Processed and Unprocessed Red Meat Consumption and Risk for Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus: An Updated Meta-Analysis of Cohort Studies

Dietary Patterns and New-Onset Diabetes Mellitus in Southwest China: A Prospective Cohort Study in the China Multi-Ethnic Cohort (CMEC)

(1) Background: There is little known about the relationship between Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH) pattern and diabetes in cohort studies, and the dietary patterns in the Chongqing natural population are unknown. (2) Methods: 14,176 Chinese adults, aged 30-79 years old, participated in this prospective study, from September 2018 to October 2023. A dietary assessment was conducted using a food frequency questionnaire, and three main dietary patterns were extracted from the principal component analysis. DASH patterns were calculated by standards. (3) Results: During the 4.64 y follow-up, 875 developed diabetes (11.3/1000 person-years). Each posteriori diet pattern is named after its main dietary characteristics (meat pattern, dairy products-eggs pattern, and alcohol-wheat products pattern). The high consumption of DASH pattern diet reduced the risk of diabetes (Q5 vs. Q1 HR: 0.71; 95% CI: 0.40-0.56) while high consumption of alcohol-wheat product pattern diet was associated with a high risk of diabetes (Q5 vs. Q1 HR: 1.32; 95% CI: 1.04, 1.66). The other two dietary patterns were not associated with diabetes. In subgroup analysis, there was an interaction between DASH pattern and sex (P for interaction < 0.006), with a strong association in females. (4) Conclusions: DASH pattern may be associated with a reduced new-onset diabetes risk and Alcohol-wheat products pattern may be positively associated with new-onset diabetes. These findings may provide evidence for making dietary guidelines in southwest China to prevent diabetes.

Effects of red meat taxes and warning labels on food groups selected in a randomized controlled trial

BACKGROUND

High consumption of red and processed meat contributes to both health and environmental harms. Warning labels and taxes for red meat reduce selection of red meat overall, but little is known about how these potential policies affect purchases of subcategories of red meat (e.g., processed versus unprocessed) or of non-red-meat foods (e.g., cheese, pulses) relevant to health and environmental outcomes. This study examined consumer responses to warning labels and taxes for red meat in a randomized controlled trial.

METHODS

In October 2021, we recruited 3,518 US adults to complete a shopping task in a naturalistic online grocery store. Participants were randomly assigned to one of four arms: control (no warning labels or tax), warning labels only (health and environmental warning labels appeared next to products containing red meat), tax only (prices of products containing red meat were increased 30%) or combined warning labels + tax. Participants selected items to hypothetically purchase, which we categorized into food groups based on the presence of animal- and plant-source ingredients (e.g., beef, eggs, pulses), meat processing level (e.g., processed pork versus unprocessed pork), and meat species (e.g., beef versus pork). We assessed the effects of the warning labels and tax on selections from each food group.

RESULTS

Compared to control, all three interventions led participants to select fewer items with processed meat (driven by reductions in processed pork) and (for the tax and warning labels + tax interventions only) fewer items with unprocessed meat (driven by reductions in unprocessed beef). All three interventions also led participants to select more items containing cheese, while only the combined warning labels + tax intervention led participants to select more items containing processed poultry. Except for an increase in selection of pulses in the tax arm, the interventions did not affect selections of fish or seafood (processed or unprocessed), eggs, or plant-based items (pulses, nuts & seeds, tofu, meat mimics, grains & potatoes, vegetables).

CONCLUSIONS

Policies to reduce red meat consumption are also likely to affect consumption of other types of foods that are relevant to both health and environmental outcomes.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

NCT04716010 on www.

CLINICALTRIALS

gov .

