,537 runners including 380 women (24.7%) and 1,157 men (75.3%) took part in the diagnostic survey and completed the motivations of marathoners’ scales questionnaire (MOMS). The effect sizes were estimated.

Results: The article presents several statistically significant differences in the impact of age on the motivations of runners in different categories and compares the motivations of marathon runners, ultramarathon runners, and non-starters. The results show that young non-starters decide to run for personal goal achievement, and for both marathon and ultramarathon runners, recognition and competition are important. However, for older people in all groups (non-starters, marathoners, and ultramarathoners), personal goal achievement is of the least importance. Among the oldest runners, the most important motives were self-esteem for non-starters and health orientation for marathoners and ultramarathoners.

Socio-Psychological Functions of Men and Women Triathlon Participation

Motivations to run marathons have been recognised by many researchers, but few have paid attention to triathletes. Mass triathlon participation is a new trend, which manifests itself as a human need to invoke strong emotions and seek them in difficult sports, as well as to travel to participate in such events. Therefore, the main goal of this study was to recognise the motivations to participate in triathlons among men and women respondents, and to evaluate the differences between them. The empirical research among triathletes (n = 1141) recognised the motives for participation in mass triathlon sporting events in accordance with four types of orientation: social, experience, factual, and result. Most important conclusions resulting from the conducted research indicate that women significantly more often displayed the will to feel unity and integration, as well as the desire to gain recognition in the eyes of others, as compared to men. For men, the desire to feel equal was significantly more important than for women. Both men and women indicated the desire to maintain good physical condition and health, which turned out to be a significant factor. For men, Group B-specifying the experience orientation, was deemed the most important, while for women the most important group of motives was Group D-specifying the result orientation.

Marathon run performance on daylight savings time transition days: results from a natural experiment

Advancing clock times by 1 h in the spring to daylight savings time and setting clock times back 1 h in the autumn to standard time disrupts circadian timing, sleep and skilled motor behavior such as driving an automobile. It is unknown if endurance performance is impacted by daylight savings transition (DST). The natural experiment described here examined whether exposure to a DST in the 10 h prior to the start of a marathon race was associated with a different mean completion time compared to participants who ran the same course but were unexposed to a recent DST. The primary outcome was the average running time of finishers of United States marathons that were completed on either spring-DST or autumn-DST days in the years 2000-2018. Comparisons were made to results from the same marathon held in a different year that was not run on a DST day. Data were obtained from the public data base marathonguide.com/results. Analysis of the primary outcome used paired samples t-tests weighted by sample size. Spring and autumn data were analyzed separately. Eighteen spring and 29 autumn marathons met the inclusion criteria. Compared to control marathons, the weighted spring-DST performance was worse by 12.3 min (4.1%; P < .001) and equal to a moderate standardized effect size of 0.57 while autumn-DST was trivially worse by 1.4 min (0.5%), which was equivalent to an effect size of 0.13. Ambient temperatures for the DST and control races did not differ for either the spring (10.6 vs. 8.9℃; P = .212) or autumn marathons (7.6 vs. 9.3℃; P = .131). Within the limitations of a natural experiment research design, it is concluded that the findings support worse running performance in marathon races held in the spring on the day of transition to daylight savings time when there is a forced circadian change and sleep loss.

Increased Participation and Decreased Performance in Recreational Master Athletes in "Berlin Marathon" 1974-2019

The aspect of participation and performance trends in marathon running has been investigated mainly in marathons held in the United States of America (e.g., “New York City Marathon,” “Boston Marathon”), but not for the fastest course in the world, the “Berlin Marathon” held in Berlin, Germany. This study aimed to examine trends in participation and performance in the “Berlin Marathon” on all its previous 46 editions from 1974 to 2019, the largest dataset ever studied in this event with 696,225 finishers (after data cleaning). Athletes in all age groups increased their participation, except for male athletes aged 20–49 years and athletes of both sexes above 79 years of age. This overall increase in participation was more pronounced in women, but still, there are more men than women participating in “Berlin Marathon” nowadays. All age group athletes decreased their performance across years overall, whereas the top ten recreational athletes improved their performance over the years. Our findings improved the knowledge about the evolution of male and female marathoners across calendar years, especially for the fastest marathon race in the world, the “Berlin Marathon.”

