Effects of aflatoxin b1 on T-cell subsets and mRNA expression of cytokines in the intestine of broilers

When less is more: The association between the expression of polymorphic CYPs and AFB1-induced HCC

BACKGROUND

An individual's genetic fingerprint is emerging as a pivotal predictor of numerous disease- and treatment-related factors. Single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in drug-metabolizing enzymes play key roles in an individual's exposure to a malignancy-associated risk, such as Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1)-induced hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC).

AIM

This study aimed at reviewing literature on the polymorphisms that exist in CYP enzymes and their possible link with susceptibility to AFB1-induced HCC.

MATERIALS & METHODS

A set of keywords associated with the study subject of interest was used to search the Google Scholar and the PubMed database. The last ten years' worth of research projects were included in the results filter. The research involved HCC patients and any connection between polymorphic forms of CYP enzymes and their susceptibility to AFB1-induced HCC, including older but significant data.

RESULTS

Variations in CYP1A2 and CYP3A4 were reported to impact the rate and magnitude of AFB1 bio-activation, thus influencing an individual's vulnerability to develop HCC. In HCC patients, the activity of CYP isoforms varies, where increased activity has been reported with CYP2C9, CYP2D6, and CYP2E1, while CYP1A2, CYP2C8, and CYP2C19 exhibit decreased activity. CYP2D6*10 frequency has been discovered to differ considerably in HCC patients. Rs2740574 (an upstream polymorphism in CYP3A4 as detected in CYP3A4*1B) and rs776746 (which affects CYP3A5 RNA splicing), both of which influence CYP3A expression, thus impacting the variability of AFB1-epoxide adducts in HCC patients.

DISCUSSION

CYP1A2 is the primary enzyme accountable for the formation of harmful AFBO globally. CYP3A4, CYP3A5, CYP3A7, CYP2B7, and CYP3A3 are also implicated in the bio-activation of AFB1 to mutagenic metabolites. It is thought that CYP3A4 is the protein that interacts with AFB1 metabolism the most.

CONCLUSION

Polymorphic variants of CYP enzymes have a functional impact on the susceptibility to AFB1-induced HCC. Outlining such variation and their implications may provide deeper insights into approaching HCC in a more personalized manner for guiding future risk-assessment, diagnosis, and treatment.

Ameliorative effects of camel milk and silymarin upon aflatoxin B1 induced hepatic injury in rats

Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) poses a major risk to both human and animal health because it contaminates food, feed, and grains. These dangerous effects can be mitigated using natural components. The purpose of this study was to examine the ameliorative effects of camel milk and silymarin supplementation upon aflatoxin B1 induced hepatic injury in rats. This improvement was assessed by measuring leukocytic and deferential counts, serum biochemical parameters, and gene expression of Tumor Necrosis Factor (TNF-α), antioxidant gene (NAD(P)H quinone oxidoreductase 1 (NQO1)), and base excision repair genes (APE1 and OGG1) in the liver tissue, in addition to liver histopathology. Sixty mature males Wister white rats were used to perform the present study; the rats were distributed in six groups (ten rats/group). The control group (without any treatment) received saline by gavage. The camel milk group received 1 ml of camel milk/kg body weight. The silymarin group received 1 ml of silymarin suspension solution at a dose of 20 mg of silymarin/kg of b.wt. The aflatoxin group received an aflatoxin-contaminated diet at a dose of 1.4 mg of aflatoxin /kg of diet and received saline. The camel milk + aflatoxin group received the same previous oral doses of camel milk and an aflatoxin-contaminated diet at the same time. The silymarin + aflatoxin group received the same previous doses of silymarin orally and an aflatoxin-contaminated diet at the same time. The obtained data indicated the deleterious effect of aflatoxin B1 on the leukocytic count, activity of AST and ALT, serum proteins, ferritin, alpha-fetoprotein, carcinoembryonic antigen, liver pathology, and the expression of the studied genes. However, these deleterious effects were mitigated by camel milk and silymarin supplementation. Thus, we could conclude that the ingestion of camel milk and silymarin mitigated the negative effects of AFB1 on the hematology, activity of AST and ALT, serum proteins, ferritin, alpha-fetoprotein, carcinoembryonic antigen, liver pathology, and gene expression in the rat model.

Effects of aflatoxin on the immune system: Evidence from human and mammalian animal research

Shortly after its discovery in 1960, aflatoxin - a group of fungal toxins or mycotoxins produced by the fungi Aspergillus flavus and A. parasiticus in food crops such as maize, peanuts and tree nuts - was found to cause liver cancer in humans and multiple animal species. Hence, regulations on maximum allowable aflatoxin levels in food worldwide have focused on protecting humans from aflatoxin's carcinogenic effects. However, aflatoxin may also have non-carcinogenic health effects (e.g., immunotoxicity) that are particularly relevant today. Our current review highlights the growing evidence that aflatoxin exposure adversely affects immunity. Here, we comprehensively evaluated human and mammalian animal studies that link aflatoxin exposure with adverse effects on the immune system. We organized the review by organism as well as by the effects on adaptive and innate immune functions. There is abundant evidence that aflatoxin exhibits immunotoxicity, and therefore may compromise the ability of both humans and animals to resist infections. However, the reported effects of aflatoxin on certain specific immune biomarkers are inconsistent in the existing literature. The extent of the immunotoxic effects of aflatoxin must be clarified, so that the contribution of such immunotoxicity to the overall burden of aflatoxin-related diseases can be established.

Maternal dietary exposure to mycotoxin aflatoxin B1 promotes intestinal immune alterations and microbiota modifications increasing infection susceptibility in mouse offspring

Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites produced by fungi occurring in food that are toxic to animals and humans. Early-life mycotoxins exposure has been linked to diverse pathologies. However, how maternal exposure to mycotoxins impacts on the intestinal barrier function of progeny has not been explored. Here, exposure of pregnant and lactating C57Bl/6J female mice to aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁; 400 μg/kg body weight/day; 3 times a week) in gelatine pellets, from embryonic day (E)11.5 until weaning (postnatal day 21), led to gut immunological changes in progeny. The results showed an overall increase of lymphocyte number in intestine, a reduction of expression of epithelial genes related to microbial defence, as well as a decrease in cytokine production by intestinal type 2 innate lymphoid cells (ILC2). While susceptibility to chemically induced colitis was not worsened, immune alterations were associated with changes in gut microbiota and with a higher vulnerability to infection by the protozoan Eimeria vermiformis at early-life. Together these results show that maternal dietary exposure to AFB₁ can dampen intestinal barrier homeostasis in offspring decreasing their capability to tackle intestinal pathogens. These data provide insights to understand AFB₁ potential harmfulness in early-life health in the context of intestinal infections.