A review of dairy food intake for improving health among black adults in the US

The adult life stage encompasses a range of new experiences, opportunities, and responsibilities that impact health and well-being. During this life stage, health disparities continue to increase for Black Americans, with Black adults having a disproportionate burden of obesity, chronic diseases, comorbidities, and worse treatment outcomes compared to their White peers. While many of the underlying factors for these disparities can be linked to longstanding sociopolitical factors such as systemic racism, food insecurity, and poor access to healthcare, there are also several modifiable risk factors that are known to significantly impact health outcomes, such as improving diet quality, increasing physical activity, and not smoking. Of all the modifiable risk factors known to impact health, improving dietary habits is the factor most consistently associated with better outcomes for body weight and chronic disease. Of the major food groups recommended by the 2020-2025 Dietary Guidelines for Americans (DGA) for achieving healthier dietary patterns, dairy foods have a nutrient profile which matches most closely to what Black Americans are inadequately consuming (e.g., vitamin A, vitamin D, calcium, magnesium). However, Black adults tend to consume less than half the recommended daily servings of dairy foods, in part, due to issues with lactose intolerance, making higher intake of dairy foods an ideal target for improving diet quality and health in this population. This review examines the current body of evidence exploring the links between dairy intake, obesity, cardiometabolic disease risk, chronic kidney disease, and the most common types of cancer, with a special focus on health and disparities among Black adults. Overall, the evidence from most systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses published in the last decade on dairy intake and health outcomes has been conducted on White populations and largely excluded research on Black populations. The findings from this extensive body of research indicate that when teamed with an energy-restricted diet, meeting or exceeding the DGA recommended 3 daily servings of dairy foods is associated with better body weight and composition outcomes and lower rates of most common chronic diseases than lower intake (<2 servings per day). In addition to the number of daily servings consumed, the specific types (e.g., milk, yogurt, cheese) and subtypes (e.g., low-fat, fermented, fortified) consumed have also been shown to play major roles in how these foods impact health. For example, higher intake of fermented dairy foods (e.g., yogurt) and vitamin D fortified dairy products appear to have the most protective effects for reducing chronic disease risk. Along with lactose-free milk and cheese, yogurt is also generally low in lactose, making it an excellent option for individuals with lactose intolerance, who are trying to meet the DGA recommendations for dairy food intake.

White meat consumption and risk of cardiovascular disease and type 2 diabetes: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Objectives

The aim was to systematically review the associations among white meat consumption, cardiovascular diseases (CVD), and type 2 diabetes (T2D).

Methods

Databases MEDLINE, Embase, and Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials and Scopus were searched (15th October 2021) for randomized intervention trials (RCTs, ≥ 4 weeks of duration) and prospective cohort studies (≥12 month of follow-up) assessing the consumption of white meat as the intervention/exposure. Eligible outcomes for RCTs were cardiometabolic risk factors and for cohorts, fatal and non-fatal CVD and incident T2D. Risk of bias was estimated using the Cochrane's RoB2 and Risk of Bias for Nutrition Observational Studies. Meta-analysis was conducted in case of ≥3 relevant intervention studies or ≥5 cohort studies using random-effects models. The strength of evidence was evaluated using the World Cancer Research Fund's criteria.

Results

The literature search yielded 5,795 scientific articles, and after screening 43 full-text articles, 23 cohort studies and three intervention studies were included. All included intervention studies matched fat content of intervention and control diets, and none of them showed any significant effects on the selected outcomes of white meat when compared to red meat. Findings from the cohort studies generally did not support any associations between white meat intake and outcomes. Meta-analyses were conducted for CVD mortality (RR: 0.95, 95% CI: 0.87-1.02, P = 0.23, I2 = 25%) and T2D incidence (RR: 0.98, 95% CI: 0.87-1.11, P = 0.81, I2 = 82%).

Conclusion

The currently available evidence does not indicate a role, beneficial or detrimental, of white meat consumption for CVD and T2D. Future studies investigating potentially different health effects of processed versus unprocessed white meat and substitution of red meat with white meat are warranted.Registration: Prospero registration CRD42022295915.