From Athens to Sparta-37 Years of Spartathlon

(1) Background: Recent studies analyzed the participation and performance trends of historic races such as the oldest ultra-marathon (Comrades) or the oldest 100-km ultra-marathon (Biel). One of the toughest and historic ultra-marathons in the world is the ‘Spartathlon’ (246-km ultra-marathon from Athens to Sparta). The present study aimed to analyze the trends in participation and performance of this race. (2) Methods: Different general linear models were applied as follows: the first model was a two-way ANOVA (Decade × Sex), with separate models for all participants and for only the top five finishers in each race; the second model was a two-way ANOVA (Age Group × Sex); the third model was a two-way ANOVA (Nationality × Sex). (3) Results: Between 1982 and 2019, 3504 ultra-marathoners (3097 men and 407 women) officially finished the Spartathlon at least once. Athletes from Japan were the majority with 737 participants, followed by far by runners from Germany (n = 393), Greece (n = 326), and France (n = 274). The nations with the highest numbers of athletes amongst the top five performers were Japan (n = 71), followed by Germany (n = 59), and Great Britain (n = 31). Runners from the USA were the fastest in men, and runners from Great Britain were the fastest in women. Female and male runners improved performance across the decades. The annual five fastest women and men improved their performance over time. Runners achieved their best performance earlier in life (20–29 and 30–39 years) than female runners (30–39 and 40–49 years). Runners in age group 30–39 years were the fastest for all nationalities, except for Greece. (4) Conclusions: Successful finishers in the Spartathlon improved performance in the last four decades and male runners achieved their best performance ~10 years earlier in life than female runners.

Sub 3-Hour Marathon Runners for Five Consecutive Decades Demonstrate a Reduced Age-Related Decline in Performance

Estimation of the age-related decline in athletic performance by analyzing age-group world record performances presents an inherent limitation because the records generally belong to different individuals. Longitudinal studies describing the changes in performance with advancing age for the same individuals with a consistent training regimen are more appropriate to determine age-related changes in performance. The aim of this longitudinal study was to examine the age-related decline in running performance of sub 3-h marathoners for five consecutive calendar decades. The best marathon performances for each decade from the 1970s to the 2010s were analyzed for 40 sub 3-h runners (39 males and 1 female). The cohort mean personal best performance was 2 h 23 min ± 9 min at an age of 28.6 ± 4.7 years. The mean difference in age between the first and the last sub 3-h marathon races was 32.9 ± 1.6 years. The time difference in marathon performance between the personal best and the worst performance during the 5th decade was 26 ± 9 min, corresponding to a mean increase of 1 min 4 s per year, i.e., a decrease in running speed of 0.67 ± 0.29% per year. These results suggest that with consistent training and racing regimens, it is possible to limit the age-related decline in marathon performance to less than 7% per decade at least until 60 years of age. Further studies are required to verify if such a low rate of age-related decline in endurance performance could be maintained after 60 years of age.

Structural and functional brain signatures of endurance runners

Although endurance running (ER) seems to be a simple repetitive exercise, good ER performance also requires and relies on multiple cognitive and motor control processes. Most of previous neuroimaging studies on ER were conducted using a single MRI modality, yet no multimodal study to our knowledge has been performed in this regard. In this study, we used multimodal MRI data to investigate the brain structural and functional differences between endurance runners (n = 22; age = 26.27 ± 6.07 years; endurance training = 6.23 ± 2.41 years) and healthy controls (HCs; n = 20; age = 24.60 ± 4.14 years). Compared with the HCs, the endurance runners showed greater gray matter volume (GMV) and cortical surface area in the left precentral gyrus, which at the same time had higher functional connectivity (FC) with the right postcentral and precentral gyrus. Subcortically, the endurance runners showed greater GMV in the left hippocampus and regional inflation in the right hippocampus. Using the bilateral hippocampi as seeds, further seed-based FC analyses showed higher hippocampal FC with the supplementary motor area, middle cingulate cortex, and left posterior lobe of the cerebellum. Moreover, compared with the HCs, the endurance runners also showed higher fractional anisotropy in several white matter regions, involving the corpus callosum, left internal capsule, left corona radiata, left external capsule, left posterior lobe of cerebellum and bilateral precuneus. Taken together, our findings provide several lines of evidence for the brain structural and functional differences between endurance runners and HCs. The current data suggest that these brain characteristics may have arisen as a result of regular ER training; however, whether they represent the neural correlates underlying the good ER performances of the endurance runners requires further investigations.

