Inhibition of the CCL5/CCR5 Axis against the Progression of Gastric Cancer

Role of chemokines in aging and age-related diseases

Chemokines (chemotactic cytokines) play essential roles in developmental process, immune cell trafficking, inflammation, immunity, angiogenesis, cellular homeostasis, aging, neurodegeneration, and tumorigenesis. Chemokines also modulate response to immunotherapy, and consequently influence the therapeutic outcome. The mechanisms underlying these processes are accomplished by interaction of chemokines with their cognate cell surface G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) and subsequent cellular signaling pathways. Chemokines play crucial role in influencing aging process and age-related diseases across various tissues and organs, primarily through inflammatory responses (inflammaging), recruitment of macrophages, and orchestrated trafficking of other immune cells. Chemokines are categorized in four distinct groups based on the position and number of the N-terminal cysteine residues; namely, the CC, CXC, CX3C, and (X)C. They mediate inflammatory responses, and thereby considerably impact aging process across multiple organ-systems. Therefore, understanding the underlying mechanisms mediated by chemokines may be of crucial importance in delaying and/or modulating the aging process and preventing age-related diseases. In this review, we highlight recent progress accomplished towards understanding the role of chemokines and their cellular signaling pathways involved in aging and age-relaed diseases of various organs. Moreover, we explore potential therapeutic strategies involving anti-chemokines and chemokine receptor antagonists aimed at reducing aging and mitigating age-related diseases. One of the modern methods in this direction involves use of chemokine receptor antagonists and anti-chemokines, which suppress the pro-inflammatory response, thereby helping in resolution of inflammation. Considering the wide-spectrum of functional involvements of chemokines in aging and associated diseases, several clinical trials are being conducted to develop therapeutic approaches using anti-chemokine and chemokine receptor antagonists to improve life span and promote healthy aging.

Maraviroc/cisplatin combination inhibits gastric cancer tumoroid growth and improves mice survival

BACKGROUND

Gastric cancer (GC) is a significant cancer-related cause of death worldwide. GC's most used chemotherapeutic regimen is based on platinum drugs such as cisplatin (CDDP). However, CDDP chemoresistance reduces the survival rate of advanced GC. The immune C-C chemokine receptor type 5 (CCR5) have been proposed as a pivotal factor in cancer progression since its blockade has been linked with antineoplastic effects on tumor cell proliferation; nevertheless, its role in the chemoresistance of GC has not been elucidated. This study aimed to determine the effects induced by the CCR5 using Maraviroc (MVC), a highly selective CCR5 antagonist, on CDDP-resistant AGS cells (AGS R-CDDP), tumoroids (3D tumor spheroids), and animal models.

RESULTS

The combined CDDP and MVC treatment reduced cell viability and inhibited tumoroid formation in AGS R-CDDP cells. The effects of the MVC/CDDP combination on apoptosis and cell cycle progression were correlated with the increase in CDDP (dose-dependent). The mRNA levels of C-C Motif Chemokine Ligand 5 (CCL5), the main ligand for CCR5, decreased significantly in cells treated with the MVC/CDDP combination. MVC in the MVC/CDDP combination improved the survival rate and biochemical parameters of CDDP-treated mice by reducing the side effects of CDDP alone.

CONCLUSIONS

This finding suggests that MVC/CDDP combination could be a potential complementary therapy for GC.

Role of tertiary lymphoid structures and B cells in clinical immunotherapy of gastric cancer