Association between ultra-processed food consumption and the incidence of type 2 diabetes: the ELSA-Brasil cohort

BACKGROUND

Ultra-processed food (UPF) consumption increases the risk of type 2 diabetes in various high-income countries, with some variation in the magnitude across studies. Our objective was to investigate the association of UPF consumption and specific subgroups with incident type 2 diabetes in Brazilian adults.

METHODS

The Brazilian Longitudinal Study of Adult Health (ELSA-Brasil) is a multicenter cohort study of 15,105 adults (35-74 years) enrolled in public institutions in Brazil (2008-2010). We followed participants with two clinic visits (2012-2014; 2017-2019) and annual telephone surveillance. After excluding those with diabetes at baseline, who died or were lost in the follow-up, with missing data, with implausible energy food intake, or reporting bariatric surgery, there were 10,202 participants. We used the NOVA classification to assess UPF consumption based on a food frequency questionnaire. We defined type 2 diabetes by self-report, medication use, or comprehensive laboratory tests. We estimated relative risks (RR) and 95% confidence intervals (95% CI) using robust Poisson regression.

RESULTS

Median UPF consumption was 372 g/day. Over 8.2 (0.7) years of follow-up, we detected 1799 (17.6%) incident cases. After adjustment for socio-demographics, family history of diabetes, and behavioral risk factors, comparing the fourth (≥ 566 g/day) with the first (< 236 g/day) quartile of UPF distribution, RR was 1.24 (1.10-1.39); every 150 g/day increments in UPF consumption resulted in a RR of 1.05 (1.03-1.07). Reclassifying natural beverages with added sweeteners as UPF increased risk (RR 1.40; 1.25-1.58). Among UPF subgroupings, consumption of processed meats and sweetened beverages increased diabetes risk, while yogurt and dairy sweets decreased the risk (p < 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

UPF consumption increased the incidence of type 2 diabetes in Brazilian adults, with heterogeneity across specific food items. These findings add to previous evidence for the role of UPFs in the development of diabetes and other chronic diseases, supporting recommendations to avoid their intake in diabetes prevention and management.

Ultraprocessed food consumption is associated with all-cause and cardiovascular mortality in participants with type 2 diabetes independent of diet quality: a prospective observational cohort study

BACKGROUND

Nutritional strategies for prevention and management of type 2 diabetes traditionally emphasize dietary patterns reflecting nutrient goals, but the health implications of ultraprocessed food (UPF) for patients with type 2 diabetes remain unknown.

OBJECTIVES

This study aimed to evaluate the association of UPF intake with all-cause and cardiovascular disease (CVD) mortality among participants with type 2 diabetes from the Moli-sani Study in Italy (enrollment 2005-2010).

METHODS

This was a prospective observational cohort study on 1065 individuals with type 2 diabetes at baseline, followed up for 11.6 y (median). Food intake was assessed by a 188-item food-frequency questionnaire. UPF was defined following the Nova classification and calculated as the ratio (weight ratio; %) between UPF (g/d) and total food eaten (g/d). Overall diet quality was assessed through the Mediterranean Diet Score (MDS). Multivariable-adjusted Cox proportional hazards models were used to estimate hazard ratios (HRs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) for mortality.

RESULTS

The average UPF consumption was 7.4% (±5.0%). In multivariable-adjusted Cox analyses, greater UPF intake (Q4, ≥10.5% and ≥9% of total food eaten for females and males, respectively), as opposed to the lowest (Q1, UPF <4.7% and <3.7% for females and males, respectively), was associated with higher hazards of both all-cause (HR: 1.70; 95% CI: 1.25, 2.33) and CVD mortality (HR: 2.64; 95% CI: 1.59, 4.40); inclusion of the MDS into the model did not substantially alter the magnitude of these associations (HR: 1.64; 95% CI: 1.19, 2.25 and HR: 2.55; 95% CI: 1.53, 4.24 for all-cause and CVD mortality, respectively). A linear dose-response relationship of UPF intake with both all-cause and CVD mortality was also observed.