Diverse Effects of Thermal Conditions on Performance of Marathon Runners

Heat exposure affects human performance in many ways. Both physiological (i.e., glycogen sparing, oxygen uptake, thermoregulation) and biomechanical mechanisms (i.e., contact time, knee flexion, muscle activity) are affected, hence reducing performance. However, the exposure affects persons differently. Not all athletes necessarily experience an identical thermal condition similarly, and this point has been overlooked to date. We analyzed endurance performances of the top 1000 runners for every year during the last 12 New York City Marathons. Thermal conditions were estimated with wet-bulb globe temperature (WBGT) and universal thermal climate index (UTCI). Under identical thermal exposure, the fastest runners experienced a larger decline in performance than the slower ones. The empirical evidence offered here not only shows that thermal conditions affect runners differently, but also that some groups might consistently suffer more than others. Further research may inspect other factors that could be affected by thermal conditions, as pacing and race strategy.

Do Years of Running Experience Influence the Motivations of Amateur Marathon Athletes?

The aim of the study was to investigate if years of running experience influence the motivations of marathon athletes. An empirical study was conducted during the last (20th) PKO Poznan Marathon, one of the largest and most popular mass running events in Poland, which was held in Poznan (Poland) in October 2019. A total of 493 marathon runners (29% of whom were female, and 71% of whom were male) took part in the cross-sectional study, which used the diagnostic survey method. The questionnaire employed the division of motives from the motivation of marathoners scale (MOMS) by Masters et al., adapted to the Polish language by Dybala. Running motivations have already been analysed for variables such as age, gender and place of residence, but there is a research gap regarding existing research, as the relationship between motivations and running experience has not yet been studied. One-way analysis of variance for independent samples was used to verify statistical hypotheses. Prior to making the relevant calculations, the assumption of homogeneity of variance was checked via Levene's test. Variances were assessed with an F-test, and if they were unequal, Welch's correction was applied. Eta squared (η²) was used as a measure of effect size. The calculations carried out showed that running experience was not a statistically significant factor in the motivations of runners taking part in a marathon.

The Impact of Modern Ultramarathons on Shaping the Social Identity of Runners. The Case Study of Karkonosze Winter Ultramarathon

Despite the growing interest in extreme sports around the world, researchers have rarely investigated the complex factors that have led to a developed commitment to extreme sports in recent years. Precisely, the social identity of ultramarathoners remains a research niche. The aim of the article is to analyze the impact of a sports event on shaping social identity of ultramarathon runners on the example of Karkonosze Winter Ultramarathon (held in Poland). The qualitative method used in the article—interviews with runners—made it possible to examine the factors that create social identity, among which the motives for participation, sports subculture, and the authenticity of the experience play a key role. The first part of the article describes the theoretical aspects of social identity in sport. The second, empirical part presents the research results supplemented by the statements of the contestants. In this case, the subject of analysis is the motives for participation in a winter ultramarathon and their characteristics. Lastly, the article analyzes the subculture of ultramarathoners and the experience of contestants’ authenticity. The investigated winter ultramarathon created the perfect space for creation, deepening and celebrating the social identity of ultramarathoners assessed as a value in itself. The article enriches the present knowledge about the motivation of ultramarathoners because, unlike the results of quantitative research, it presents in-depth responses of runners who were not always concerned by existing research questionnaires.

Male and Female Motivations for Participating in a Mass Cycling Race for Amateurs. The Skoda Bike Challenge Case Study

The purpose of our research was twofold: to investigate the motivations for participating in a mass cycling event for amateurs and the motivational differences between men and women in cycling. This empirical study involving 385 cyclists was conducted during the fifth edition of the Skoda Bike Challenge held in Poznań in 2018. The event forms part of the UCI Gran Fondo World Series of events organized around the world, which are sanctioned by the Union Cycliste Internationale (UCI). A diagnostic survey method with a standardized interviewing technique was used to interview cyclists. The interview questionnaire was divided according to the MPAM-R scale (Motives for Physical Activity Measure–Revised). This scale assesses people’s motives for participating in physical activities. The following motivations were examined: appearance, fitness, social, competence/challenge, and enjoyment. Descriptive statistics were used. A chi-square test was used to determine characteristics between responses. Cramer’s φ for statistically significant scores was indicated. The research results show some differences between male and female motives for competitive amateur cycling. Statistically significant differences were found between the following motives: interest/enjoyment, competence/challenge, and fitness. This is important information from the point of view of promoting cycling and for organizers of cycling events in regions wishing to promote sports tourism as a form of sustainable development. An understanding of mass cycling motivations is needed, as such knowledge can be used to encourage cycling, which has a potentially positive effect on future cyclists’ physical and mental health. Learning about cycling motivations also allows us to determine which physical and mental health functions are fulfilled by mass sporting events and how to prepare for them. The motives for participating in mass cycling events for amateurs in Europe constitute an interesting field of research. The first part of the paper presents the literature review related to cycling in the context of motivations, sporting events, tourism, event management, and sustainable development, and the second part presents the results of our empirical study.