Gastric cancer is a common malignant tumor of the digestive tract, and its treatment remains a significant challenge. In recent years, the role of various immune cells in the tumor microenvironment in cancer progression and treatment has gained increasing attention. Immunotherapy, primarily based on immune checkpoint inhibitors, has notably improved the prognosis of patients with gastric cancer; however, challenges regarding therapeutic efficacy persist. Histological features within the tumor microenvironment, such as tertiary lymphoid structures (TLSs), tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes, and the proportion of intratumoral stroma, are emerging as potentially effective prognostic factors. In gastric cancer, TLSs may serve as local immune hubs, enhancing the ability of immune cells to interact with and recognize tumor antigens, which is closely linked to the effectiveness of immunotherapy and improved survival rates in patients. However, the specific cell type driving TLS formation in tumors has not yet been elucidated. Mature TLSs are B-cell regions containing germinal centers. During germinal center formation, B cells undergo transformations to become mature cells with immune function, exerting anti-tumor effects. Therefore, targeting B cells within TLSs could provide new avenues for gastric cancer immunotherapy. This review, combined with current research on TLSs and B cells in gastric cancer, elaborates on the relationship between TLSs and B cells in the prognosis and immunotherapy of patients with gastric cancer, aiming to provide effective guidance for precise immunotherapy.

The CCL5/CCR5 axis in ulcerative colitis

Ulcerative colitis (UC) is a chronic nonspecific inflammatory bowel disease characterized mainly by inflammatory changes in the intestinal mucosa. While the specific etiology of UC remains unclear, it is generally believed that it is related to many factors, among which the imbalance in the expression of molecules involved in pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory processes can lead to UC. CCL5 (C-C chemokine ligand 5) is one of the key pro-inflammatory factors and plays an indispensable role in various inflammatory diseases, including UC. CCL5 binds and activates the receptor CCR5 (C-C chemokine receptor type 5), which in turn, promotes signaling pathways such as PI3K/AKT, NF-κB, and Ras/MAPK, playing an important role in the pathogenesis of UC. The focus of this paper is on the function of the CCL5/CCR5 axis and its subsequent signaling pathways in UC therapy. In addition to this, the article further explores the possible healing benefits of CCR5 antagonists and agonists aimed at the CCL5/CCR5 axis for UC treatment.

Leptin/LPS-treated dendritic cells reduce the expression of genes involved in tumor tissue metastasis and angiogenesis in an animal model of breast cancer

Leptin, an immune-regulating protein, enhances the maturation of dendritic cells (DCs). We previously demonstrated that leptin and lipopolysaccharide (LPS) promote the expression of co-stimulatory molecules on the surface of DCs. Leptin/LPS-treated DCs increased T cell responses against 4T1 breast cancer in mice. Therefore, in the present study, we investigate the effects of a DC vaccine treated with leptin and LPS on the genes involved in tumor metastasis, angiogenesis, and related cytokines in a mouse model of breast cancer. Tumor induction was achieved through subcutaneous injection of 4T1 cells into syngeneic mice. On days 12 and 19, the mouse groups received the DC vaccine treated with leptin and a combination of leptin and LPS. After sacrificing the mice on day 26, the levels of IL-6 and IL-33 in the serum were assayed using the ELISA technique, and the expression levels of the VEGF, CCL2, MMP9, and CCL5 genes in the tumors were measured by Real-Time PCR. Compared to untreated tumor-bearing mice, the leptin-treated mature DC (mDC) group exhibited a significant reduction in the expression of MMP9 (0.33-fold, p = 0.01) and CCL5 (0.81-fold, p = 0.02). The leptin-LPS-treated mDC group showed decreased expression of genes involved in metastasis and tumor growth, including VEGF (0.72-fold, p = 0.03), MMP9 (0.26-fold, p = 0.001), and CCL5 (0.3-fold, p = 0.006), indicating more efficient prevention of metastasis. The CCL2 gene expression levels in both treatment groups showed a slight decreasing trend, but these changes were not statistically significant. The leptin-treated mDC group reduced IL-6 production by approximately 16% (p = 0.02), while treatment with the leptin-LPS-treated mDC significantly decreased IL-6 production by approximately 22% (p = 0.01) and increased IL-33 production by approximately 42% (p = 0.03). The findings of the present study indicate that the leptin-LPS-treated mDC vaccine group reduced the expression of genes and cytokines involved in metastasis and angiogenesis, demonstrating greater efficacy compared to the leptin-treated mDC vaccine group.