CONCLUSIONS

In participants with type 2 diabetes at study entry, higher UPF consumption was associated with reduced survival and higher CVD mortality rate, independent of diet quality. Besides prioritizing the adoption of a diet based on nutritional requirements, dietary guidelines for the management of type 2 diabetes should also recommend limiting UPF.

Red meat consumption, cardiovascular diseases, and diabetes: a systematic review and meta-analysis

AIMS

Observational studies show inconsistent associations of red meat consumption with cardiovascular disease (CVD) and diabetes. Moreover, red meat consumption varies by sex and setting, however, whether the associations vary by sex and setting remains unclear.

METHODS AND RESULTS

This systematic review and meta-analysis was conducted to summarize the evidence concerning the associations of unprocessed and processed red meat consumption with CVD and its subtypes [coronary heart disease (CHD), stroke, and heart failure], type two diabetes mellitus (T2DM), and gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) and to assess differences by sex and setting (western vs. eastern, categorized based on dietary pattern and geographic region). Two researchers independently screened studies from PubMed, Web of Science, Embase, and the Cochrane Library for observational studies and randomized controlled trials (RCTs) published by 30 June 2022. Forty-three observational studies (N = 4 462 810, 61.7% women) for CVD and 27 observational studies (N = 1 760 774, 64.4% women) for diabetes were included. Red meat consumption was positively associated with CVD [hazard ratio (HR) 1.11, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.05 to 1.16 for unprocessed red meat (per 100 g/day increment); 1.26, 95% CI 1.18 to 1.35 for processed red meat (per 50 g/day increment)], CVD subtypes, T2DM, and GDM. The associations with stroke and T2DM were higher in western settings, with no difference by sex.

CONCLUSION

Unprocessed and processed red meat consumption are both associated with higher risk of CVD, CVD subtypes, and diabetes, with a stronger association in western settings but no sex difference. Better understanding of the mechanisms is needed to facilitate improving cardiometabolic and planetary health.

The Effect of Dietary Protein Intake on the Risk of Gestational Diabetes

Background. The results of epidemiological studies on the association between dietary protein intake and gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) are controversial. Thus, this systematic review and meta-analysis of cohort studies were established to attain comprehensive findings regarding the association between dietary protein and the risk of GDM. Methods. Bibliographic databases including PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and Google Scholar were searched to discover papers related to dietary protein and the risk of GDM. The summary relative risks with 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were estimated through a random effect model for the analysis of the highest versus the lowest categories of dietary proteins. Results. A significantly increased risk of GDM among women who consumed the highest amount of animal protein was observed (summarized risk estimate: 1.52; 95% CI: 1.07, 2.17; I2 = 50.8%). No significant associations were identified regarding vegetable protein (summarized risk estimate:0.99, 95% CI: 0.80 to 1.23, I2 = 63.8%) and total protein (summarized risk estimate: 1.12; 95% CI: 0.88, 1.41; I2 = 35.4%). Conclusion. This review revealed that total protein intake had no relationship with the risk of GDM, while animal protein increases this risk. Further larger prospective cohort studies are required to confirm our results.

Red and Processed Meat Consumption in Poland

The aim of the study was to assess the quantity and frequency of meat consumption, especially of red and processed meat, in Poland. The amount of meat consumed was assessed using data from household budget surveys undertaken in 2000, 2010, and 2020. The frequency of consumption was assessed using Food Propensity Questionnaire data from 1831 adults in 2019-2020. Poles consumed 1.35 kg of unprocessed red meat and 1.96 kg of total processed meat per person per month in 2020. The consumption of red meat was lower than in the two previous decades; the consumption of processed meat fluctuated. Pork was the most commonly consumed red meat: 40% of adults consumed pork 2-3 times a week. Beef and other unprocessed red meat were most often consumed less than once a month (29.1%). Processed meat was often consumed: 37.8% of adults ate cold cuts, and 34.9% ate sausages and bacon 2-3 times a week. The consumption of red and processed meat in Poland was high and frequent. In particular, the consumption of processed meat exceeded the recommendations and might increase the risk of chronic diseases. It is necessary to implement activities aimed at reducing the consumption of red and processed meat in Poland.