Aflatoxin B1 exposure disrupts the intestinal immune function via a soluble epoxide hydrolase-mediated manner

Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) contamination in food and feed leads to severe global health problems. Acting as the frontier immunological barrier, the intestinal mucosa is constantly challenged by exposure to foodborne toxins such as AFB1 via contaminated diets, but the detailed toxic mechanism and endogenous regulators of AFB1 toxicity are still unclear. Here, we showed that AFB1 disrupted intestinal immune function by suppressing macrophages, especially M2 macrophages, and antimicrobial peptide-secreting Paneth cells. Using an oxylipinomics approach, we identified that AFB1 immunotoxicity is associated with decreased epoxy fatty acids, notably epoxyeicosatrienoic acids, and increased soluble epoxide hydrolase (sEH) levels in the intestine. Furthermore, sEH deficiency or inhibition rescued the AFB1-compromised intestinal immunity by restoring M2 macrophages as well as Paneth cells and their-derived lysozyme and α-defensin-3 in mice. Altogether, our study demonstrates that AFB1 exposure impairs intestinal immunity, at least in part, in a sEH-mediated way. Moreover, the present study supports the potential application of pharmacological intervention by inhibiting the sEH enzyme in alleviating intestinal immunotoxicity and associated complications caused by AFB1 global contamination.

Cellular immune response after vaccination with Salmonella Gallinarum 9R in laying hens and addition of aflatoxin and absorbent in the feed

Salmonella Gallinarum greatly impacts commercial flocks and vaccination with S. Gallinarum 9R (SG9R) is one of the most effective control strategies in some countries. However, mycotoxins can affect immunization success. Herein, we measured the cellular immune response in SG9R-vaccinated hens, quantified the impact of aflatoxins on the immune response, and determined whether the anti-mycotoxin additive (adsorbent) influences immunity after vaccination. One-day-old chicks of commercial laying hens were raised until 49 days of age and were assigned to six groups. T1 (control group): control diet (no detectable concentration of aflatoxin), no vaccine or adsorbent. T2: vaccine SG-9R at day 28, aflatoxins 2.5 ppm from day 1 to day 49, and adsorbent 2.5 Kg/ton. T3: control diet and vaccine. T4: aflatoxins and vaccine. T5: control diet and aflatoxins. T6: aflatoxins and adsorbent. Body weights were evaluated on days 1, 31, and 41. Cellular immune response was evaluated by flow cytometry at 31, 41, and 49 days of age. T lymphocytes, B lymphocytes, monocytes, phagocytic monocytes and heterophils were evaluated. Aflatoxins suppressed peripheral and mucosal helper T lymphocytes, and mucosal cytotoxic T lymphocytes in vaccinated birds (T2 and T4). However, inclusion of the adsorbent in the feed of vaccinated birds neutralized the effects of aflatoxin (T6). The concentration of immune cells may show differences after SG9R vaccination, particularly an increase in the monocyte concentration. The SG9R vaccine reduced the concentration of activated cytotoxic T lymphocytes, making this marker a good parameter to analyze before and three weeks after immunization.

Effects of aflatoxin B1 on growth performance, antioxidant status, immune response, and pro-inflammatory cytokine mRNA expression in ISA chicks

The research evaluated the effects of Aflatoxin B1 on growth performance, antioxidant status, immune response, and pro-inflammatory cytokine mRNA expression in ISA chicks. In total, 240 7-day-old ISA chicks were randomly assigned to four treatment groups. The control group comprised chicks fed a basal diet. The aflatoxin (AFB₁)-treatment groups (T1, T2, and T3) comprised chicks fed the basal diet supplemented with AFB₁ at concentrations of 5, 8, and 10 μg/kg, respectively. The growth performance, antioxidant status, immune responses, and pro-inflammatory cytokine mRNA expression in all groups were measured. In the T1 treatment group (receiving the lowest AFB₁ dose), a reduction in the Newcastle disease virus antibody (NDV-Ab) titer, and increases in interleukin 2 (IL-2), IL-6, and interferon γ (IFN-γ) mRNA levels were observed on days 21 and 42 (P < 0.05). Treatment with the higher AFB₁ doses (groups T2 and T3) reduced the chicks' growth performance on days 21 and 42, measured as reductions in body weight (BW) and average daily gain (ADG) compared with the control group. In the T2 and T3 groups, the total antioxidant capacity (T-AOC), glutathione peroxidase (GPX) and superoxide dismutase (SOD) activities, serum immunoglobulin A (IgA) and IgG levels, and IL-2, IL-6, and IFN-γ levels were also lower than in the control group. On days 21 and 42, these two groups also showed increased malondialdehyde (MDA) content, higher feed to gain ratio (F/G), and higher IL-2, IL-6, and IFN-γ mRNA levels than the control group (P < 0.05). The T2 and T3 groups also showed reduced T-AOC, NDV-Ab titer, IL-2 content, and GPx-1 mRNA levels on days 21 and 42 (P < 0.05), increased IL-6 and IFN-γ mRNA levels on day 21, and increased F/G and MDA content on day 42 (P < 0.05) compared with group (T1). Increased MDA content and IL-6 mRNA levels in the liver and ileum were observed in group T3 compared with group T2 on day 21, and lower IgM and IL-6 levels were observed on days 21 and 42 (P < 0.05). In conclusion, our data showed that AFB₁ exposure resulted in dose-dependent oxidative and inflammatory damage, immunosuppression, and a decline in the growth performance of chicks.