Role of C-C chemokine receptor type 5 in pathogenesis of malaria and its severe forms

Malaria is a mosquito-borne disease caused by Plasmodium parasites, responsible for a significant impact on public health in several tropical and sub-tropical countries. The majority of infection cases are classified as uncomplicated malaria, causing mild symptoms such as fever and headache. However, the disease may progress to severe malaria and death if the infection is not properly treated. Furthermore, malaria poses a major concern for children, pregnant women and immunosuppressed individuals. Exacerbated inflammation is characteristic of severe malaria cases. The C-C chemokine receptor type 5 (CCR5) is an important molecule for leukocyte migration and regulation of inflammation. Although widely known as an HIV-1 co-receptor, CCR5 also affects the susceptibility and progression of autoimmune and inflammatory diseases. There is evidence supporting the participation of CCR5 in malaria manifestations, with the evaluation of CCR5 gene expression levels suggested as a marker to monitor malaria severity. Certain genetic variants in the CCR5 gene affect CCR5 expression, potentially altering CCR5-mediated inflammatory responses during malaria infection. However, the complex influences of CCR5 on malaria remain underexplored. Therefore, this review examines and updates the role of CCR5 in various contexts of malaria infection, including uncomplicated malaria, Plasmodium/HIV co-infection, pregnancy and severe (cerebral) malaria.

Intratumoral CXCL12 Gradients Contextualize Tumor Cell Invasion, Migration and Immune Suppression in Breast Cancer

Although the CXCL12/CXCR4 pathway has been prior investigated for its prometastatic and immuno- suppressive roles in the tumor microenvironment, evidence on the spatiotemporal regulation of these hallmarks has been lacking. Here, we demonstrate that CXCL12 forms a gradient specifically around cancer cell intravasation doorways, also known as Tumor Microenvironment of Metastasis (TMEM) doorways, thus facilitating the chemotactic translocation of prometastatic tumor cells expressing CXCR4 toward the perivascular TMEM doorways for subsequent entry into peripheral circulation. Fur- thermore, we demonstrate that the CXCL12-rich micro-environment around TMEM doorways may cre- ate immunosuppressive niches, whereby CD8 + T cells, despite being attracted to these regions, often exhibit reduced effector functions, limiting their efficacy. While the CXCL12/CXCR4 pathway can mini- mally influence the overall composition of immune cell populations, it biases the distribution of CD8 + T cells away from TMEM doorways, justifying its prior-established role as immunosuppressive factor for CD8 + T cells. Our research suggests that the complex interactions between CXCL12 and the various tumor and immune cell types contributes not only to the completion of the initial steps of the metastatic cascade, but also offers an immunological "sanctuary" to prometastatic tumor cells homed around TMEM doorways. Overall, our study enhances our current understanding on the mechanisms, via which CXCL12 orchestrates tumor cell behavior and immune dynamics, potentially guiding future thera- peutic strategies to combat breast cancer metastasis and improve anti-tumor immunity.

Tumor-Associated Macrophages as Major Immunosuppressive Cells in the Tumor Microenvironment

Within the tumor microenvironment, myeloid cells constitute a dynamic immune population characterized by a heterogeneous phenotype and diverse functional activities. In this review, we consider recent literature shedding light on the increasingly complex biology of M2-like immunosuppressive tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs), including their contribution to tumor cell invasion and metastasis, stromal remodeling (fibrosis and matrix degradation), and immune suppressive functions, in the tumor microenvironment (TME). This review also delves into the intricate signaling mechanisms underlying the polarization of diverse macrophage phenotypes, and their plasticity. We also review the development of promising therapeutic approaches to target these populations in cancers. The expanding knowledge of distinct subsets of immunosuppressive TAMs, and their contributions to tumorigenesis and metastasis, has sparked significant interest among researchers regarding the therapeutic potential of TAM depletion or phenotypic modulation.