Plant-Based Dietary Patterns versus Meat Consumption and Prevalence of Impaired Glucose Intolerance and Diabetes Mellitus: A Cross-Sectional Study in Australian Women

This study aimed to compare the prevalence of impaired glucose tolerance (IGT) and diabetes mellitus (DM) among Australian women following plant-based diets (PBD) compared to regular meat eaters. A cross sectional analysis of the mid-aged cohort (1946−1951) of the Australian Longitudinal Study on Women’s Health was conducted on completers of Survey 7 in 2013 with complete FFQ data available (n = 9102). Dietary patterns were categorized as PBD (vegan, lacto-ovo vegetarian, pesco-vegetarian, semi-vegetarian) and regular meat eaters. Meat eaters were further categorized into high and low consumption and outcomes included self-reported prevalence of IGT and DM. Participants were identified as regular meat eaters (n = 8937) and PBD (n = 175). Prevalence of IGT was lower in PBD (0−1.2%) compared to regular meat eaters (9.1%). Consolidation of PBD to a single group (vegetarians) indicated a lower prevalence of DM in vegetarians compared to regular meat eaters (3.9% vs. 9.1%). Women consuming meat daily/multiple times per day had significantly higher odds of IGT (OR 1.5, 95%CI 1.1 to 2.1, p = 0.02). Individuals consuming processed meat daily/multiple times per day had significantly higher odds of DM compared to those consuming less than daily (Odds ratio (OR) 1.7, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.3 to 2.3, p < 0.0001). After adjustment for covariates, statistical significance was lost largely due to the addition of BMI to the model. Prevalence of IGT and DM were lower in women following PBD and higher in high consumers of meat and processed meat. The relationship between meat consumption and IGT/diabetes status appears to be mediated, at least in part, by an increase in body mass index (BMI). Future studies are warranted to investigate the mechanisms and other lifestyle factors underpinning the association between high meat consumption and increased risk of IGT and DM.

Health effects associated with consumption of unprocessed red meat: a Burden of Proof study

Characterizing the potential health effects of exposure to risk factors such as red meat consumption is essential to inform health policy and practice. Previous meta-analyses evaluating the effects of red meat intake have generated mixed findings and do not formally assess evidence strength. Here, we conducted a systematic review and implemented a meta-regression-relaxing conventional log-linearity assumptions and incorporating between-study heterogeneity-to evaluate the relationships between unprocessed red meat consumption and six potential health outcomes. We found weak evidence of association between unprocessed red meat consumption and colorectal cancer, breast cancer, type 2 diabetes and ischemic heart disease. Moreover, we found no evidence of an association between unprocessed red meat and ischemic stroke or hemorrhagic stroke. We also found that while risk for the six outcomes in our analysis combined was minimized at 0 g unprocessed red meat intake per day, the 95% uncertainty interval that incorporated between-study heterogeneity was very wide: from 0-200 g d-1. While there is some evidence that eating unprocessed red meat is associated with increased risk of disease incidence and mortality, it is weak and insufficient to make stronger or more conclusive recommendations. More rigorous, well-powered research is needed to better understand and quantify the relationship between consumption of unprocessed red meat and chronic disease.