PINK1/Parkin-mediated mitophagy is activated to protect against AFB1-induced immunosuppression in mice spleen

Aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁) can cause mitochondrial malfunction and immunosuppression in spleen. Mitochondrial damage can lead to oxidative stress and aggravate immune cell dysfunction. Phosphatase and tensin homolog (PTEN)-induced putative kinase1 (PINK1)/ E3 ubiquitin ligase PARK2 (Parkin)-mediated mitophagy can scavenge damaged mitochondria and alleviate oxidative stress to maintain cellular homeostasis. However, the role of PINK1/Parkin-mediated mitophagy in AFB₁-induced immunosuppression in spleen is unclear. In this study, sixty male mice were sensibilized orally with AFB₁ at different concentrations [0, 0.5, 0.75, and 1 mg/kg body weight (BW)] for 28 days, and AFB₁ caused splenic structure injury and immunosuppression, also led to upregulation of PINK1/Parkin-mediated mitophagy in a dose-dependent manner. Subsequently, thirty male WT C57BL/6 N mice and thirty male Parkin knockout (Parkin^-/-) C57BL/6 N mice were sensibilized orally with AFB₁ at 0 or 1 mg/kg BW for 28 days, and Parkin^-/- inhibited mitophagy and further aggravated AFB₁-induced splenic structure injury, immunosuppression, mitochondrial damage and oxidative stress. Collectively, these results indicate that AFB₁ exposure activates PINK1/Parkin-mediated mitophagy, which protects against immunosuppression in spleen.

Metabolic Disruption by Naturally Occurring Mycotoxins in Circulation: A Focus on Vascular and Bone Homeostasis Dysfunction

Naturally occurring food/feed contaminants have become a significant global issue due to animal and human health implications. Despite risk assessments and legislation setpoints on the mycotoxins' levels, exposure to lower amounts occurs, and it might affect cell homeostasis. However, the inflammatory consequences of this possible everyday exposure to toxins on the vascular microenvironment and arterial dysfunction are unexplored in detail. Circulation is the most accessible path for food-borne toxins, and the consequent metabolic and immune shifts affect systemic health, both on vascular apparatus and bone homeostasis. Their oxidative nature makes mycotoxins a plausible underlying source of low-level toxicity in the bone marrow microenvironment and arterial dysfunction. Mycotoxins could also influence the function of cardiomyocytes with possible injury to the heart. Co-occurrence of mycotoxins can modulate the metabolic pathways favoring osteoblast dysfunction and bone health losses. This review provides a novel insight into understanding the complex events of coexposure to mixed (low levels) mycotoxicosis and subsequent metabolic/immune disruptions contributing to chronic alterations in circulation.

The preventive effect and mechanisms of adsorbent supplementation in low concentration aflatoxin B1 contaminated diet on subclinical symptom and histological lesions of broilers

This study aimed to investigate the subclinical symptom and histological lesions of 21-day-old and 42-day-old broilers exposure to low concentration aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), and the preventive effect with adsorbent (Toxo-MX) supplementation. A total of 576 one-day-old Arbor Acres broilers were randomly allotted into 6 treatments 8 replicates and 12 birds per cage, fed with 0 ppb, 60 ppb and 120 ppb AFB1 contamination diet with or without Toxo-MX supplementation. Results showed both 60 ppb and 120 ppb AFB1 contamination significantly reduced growth performance in 21-day-old broilers (P < 0.05), but not in 42-day-old broilers (P > 0.05), however, AFB1 contamination in diet caused a higher feed to gain ratio (P < 0.05). Broilers of 21-day-old exposure to 60 ppb and 120 ppb AFB1 increased mRNA expression of hepatic inflammatory cytokines, and superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) activity (P < 0.05), 42-day-old broilers showed a same change in 120 ppb but not in 60 ppb of AFB1 contamination (P < 0.05). mRNA expressions of clauding-1, Zonula occludens-1 (ZO-1), and occludin decreased, but Bax, Bcl-2, and caspase-3 increased in 21-day-old broilers exposure to 60 ppb and 120 ppb AFB1 (P < 0.05), broilers of 42-day-old resisted on intestinal aflatoxicosis impairment against 60 ppb AFB1 contamination (P < 0.05), but not in 120 ppb (P < 0.05). Toxo-MX supplementation significantly reversed the detrimental effects on growth performance in both age broilers and reduced the accelerated feed to gain ratio caused by AFB1 (P < 0.05). Intestinal mRNA expression of tight junction and apoptotic genes in both age broilers were recovered by Toxo-MX supplementation (P < 0.05). However, Toxo-MX did not restore the accelerated expression of hepatic inflammation cytokines and SOD, GSH-Px in 120ppb AFB1 group (P < 0.05). The data demonstrated that diet supplementation with Toxo-MX reversed the detrimental effect on growth performance and intestine in broilers exposure to 60 ppb and 120 ppb AFB1. However, did not completely recovered hepatic inflammation induced by AFB1.

Estimation of Tolerable Daily Intake (TDI) for Immunological Effects of Aflatoxin

Aflatoxins are toxic chemicals produced by the fungi Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus. In warm climates, these fungi frequently contaminate crops such as maize, peanuts, tree nuts, and sunflower seeds. In many tropical and subtropical regions of the world, populations are coexposed to dietary aflatoxin and multiple infectious pathogens in food, water, and the environment. There is increasing evidence that aflatoxin compromises the immune system, which could increase infectious disease risk in vulnerable populations. Our aim was to conduct a dose-response assessment on a noncarcinogenic endpoint of aflatoxin: immunotoxicological effects. We sought to determine a noncarcinogenic tolerable daily intake (TDI) of aflatoxin, based on the existing data surrounding aflatoxin and biomarkers of immune suppression. To conduct the dose response assessment, mammalian studies were assessed for appropriateness of doses (relevant to potential human exposures) as well as goodness of data, and two appropriate mouse studies that examined decreases in leukocyte counts were selected to generate dose response curves. From these, we determined benchmark dose lower confidence limits (BMDL) as points of departure to estimate a range of TDIs for aflatoxin-related immune impairment: 0.017-0.082 μg/kg bw/day. As aflatoxin is a genotoxic carcinogen, and regulations concerning its presence in food have largely focused on its carcinogenic effects, international risk assessment bodies such as the Joint Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA) have never established a TDI for aflatoxin. Our work highlights the importance of the noncarcinogenic effects of aflatoxin that may have broader public health impacts, to inform regulatory standard-setting.