Muscle Strength and Flexibility in Male Marathon Runners: The Role of Age, Running Speed and Anthropometry

Most studies on marathon runners have focused on physiological parameters determining performance, whereas neuromuscular aspects, such as muscle strength and flexibility, have received less attention. Thus, the aim of the present study was to examine the relationship of age, body composition, and running speed with muscle strength and flexibility of recreational marathon runners. Male marathon runners (n = 130, age 44.1 ± 8.6 years, height 176 ± 6 cm, body mass 77 ± 9 body mass index 24.7 ± 2.6 kg.m^-2, and race speed 10.29 ± 1.87 km/h) were separated into eight age groups (<30, 30-35, 55-60, >60 years). Four weeks before competing in a marathon, participants performed the sit-and-reach test (SAR), squat jumps (SJ), and countermovement jumps (CMJ), and four isometric muscle strength tests (right and left handgrip, lifting with knees extended and flexed), providing an index of overall isometric muscle strength in absolute (kg) relative to body mass values (kg.kg^-1 body mass). Afterward, participants competed and finished the Athens Classic Marathon (2017), and race speed was used as an index of running performance. As an average for the whole sample, SAR was 17.6 ± 8.5 cm, SJ was 24.3 ± 4.2 cm, CMJ was 25.8 ± 4.8 cm, overall isometric muscle strength was 386 ± 59 kg in absolute values and 5.06 ± 0.78 kg/kg of body mass in relative terms. The older age groups had the lowest scores in SJ (p < 0.001, η_p ² = 0.298) and CMJ (p < 0.001, η_p ² = 0.304), whereas no age-related difference in SAR (p = 0.908, η_p ² = 0.022), absolute (p = 0.622, η_p ² = 0.042) and relative isometric muscle strength (p = 0.435, η_p ² = 0.055) was shown. Race speed correlated moderately with relative isometric strength (r = 0.42, p < 0.001), but not with the other neuromuscular measures (r < 0.13,p > 0.130). In summary, age-related differences were shown in jumping ability, but not in flexibility and isometric muscle strength. Although these parameters - except relative strength - did not relate to running speed, they were components of health-related physical fitness. Consequently, coaches and runners should consider exercises that include stretching and strengthening in their weekly program to ensure adequate levels for all components of health-related physical fitness.

Motivation in the Athens Classic Marathon: The Role of Sex, Age, and Performance Level in Greek Recreational Marathon Runners

The aim of the present study was to examine the motivation of recreational runners and its variation by sex, age, and performance level. Finishers (female: n = 32, age 40.1 ± 9.0 years old, height 162 ± 7 cm, body mass 57.7 ± 7.5 kg, race record 4:34 ± 0:39 h:min; male: n = 134, 44.2 ± 8.6 years, 176 ± 6 cm, 77.0 ± 9.3 kg, 4:02 ± 0:44 h:min) in the Athens Classic Marathon 2017 completed the Motivations of Marathoners Scales (MOMS) 56-item questionnaire. The highest scores in the MOMS were observed in the general health orientation and personal goal achievement categories, and the lowest in the recognition and competition areas. Female participants scored higher in coping, self-esteem, and goal achievement than their male counterparts (p < 0.05). The <30 age group scored higher than the 35–40 and 40–45 age groups in “competing with other runners” for male participants (p < 0.05). The average performance group outscored the slowest group in “achieving personal goals” and “competing with other runners” in female participants, whereas an effect of performance on these two themes was shown in male participants as well (p < 0.05). In summary, we partially confirmed that female and male marathon runners differ for their motivations. In addition, novel findings were the identification of age and performance level as correlates of motivations. The knowledge of these trends would be of great practical value for practitioners to optimize the motivation of their athletes.