Formation of Carcinogens in Processed Meat and Its Measurement with the Usage of Artificial Digestion—A Review

Meat is a rich source of various nutrients. However, it needs processing before consumption, what in turn generates formation of carcinogenic compounds, i.a., polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), nitrosamines (NOCs), and the most mutagenic heterocyclic aromatic amines (HAAs). It was widely found that many factors affect the content of carcinogens in processed meat. However, it has recently been discovered that after digestion free HAAs are released, which are not detectable before enzymatic treatment. It was established that the highest percentage of carcinogens is released in the small intestine and that its amount can be increased up to 6.6-fold. The change in free HAAs content in analyzed samples was dependent on many factors such as meat type, doneness, particle size of meat, and the enzyme concentration used for digestion. In turn, introduction of bacteria naturally occurring in the human digestive tract into the model significantly decreases total amount of HAAs. Contrary, the addition of food ingredients rich in polyphenols, fiber, and water (pepper powder, onions, apples) increases free HAAs’ release up to 56.06%. Results suggests that in vitro digestion should be an integral step of sample preparation. Artificial digestion introduced before chromatographic analysis will allow to estimate accurately the content of carcinogens in processed meat.

Biscuit consumption and diabetic retinopathy incidence in adults in the United States

BACKGROUND

Foods have a considerable influence on human health and were directly related to glycemic control for diabetes patients. However, little is known about the effects of biscuits, a traditional food consumed in large amounts in several countries, on diabetic retinopathy. This study aimed to explore the association between biscuit consumption and diabetic retinopathy prevalence in adults of the United States population.

METHODS

A cross-sectional study with 1904 participants from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey database were included in this population-based, cross-sectional study. The association between different consumption frequencies of biscuit and diabetic retinopathy prevalence was evaluated using a binary logistic regression model. Trend test, stratified and interaction analyses were also performed.

RESULTS

After possible confounders including sex, age, ethnicity, education, marital status, family poverty income ratio, smoking and alcohol consumption habit, fasting blood glucose level, hemoglobin A1c level, diagnosis of diabetes, insulin use, blood pressure, body mass index were adjusted, the participants who consumed biscuit 1-11 times a year, 1-3 times a month, and more than once a week had a 139.8% (95% confidence interval, 1.003-5.734), 182.1% (95% confidence interval, 1.106-7.191), and 236.2% (95% confidence interval, 1.335-9.844) higher risk of diabetic retinopathy prevalence, respectively, compared with those who never ate biscuit. For male, non-Hispanic, and overweight (body mass index ≥ 25 kg/m²) subgroups, the trend test demonstrated that the diabetic retinopathy prevalence significantly elevated with increased frequency of biscuit consumption (P _trend = 0.021, 0.009, and 0.002, respectively). The interaction analysis suggested that no aforementioned confounders played an interactive role in the relationship between biscuit consumption and diabetic retinopathy prevalence.

CONCLUSIONS

The risk of diabetic retinopathy was positively associated with biscuit consumption. Moreover, for male, non-Hispanic, or overweight individuals, the risk of diabetic retinopathy significantly increased with the frequency of biscuit consumption.

Red meat consumption, incident CVD and the influence of dietary quality in the Jackson Heart Study

OBJECTIVES

We investigated the prospective associations between meat consumption and CVD and whether these relationships differ by dietary quality among African American (AA) adults.

DESIGN

Baseline diet was assessed with a regionally specific FFQ. Unprocessed red meat included beef and pork (120 g/serving); processed meat included sausage, luncheon meats and cured meat products (50 g/serving). Incident total CVD, CHD, stroke and heart failure were assessed annually over 9·8 years of follow-up. We characterised dietary quality using a modified Healthy Eating Index-2010 score (m-HEI), excluding meat contributions.

SETTING

Jackson, MS, USA.

PARTICIPANTS

AA adults (n 3242, aged 55 y, 66 % female).

RESULTS

Mean total, unprocessed red and processed meat intakes were 5·7 ± 3·5, 2·3 ± 1·8 and 3·3 ± 2·7 servings/week, respectively. Mostly, null associations were observed between meat categories and CVD or subtypes. However, greater intake of unprocessed red meat (three servings/week) was associated with significantly elevated risk of stroke (hazard ratio = 1·43 (CI: 1·07,1·90)). With the exception of a more positive association between unprocessed meat consumption and stroke among individuals in m-HEI Tertile 2, the strength of associations between meat consumption categories and CVD outcomes did not differ by m-HEI tertile. In formal tests, m-HEI did not significantly modify meat-CVD associations.