Environmental Pollutants, Mucosal Barriers, and Pathogen Susceptibility; The Case for Aflatoxin B1 as a Risk Factor for HIV Transmission and Pathogenesis

HIV transmission risk is dependent on the infectivity of the HIV+ partner and personal susceptibility risk factors of the HIV- partner. The mucosal barrier, as the internal gatekeeper between environment and self, concentrates and modulates the internalization of ingested pathogens and pollutants. In this review, we summarize the localized effects of HIV and dietary toxin aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), a common pollutant in high HIV burden regions, e.g., at the mucosal barrier, and evidence for pollutant-viral interactions. We compiled literature on HIV and AFB1 geographic occurrences, mechanisms of action, related co-exposures, personal risk factors, and HIV key determinants of health. AFB1 exposure and HIV sexual transmission hotspots geographically co-localize in many low-income countries. AFB1 distributes to sexual mucosal tissues generating inflammation, microbiome changes and a reduction of mucosal barrier integrity, effects that are risk factors for increasing HIV susceptibility. AFB1 exposure has a positive correlation to HIV viral load, a risk factor for increasing the infectivity of the HIV+ partner. The AFB1 exposure and metabolism generates inflammation that recruits HIV susceptible cells and generates chemokine/cytokine activation in tissues exposed to HIV. Although circumstantial, the available evidence makes a compelling case for studies of AFB1 exposure as a risk factor for HIV transmission, and a modifiable new component for combination HIV prevention efforts.

Diet containing grape seed meal by-product counteracts AFB1 toxicity in liver of pig after weaning

Liver is the earliest target for AFB1 toxicity in both human and animals. In the last decade, plant derived by-products have been used in animal feed to reduce AFB1 induced toxicity. In the present study we investigated whether the presence of 8% grape seed meal by-product is able to counteract the hepatotoxic effects produced by AFB1 in liver of pig after weaning exposed to the toxin through the contaminated feed for 28 days. Twenty four weaned cross-bred TOPIGS-40 piglets with an average body weight of 9.13±0.03 were allocated to the following experimentally treatments: control diet without AFB1 (normal compound feed for weaned pigs); contaminated diet with 320 mg kg^-1 AFB1; GSM diet (compound feed plus 8% grape seed meal) and AFB1+GSM diet (320 mg kg^-1 AFB1 contaminated feed plus 8% grape seed meal). Pigs fed AFB1 diet had altered performance, body weight decreasing with 25.1% (b.w.: 17.17 kg for AFB1 vs 22.92 kg for control). Exposure of piglets to AFB1 contaminated diet caused liver oxidative stress as well as liver histological damage, manly characterized by inflammatory infiltrate, fibrosis and parenchyma cells vacuolation when compared to control and GSM meal group. 94.12% of the total analysed genes (34) related to inflammation and immune response was up-regulated. The addition of GSM into the AFB1 diet diminished the gene overexpression and ameliorate histological liver injuries and oxidative stress. The protective effect of GSM diet in diminishing the AFB1 harmful effect was mediated through the decreasing of gene and protein expression of MAPKs and NF-κB signalling overexpressed by AFB1 diet. The inclusion of grape seed by-products in the diet of pigs after weaning might be used as a novel nutritional intervention to reduce aflatoxin toxicity.

The role of polyphenols in poultry nutrition

In the last two decades, poultry and animal industries became increasingly interested in using plant-based feed supplements, herbs and their derivatives to retain or enhance their health and productivity. These health benefits for the host mainly attributed to the secondary plant metabolites, namely polyphenols. Polyphenols are renowned for their antioxidant, immunomodulatory, anti-mutagenic and anti-inflammatory properties. However, despite these advantages of polyphenols, they have been characterized by poor absorption in the gut and low concentration in target cells that compromise their role as effective antioxidants. The low bioavailability of polyphenols necessitates the need for further investigations to harness their full potential in poultry farms. This review is existing evidence about the bioavailability of polyphenols and their antioxidant, immunomodulatory, antimicrobial, detoxification properties and their impacts on poultry performance.

Biological reduction of aflatoxin B1 in yogurt by probiotic strains of Lactobacillus acidophilus and Lactobacillus rhamnosus

The present study was conducted to investigate the ability of two probiotic strains, L. acidophilus PTCC 1643 and L. rhamnosus PTCC 1637, to bind aflatoxin B1 (AFB1, 20 ng/ml) in comparison with yogurt starter cultures, at equal bacterial count (~ 109 LogCFU/ml) during a 21-day storage period at 4 °C. All assessed treatments exhibited high percentages of AFB1-binding, ranged from 64.56 to 96.58%. However, the ability of probiotic bacteria was statistically higher than yogurt starter cultures. Aflatoxin binding ability of the selected lactic acid bacteria was dependent on both time and bacteria species. The highest and the lowest percentages of AFB1-removal was observed at 11th day of cold storage by L. rhamnosus (96.58 ± 3.97%) and at the first day of storage for yogurt starter cultures (64.56 ± 5.32%), respectively. The stability of bacterial cells-AFB1 complex was remarkable, since only 0.84-26.75% of bounded AFB1 was released from bacterial cells after 3 times washing during the storage period.

Chronic and Acute Toxicities of Aflatoxins: Mechanisms of Action

There are presently more than 18 known aflatoxins most of which have been insufficiently studied for their incidence, health-risk, and mechanisms of toxicity to allow effective intervention and control means that would significantly and sustainably reduce their incidence and adverse effects on health and economy. Among these, aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) has been by far the most studied; yet, many aspects of the range and mechanisms of the diseases it causes remain to be elucidated. Its mutagenicity, tumorigenicity, and carcinogenicity-which are the best known-still suffer from limitations regarding the relative contribution of the oxidative stress and the reactive epoxide derivative (Aflatoxin-exo 8,9-epoxide) in the induction of the diseases, as well as its metabolic and synthesis pathways. Additionally, despite the well-established additive effects for carcinogenicity between AFB1 and other risk factors, e.g., hepatitis viruses B and C, and the hepatotoxic algal microcystins, the mechanisms of this synergy remain unclear. This study reviews the most recent advances in the field of the mechanisms of toxicity of aflatoxins and the adverse health effects that they cause in humans and animals.

Effects of Selenium-Enriched Yeast Improved Aflatoxin B1-Induced Changes in Growth Performance, Antioxidation Capacity, IL-2 and IFN-γ Contents, and Gene Expression in Mice

Sixty Kunming mice were randomly assigned into three groups. Mice in a control group were fed a basal diet, while mice in AFB1 group and AFB1-Se group were fed the basal diet supplemented with 250 μg/kg AFB1 or the basal diet supplemented with 250 μg/kg AFB1 and 0.2 mg/kg selenium as selenium-enriched yeast, respectively. On day 30 of the experiment, growth performance, glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) activities, total antioxidant capacity (T-AOC) levels, and malondialdehyde (MDA) contents in liver, interleukin-2 (IL-2), and interferon-γ (IFN-γ) contents in serum, and cytochrome P3a11 (Cyp3a11), IL-2, IFN-γ, and GSH-Px1 mRNA levels in liver were determined. The results showed that final weights, weight gains, T-AOC levels, GSH-Px1, and IFN-γ mRNA levels in AFB1-Se group and control group were higher or significantly higher than those in AFB1 group (P < 0.05 or P < 0.01), respectively. Body length gains in AFB1 group were lower than those in the control group (P < 0.05), while there was no significant difference between the AFB1-Se and control groups (P > 0.05). IL-2 contents and liver IL-2 mRNA levels in AFB1-Se group were significantly higher than those in the AFB1 group and control group (P < 0.01), and IL-2 contents in the control group were also significantly higher than those in the AFB1 group (P < 0.01). IFN-γ contents in AFB1-Se group and AFB1 group were significantly higher than those in control group (P < 0.01), while IFN-γ contents in AFB1-Se group were significantly lower than those in AFB1 group (P < 0.01). Cyp3a11 mRNA levels in AFB1-Se group and AFB1 group were significantly higher than those in the control group (P < 0.01). The results indicated that selenium-enriched yeast could partly reduce the toxicity induced by AFB1 in mice, including improving growth performance, antioxidation capacity, IL-2 and IFN-γ contents, and enhancing IL-2, IFN-γ, and GSH-Px1 mRNA levels.

Selenium Rescues Aflatoxin B1-Inhibited T Cell Subsets and Cytokine Levels in Cecal Tonsil of Chickens

Cecal tonsil is the largest peripheral lymphoid organ of the gut-associated lymphoid tissue executing immune function. To evaluate the protective effect of selenium (Se) on the cecal tonsil of chicken exposed to aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁), 144 1-day-old healthy Cobb chickens were randomly divided into four groups, and fed with basal diet (control group), 0.6 mg/kg AFB₁ (AFB₁ group), 0.4 mg/kg Se supplement (+Se group), and 0.6 mg/kg AFB₁ + 0.4 mg/kg Se supplement (AFB₁ + Se group) for 21 days, respectively. The results showed that AFB₁ significantly decreased the percentages of CD3⁺, CD3⁺CD4⁺, CD3⁺CD8⁺ T cells, and the CD4⁺/CD8⁺ ratio, and suppressed the expressions of IL-2, IL-4, TNF-α, and IFN-γ mRNA in the cecal tonsil. However, Selenium (Se) supplied in the diets restored the percentages of T cell subsets, the CD4⁺/CD8⁺ ratio, and mRNA expressions of cytokines in the AFB₁ group to be close to those in the control group, and did not exhibit obvious toxicity to the cecal tonsil. These results indicated that Se exerted protective effect against AFB₁ on the functions of cecal tonsil, and also partially uncovered a new role of Se that could protect cecal tonsil of chickens from immunotoxicity of AFB₁.

Effects of aflatoxin B1 on the cell cycle distribution of splenocytes in chickens

The purpose of the present study was to evaluate effects of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) on the cell cycle and proliferation of splenic cells in chickens. A total of 144 one-day-old Cobb male chickens were randomly divided into 2 equal groups of 72 each and were fed on diets as follows: a control diet and a 0.6 mg/kg AFB1 diet for 21 days. The AFB1 diet reduced body weight, absolute weight and relative weight of the spleen in broilers. Histopathological lesions in AFB1 groups were characterized as slight congestion in red pulp and lymphocytic depletion in white pulp. Compared with the control group, the expression levels of ataxia-telangiectasia mutated (ATM), cyclin E1, cyclin-dependent kinases 6 (CDK6), CDK2, p53, p21 and cyclin B3 mRNA were significantly increased, while the mRNA expression levels of cyclin D1, cdc2 (CDK1), p16, p15 were significantly decreased in the AFB1 groups. Significantly decreased proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) expression and arrested G0G1 phases of the cell cycle were also seen in the AFB1 groups. In conclusion, dietary AFB1 could induce cell cycle blockage at G0G1 phase and impair the immune function of the spleen. Cyclin D1/CDK6 complex, which inhibits the activin/nodal signaling pathway, might play a significant role in the cell cycle arrest induced by AFB1.

Preparations for Invasion: Modulation of Host Lung Immunity During Pulmonary Aspergillosis by Gliotoxin and Other Fungal Secondary Metabolites

Pulmonary aspergillosis is a severe infectious disease caused by some members of the Aspergillus genus, that affects immunocompetent as well as immunocompromised patients. Among the different disease forms, Invasive Aspergillosis is the one causing the highest mortality, mainly, although not exclusively, affecting neutropenic patients. This genus is very well known by humans, since different sectors like pharmaceutical or food industry have taken advantage of the biological activity of some molecules synthetized by the fungus, known as secondary metabolites, including statins, antibiotics, fermentative compounds or colorants among others. However, during infection, in response to a hostile host environment, the fungal secondary metabolism is activated, producing different virulence factors to increase its survival chances. Some of these factors also contribute to fungal dissemination and invasion of adjacent and distant organs. Among the different secondary metabolites produced by Aspergillus spp. Gliotoxin (GT) is the best known and better characterized virulence factor. It is able to generate reactive oxygen species (ROS) due to the disulfide bridge present in its structure. It also presents immunosuppressive activity related with its ability to kill mammalian cells and/or inactivate critical immune signaling pathways like NFkB. In this comprehensive review, we will briefly give an overview of the lung immune response against Aspergillus as a preface to analyse the effect of different secondary metabolites on the host immune response, with a special attention to GT. We will discuss the results reported in the literature on the context of the animal models employed to analyse the role of GT as virulence factor, which is expected to greatly depend on the immune status of the host: why should you hide when nobody is seeking for you? Finally, GT immunosuppressive activity will be related with different human diseases predisposing to invasive aspergillosis in order to have a global view on the potential of GT to be used as a target to treat IA.