CONCLUSIONS

In this cohort of AA adults, total and processed meat were not associated with CVD outcomes, with the exception that unprocessed red meat was related to greater stroke risk. Dietary quality did not modfiy these associations. Research is needed in similar cohorts with longer follow-up and greater meat consumption to replicate these findings.

Dietary pH Enhancement Improves Metabolic Outcomes in Diet-Induced Obese Male and Female Mice: Effects of Beef vs. Casein Proteins

(1) Consumption of diets that are caloric dense but not nutrient dense have been implicated in metabolic diseases, in part through low-grade metabolic acidosis. Mitigation strategies through dietary intervention to alleviate acidosis have not been previously reported. Our objective is to determine the effects of pH enhancement (with ammonia) in high fat diet-induced obese mice that were fed beef or casein as protein sources compared to low fat diet-fed mice. (2) Methods: B6 male and female mice were randomized (n = 10) into eight diets that differ in protein source, pH enhancement of the protein, and fat content, and fed for 13 weeks: low fat (11% fat) casein (LFC), LF casein pH-enhanced (LFCN), LF lean beef (LFB), LFBN, high fat (46%) casein (HFC), HFCN, HF beef (HFB), and HFBN. Body weights and composition, and glucose tolerance tests were conducted along with terminal serum analyses. Three-way ANOVA was performed. (3) Results: A significant effect of dietary fat (LF vs. HF) was observed across all variables in both sexes (final body weight, fat mass, glucose clearance, and serum leptin). Importantly, pH enhancement significantly reduced adiposity (males only) and final body weights (females only) and significantly improved glucose clearance in both sexes. Lastly, clear sex differences were observed across all variables. (4) Conclusions: Our findings demonstrate metabolic benefits of increasing dietary pH using ammonia, while high fat intake per se (not protein source) is the major contributor to metabolic dysfunctions. Additional research is warranted to determine mechanisms underlying the beneficial effects of pH enhancement, and interactions with dietary fat content and proteins.

Gene–Environment Interaction on Type 2 Diabetes Risk among Chinese Adults Born in Early 1960s

Background: Gene–environment interactions on type 2 diabetes (T2D) risk are studied little among Chinese adults. Aim: This study aimed to explore the interactions among Chinese adults born in early 1960s. Methods: The interaction of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and environmental factors on T2D risk were analyzed by multiple linear or logistic regression models, and in total 2216 subjects were included with the age of 49.7 ± 1.5 years. Results: High dietary intake increased the effects of rs340874 on impaired fasting glucose (IFG), rs5015480, rs7612463 on T2D (OR = 2.27, 2.37, 11.37, respectively), and reduced the effects of rs7172432 on IFG, rs459193 on impaired glucose tolerance (IGT) (OR = 0.08, 0.28, respectively). The associations between rs4607517 and T2D, rs10906115 and IGT, rs4607103, rs5015480 and IFG could be modified by drinking/smoking (OR = 2.28, 0.20, 3.27, 2.58, respectively). Physical activity (PA) interacted with rs12970134, rs2191349, rs4607517 on T2D (OR = 0.39, 3.50, 2.35, respectively), rs2796441 and rs4607517 on IGT (OR = 0.42, 0.33, respectively), and rs4430796, rs5215, and rs972283 on IFG (OR = 0.39, 3.05, 7.96, respectively). Significant interactions were identified between socioeconomic status and rs10830963, rs13266634 on T2D (OR = 0.41, 0.44, respectively), rs1470579 and rs2796441 on IGT (OR = 2.13, 2.37, respectively), and rs7202877 and rs7612463 on IFG (OR = 5.64, 9.18, respectively). Conclusion: There indeed existed interactions between environmental factors and genetic variants on T2D risk among Chinese adults.