Effect of High Protein Diet and Probiotic Lactobacillus casei Shirota Supplementation in Aflatoxin B1-Induced Rats

Probiotic Lactobacillus casei Shirota (LcS) is a potential decontaminating agent of aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁). However, few studies have investigated the influence of diet, especially a high protein (HP) diet, on the binding of AFB₁ by probiotics. This research was conducted to determine the effect of HP diet on the ability of LcS to bind AFB₁ and reduce aflatoxin M₁ (AFM₁) in AFB₁-induced rats. Sprague Dawley rats were randomly divided into three groups: A (HP only), B (HP + 10⁸ CFU LcS + 25 μg AFB1/kg BW), and C (HP + 25 μg AFB1/kg BW). Levels of AST and ALP were higher in all groups but other liver function's biomarkers were in the normal range, and the liver's histology showed no structural changes. The urea level of rats in group B (10.02 ± 0.73 mmol/l) was significantly lower (p < 0.05) than that of rats in group A (10.82 ± 0.26 mmol/l). The presence of carcinoma in the small intestine and colon was more obvious in group C than in group B. Moreover, rats in group B had significantly (p < 0.05) lower AFM₁ concentration (0.39 ± 0.01 ng/ml) than rats in group C (5.22 ± 0.28 ng/ml). Through these findings, LcS supplementation with HP diet alleviated the adverse effects of AFB₁ by preventing AFB₁ absorption in the small intestine and reducing urinary AFM₁.

Histopathological Injuries, Ultrastructural Changes, and Depressed TLR Expression in the Small Intestine of Broiler Chickens with Aflatoxin B₁

To explore AFB₁-induced damage of the small intestine, the changes in structure and expression of TLRs (Toll-like Receptors) in the small intestine of chickens were systematically investigated. Ninety healthy neonatal Cobb chickens were randomized into a control group (0 mg/kg AFB₁) and an AFB₁ group (0.6 mg/kg AFB₁). The crypt depth of the small intestine in the AFB₁ group was significantly increased in comparison to the control chickens, while the villus height and area were evidently decreased, as well as the villus:crypt ratio and epithelial thickness. The histopathological observations showed that the villi of the small intestine exposed to AFB₁ were obviously shedding. Based on ultrastructural observation, the absorptive cells of small intestine in the AFB₁ group exhibited fewer microvilli, mitochondrial vacuolation and the disappearance of mitochondrial cristae, and junctional complexes as well as terminal web. Moreover, the number of goblet cells in the small intestine in the AFB₁ group significantly decreased. Also, AFB₁ evidently decreased the mRNA expression of TLR2-2, TLR4, and TLR7 in the small intestine. Taken together, our study indicated that dietary 0.6 mg/kg AFB₁ could induce histopathological injuries and ultrastructural changes, and depress levels of TLR mRNA in the chicken small intestine.

Protective capabilities of silymarin and inulin nanoparticles against hepatic oxidative stress, genotoxicity and cytotoxicity of Deoxynivalenol in rats

Deoxynivalenol (DON) is a Fusarium mycotoxin that frequently contaminates cereal and cereal-based food and induces liver injury. This study evaluated the protective role of silymarin nanoparticles (SILNPs) and inulin nanoparticles (INNPs) against DON-induced liver injury in rats. Eleven groups of rats were treated orally for 3 weeks as follows: the control group, DON-treated group (5 mg/kg b.w.); INNPs-treated groups at low (LD) or high (HD) dose (100 or 200 mg/kg b.w.); SILPNs-treated group (50 mg/kg b.w.); SILNPs plus INNPs(LD) or INNPs(HD)-treated groups; INNPs(LD) or INNPs(HD) plus DON-treated groups and DON plus SILNPs and INNPs(LD) or INNPs(HD)-treated groups. Blood and tissue samples were collected for different analyses. The results revealed that the practical sizes were 200 and 98 nm for SILNPs and INNPs respectively. DON increased liver enzymes activity, lipid profile, serum cytokines, number and percentage of chromosomal aberration, DNA fragmentation and comet score. It disturbed the oxidative stress markers, down regulated gene expression and induced histological changes in the liver tissue. Treatment with DON and SILNPs and/or INNPs at the two tested doses improved all the tested parameters and SILNPs plus INNPs(HD) normalized most of these parameters in DON-treated animals. SILNPs and INNPs could be promising candidates as hepatoprotective against DON or other hepatotoxins.

Protective and Detoxifying Effects Conferred by Dietary Selenium and Curcumin against AFB1-Mediated Toxicity in Livestock: A Review

Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), among other aflatoxins of the aflatoxin family, is the most carcinogenic and hazardous mycotoxin to animals and human beings with very high potency leading to aflatoxicosis. Selenium is an essential trace mineral possessing powerful antioxidant functions. Selenium is widely reported as an effective antioxidant against aflatoxicosis. By preventing oxidative liver damage, suppressing pro-apoptotic proteins and improving immune status in AFB1 affected animals; selenium confers specific protection against AFB1 toxicity. Meticulous supplementation of animal feed by elemental selenium in the organic and inorganic forms has proven to be effective to ameliorate AFB1 toxicity. Curcumin is another dietary agent of importance in tackling aflatoxicosis. Curcumin is one of the major active ingredients in the tubers of a spice Curcuma longa L., a widely reported antioxidant, anticarcinogenic agent with reported protective potential against aflatoxin-mediated liver damage. Curcumin restricts the aflatoxigenic potential of Aspergillusflavus. Curcumin inhibits cytochrome P450 isoenzymes, particularly CYP2A6 isoform; thereby reducing the formation of AFB1-8, 9-epoxide and other toxic metabolites causing aflatoxicosis. In this review, we have briefly reviewed important aflatoxicosis symptoms among animals. With the main focus on curcumin and selenium, we have reviewed their underlying protective mechanisms in different animals along with their extraction and production methods for feed applications.

The ameliorative effect of Aspergillus awamori on aflatoxin B1-induced hepatic damage in rabbits

This study was conducted to investigate the effect of dietary supplementation of Aspergillus awamori on aflatoxin B1 (AFB1)-induced liver damage in rabbits. Administration of AFB1 (0.3 mg/kg diet) led to a significant reduction in body weight, body weight gain, total feed intake, total serum proteins, albumin, high density lipoprotein-cholesterol, phagocytic activity, phagocytic index, and the antioxidant enzyme, glutathione peroxidase (GPx). Moreover, AFB1 administration was associated with a significant increase in feed conversion ratio, lipid peroxidation and serum levels of aspartate aminotransferase, alanine aminotransferase, alkaline phosphatase, gamma-glutamyl transferase, lactate dehydrogenase and total bilirubin. In addition, livers of AFB1-supplemented animals showed fatty degeneration with vacuolisation, focal areas of necrosis, mononuclear cells infiltration hyperplasia of bile ducts and sinusoids. A significant increase in the hepatic expression of the biotransformation gene (Cyp3A6), stress-sensitive genes (HO1 and SOD1), and inflammation-related genes (IL6, TNFa, NF-kB, and Cox2) was also observed. Supplementation of the diets with 0.05, 0.1 or 0.15% A. awamori ameliorated all AFB1 deleterious effects with the best improvement observed at the lowest concentration. This is the first investigation to report that supplementation of rabbit diets with A. awamori has an ameliorative effect against AFB1-induced liver damage possibly through preventing hepatic oxidative stress, promoting the antioxidant defence systems, and inhibiting expression of Cyp3A6, HO1, SOD1, IL6, TNFa, NF-kB, and Cox2. Therefore, A. awamori could be used as a potential preventive or therapeutic agent for aflatoxicosis.

Protective effects of curcumin against aflatoxicosis: A comprehensive review

Aflatoxicosis is a deleterious medical condition that results from aflatoxins (AFs) or ochratoxins (OTs). Contamination with these toxins exerts detrimental effects on the liver, kidneys, reproductive organs, and also on immunological and cardiovascular systems. Aflatoxicosis is closely associated with overproduction of reactive oxygen species (ROS) as key contributors to oxidative and nitrosative stress responses, and subsequent damages to lipids, proteins, RNA, and DNA. The main target organ for AF toxicity is the liver, where DNA adducts, degranulation of endoplasmic reticulum, increased hepatic lipid peroxide, GSH depletion, mitochondrial dysfunction, and reduction of enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidants are manifestations of aflatoxicosis. Curcuma longa L. (turmeric) is a medicinal plant widely utilized all over the world for culinary and phytomedical purposes. Considering the antioxidant characteristic of curcumin, the main active component of turmeric, this review is intended to critically summarize the available evidence supporting possible effectiveness of curcumin against aflatoxicosis. Curcumin can serve as a promising candidate for attenuation of the adverse consequences of aflatoxicosis, acting mainly through intrinsic antioxidant effects aroused from its structure, modulation of the immune system as reflected by interleukin-1β and transforming growth factor-β, and interfering with AF's biotransformation by cytochrome P450 isoenzymes CYP1A, CYP3A, CYP2A, CYP2B, and CYP2C.

Aflatoxin B1 affects apoptosis and expression of death receptor and endoplasmic reticulum molecules in chicken spleen

Aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁) is a natural product of the Aspergillus genus of molds, which grow on several foodstuffs stored in hot moist conditions, and is among the most potent hepatocarcinogens and immunosuppression presently known. The latter was related to the up-regulated apoptosis of immune organs. However, the effect of expression of death receptor and endoplasmic reticulum molecules in AFB₁-induced apoptosis of chicken splenocytes was largely unknown. The objective of this study was to investigate this unknown field. One hundred and forty four one-day-old chickens were randomly divided into control group (0 mg/kg AFB₁) and AFB₁ group (0.6 mg/kg AFB₁), respectively and fed with AFB₁ for 21 days. Histological observation demonstrated that AFB₁ caused slight congestion and lymphocytic depletion in the spleen. TUNEL and flow cytometry assays showed the excessive apoptosis of splenocytes provoked by AFB₁. Moreover, quantitative real-time PCR analysis revealed that AFB₁ induced the elevated mRNA expression of Fas, FasL, TNF-α, TNF-R₁, Caspase-3, Caspase-8, Caspase-10, Grp78 and Grp94 in the spleen. These findings suggested that AFB₁ could lead the excessive apoptosis and alter the expression of death receptor and endoplasmic reticulum molecules in chicken spleen.

Evaluation of the bioactive extract of actinomyces isolated from the Egyptian environment against aflatoxin B1-induce cytotoxicity, genotoxicity and oxidative stress in the liver of rats

This study aimed to determine the bioactive compounds of actinomyces (ACT) isolated from the Egyptian environment (D-EGY) and to evaluate their protective activity against AFB₁ in female Sprague-Dawley rats. Six groups of animals were treated orally for 3 weeks included: C, the control group, T1, AFB₁-treated group (80 μg/kg b.w), T2 and T3, the groups received ACT extract at low (25 mg/kg b.w) or high (50 mg/kg b.w) doses, T4 and T5, the groups received AFB₁ plus the low or high dose of ACT extract. Blood, bone marrow and tissue samples were collected for different analyses and histological examination. The results revealed the identification of 40 components, representing 99.98%. Treatment with AFB₁ disturbs liver function parameters, oxidative stress markers, antioxidant gene expressions, DNA fragmentation and induced severe histological changes. ACT extract at the low or high doses did not induce significant changes in all the tested parameters or histological picture of the liver. Moreover, ACT extract succeeded to induce a significant protection against the toxicity of AFB₁. It could be concluded that the bioactive compounds in ACT are promise candidate for the development of food additive or drugs for the protection and treatment of liver disorders in the endemic area.

Sodium selenite prevents suppression of mucosal humoral response by AFB1 in broiler's cecal tonsil

Aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁), the most common mycotoxin in human food and animal feed, produces hepatotoxic, genotoxic and immunosuppressive effects in multiple species. Selenium (Se) has emerged as an important element in the dietary prevention of various toxic agents. The present study was designed to scrutinize the protective effects of sodium selenite on the histological lesions and suppression of mucosal humoral response in the cecal tonsil generated by AFB₁. A total of 156 one-day-old broilers were divided into four groups and fed on basal diet (control group), 0.6 mg/kg AFB₁ (AFB₁ group), 0.4 mg/kg Se supplement (+Se group), and 0.6 mg/kg AFB₁ + 0.4 mg/kg Se supplement (AFB₁+Se group) respectively for 21 days. Our results showed that 0.4 mg/kg Se supplement in broiler's diets could improve the AFB₁-induced histological lesions in the cecal tonsils including the depletion of lymphocytes in the lymphatic nodules as well as the shedding of microvilli in the absorptive cells. Moreover, Se could restore the decreased number of IgA+ cells and expression levels of pIgR, IgA, IgG, and IgM mRNA induced by AFB₁ to be close to those in the control group. These results demonstrated that 0.4 mg/kg supplemented dietary Se in the form of sodium selenite could protect the cecal tonsils from the histological lesions and suppression of the mucosal humoral response provoked by 0.6 mg/kg AFB₁. Our study may provide new experimental evidences for better understanding of AFB₁-induced damage of mucosal immunity and protective effect of Se against this toxin.

Aflatoxin B1 inhibits the type 1 interferon response pathway via STAT1 suggesting another mechanism of hepatocellular carcinoma

BACKGROUND

Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) contamination of food is very high in most sub-Saharan African countries. AFB1 is known to cause hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) by inducing mutation in the tumour suppressor gene TP53. The number of new HCC cases is high in West Africa with an accompanying high mortality. The type I interferon (IFN) pathway of the innate immune system limits viral infections and exerts its anti-cancer property by up-regulating tumour suppressor activities and pro-apoptotic pathways. Indeed, IFN-α is reported to show significant protective effects against hepatic fibrogenesis and carcinogenesis. However, the mechanism behind AFB1 deregulation of the type I interferon (IFN) signalling pathway, with consequent HCC is largely unknown. This current study seeks to test the hypothesis that AFB1 inhibits the type I IFN response by directly interfering with key signalling proteins and thus increase the risk of HCC in humans.

METHODS

We evaluated the effects of AFB1 on the type I IFN signalling pathway using IFN stimulated response element (ISRE)-based luciferase reporter gene assay. In addition, the effects of AFB1 on the transcript levels of JAK1, STAT1 and OAS3 were assessed by real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) and confirmed by immunoblot assay.

RESULTS

Our results indicated that AFB1 inhibited the type I IFN signalling pathway in human hepatoma cell line HepG2 cells by suppressing the transcript levels of JAK1, STAT1 and OAS3. AFB1 also decreased the accumulation of STAT1 protein.

CONCLUSION

The inhibition of the type I IFN anti-cancer response pathway by AFB1 suggest a novel mechanism by which AFB1 may induce hepatocellular carcinoma in humans.

Sulfated modification promotes the immunomodulatory bioactivities of Lyciumbarbarum polysaccharides in vitro

Three kinds of purified Lyciumbarbarum polysaccharides (LBPSs), LBPS30, LBPS70 and total LBPS (LBPSt), were modified using chlorosulfonic acid-pyridine method based on the previous experiment, forming three sulfated LBPS (sLBPS), sLBPSt, sLBPS30 and sLBPS70 respectively. They were characterized by ultrasonic-acidic barium chromate spectrophotometry, infrared (FT-IR) and high performance gel permeation chromatography (HPGPC). The immunomodulatory activity of each kind of LBPSs and sLBPSs was further examined to determine the relationship between the structure and bioactivity, and the sLBPS with the highest activity was selected. The results showed that sulfate contents were 390.67, 542.75 and 291.71 mg/g respectively, with different molecular masses. The appearance of two new characteristic absorption bands at near 1230 and 855, 853 or 808 cm(-1) in FT-IR spectra revealed the success of sulfation. sLBPSt with high molecular weight and moderate sulfate content exhibited the best immunomodulatory activity by promoting lymphopoiesis and T lymphocyte differentiation as well as increasing IL-2, IL-6, IFN-γ and TFN-α production in vitro compared with the inartificial polysaccharides. These results indicated that sulfated modification could be considered as an effective way to enhance immune activity of LBPSs. Furthermore, sLBPSt showed the best performances and would be expected as a new source of immunopotentiator.

Effect of aflatoxin B₁ on IgA⁺ cell number and immunoglobulin mRNA expression in the intestine of broilers

Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) is the most toxic group of mycotoxins produced by two species of the Aspergillus, common contaminants of food and animal feed. The purpose of our study was to determine the effect of AFB1 on the number of IgA(+) cell and immunoglobulin mRNA expression in the intestine of broilers. One hundred and fifty six one-day-old healthy Cobb broilers were randomly divided into the control group (the dosage of 0 mg/kg AFB1) and AFB1 group (the dosage of 0.6 mg/kg AFB1) with three replicates per group and 26 birds per replicate for 21 days, respectively. After necropsy at 7, 14 and 21 days of age, duodenum, jejunum and ileum samples were taken for analyzing IgA(+) cell by immunohistochemistry and IgA, pIgR, IgM and IgG mRNA expression by qRT-PCR. IgA(+) cells were mainly distributed in the lamina propria of small intestinal mucosa in both groups at 14 and 21 days of age. A significant decrease in the number of IgA(+) cells in the duodenum, jejunum and ileum was revealed in the AFB1 group compared with that of the control group. The expression levels of IgA, pIgR, IgM and IgG mRNA in the intestinal mucosa were lower in the AFB1 group than those in the control group at 14 and 21 days of age. Our data demonstrated that the dosage of 0.6 mg/kg AFB1 in broiler diet reduced the number of IgA(+) cell and the expression of IgA, pIgR, IgM and IgG mRNA in the small intestine.

Chitosan nanoparticles and quercetin modulate gene expression and prevent the genotoxicity of aflatoxin B1 in rat liver

The aims of the current study were to prepare chitosan nanoparticles (CNPs) and to evaluate its protective role alone or in combination with quercetin (Q) against AFB₁-induce cytotoxicity in rats. Male Sprague-Dawley rats were divided into 12 groups and treated orally for 4 weeks as follow: the control group, the group treated with AFB₁ (80 μg/kg b.w.) in corn oil, the groups treated with low (140 mg/kg b.w.) or high (280 mg/kg b.w.) dose of CNPs, the group treated with Q (50 mg/kg b.w.), the groups treated with Q plus the low or the high dose of CNPs and the groups treated with AFB₁ plus Q and/or CNPs at the two tested doses. The results also revealed that administration of AFB₁ resulted in a significant increase in serum cytokines, Procollagen III, Nitric Oxide, lipid peroxidation and DNA fragmentation accompanied with a significant decrease in GPx I and Cu–Zn SOD-mRNA gene expression. Q and/or CNPs at the two tested doses overcome these effects especially in the group treated with the high dose of CNPs plus Q. It could be concluded that CNPs is a promise candidate as drug delivery enhances the protective effect of Q against the cytogenetic effects of AFB₁ in high endemic areas.