Drug resistance and tumor immune microenvironment: An overview of current understandings (Review)

The use of antitumor drugs represents a reliable strategy for cancer therapy. Unfortunately, drug resistance has become increasingly common and contributes to tumor metastasis and local recurrence. The tumor immune microenvironment (TME) consists of immune cells, cytokines and immunomodulators, and collectively they influence the response to treatment. Epigenetic changes including DNA methylation and histone modification, as well as increased drug exportation have been reported to contribute to the development of drug resistance in cancers. In the past few years, the majority of studies on tumors have only focused on the development and progression of a tumor from a mechanistic standpoint; few studies have examined whether the changes in the TME can also affect tumor growth and drug resistance. Recently, emerging evidence have raised more concerns regarding the role of TME in the development of drug resistance. In the present review, it was discussed how the suppressive TME adapts to drug resistance characterized by the cooperation of immune cells, cytokines, immunomodulators, stromal cells and extracellular matrix. Furthermore, it was reviewed how these immunological or metabolic changes alter immuno‑surveillance and thus facilitate tumor drug resistance. In addition, potential targets present in the TME for developing novel therapeutic strategies to improve individualized therapy for cancer treatment were revealed.

General structure-activity/selectivity relationship patterns for the inhibitors of the chemokine receptors (CCR1/CCR2/CCR4/CCR5) with application for virtual screening of PubChem database

CC chemokine receptors (CCRs) form a crucial subfamily of G protein-linked receptors that play a distinct role in the onset and progression of various life-threatening diseases. The main aim of this research is to derive general structure-activity relationship (SAR) patterns to describe the selectivity and activity of CCR inhibitors. To this end, a total of 7332 molecules related to the inhibition of CCR1, CCR2, CCR4, and CCR5 were collected from the Binding Database and analyzed using machine learning techniques. A diverse set of 450 molecular descriptors was calculated for each molecule, and the molecules were classified based on their therapeutic targets and activities. The variable importance in the projection (VIP) approach was used to select discriminatory molecular features, and classification models were developed using supervised Kohonen networks (SKN) and counter-propagation artificial neural networks (CPANN). The reliability and predictability of the models were estimated using 10-fold cross-validation, an external validation set, and an applicability domain approach. We were able to identify different sets of molecular descriptors for discriminating between active and inactive molecules and model the selectivity of inhibitors towards different CCRs. The sensitivities of the predictions for the external test set for the SKN models ranged from 0.827-0.873. Finally, the developed classification models were used to screen approximately 2 million random molecules from the PubChem database, with average values for areas under the receiver operating characteristic curves ranging from 0.78-0.96 for SKN models and 0.75-0.89 for CPANN models.Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.

The Role of Biomarkers in the Early Diagnosis of Gastric Cancer: A Study on CCR5, CCL5, PDGF, and EphA7

Despite the use of screening programs, gastric cancer (GC) diagnosis may only be possible at an advanced stage. In this study, we examined the serum levels of C-C chemokine receptor type 5 (CCR5), C-C motif chemokine ligand 5 (CCL5), platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF), and EphrinA7 (EphA7) in patients with gastric carcinoma and healthy controls to investigate the significance and usability of these potential biomarkers in the early diagnosis of GC. The study enrolled 69 GC patients and 40 healthy individuals. CCR5, CCL5, PDGF-BB, and EphA7 levels, which have been identified in the carcinogenesis of many cancers, were measured in the blood samples using the ELISA method. CCR5, CCL5, PDGF-BB, and EphA7 were all correlated with GC diagnosis (CCR5, p < 0.001, r = -0.449; CCL5, p = 0.014, r = -0.234; PDGF-BB, p < 0.001, r = -0.700; EPHA7, p < 0.001, r = -0.617). The serum CCR5, EphA7, and especially the PDGF-BB levels of the patients diagnosed with GC were discovered to be significantly higher compared to the healthy controls. PDGF-BB had the highest positive and negative predictive values when evaluated in ROC analysis to determine its diagnostic significance (cut-off value: 59.8 ng/L; AUC: 0.92 (0.87-0.97)). As far as we know, this is the first study to investigate the potential connection between GC and these four biomarkers. The fact that serum CCR5, CCL5, EphA7, and especially PDGF-BB levels in the patient group were significantly higher compared to healthy controls indicates that they can be used with high accuracy in the early diagnosis of GC. In addition, the levels of CCR5, PDGF-BB, and EphA7 can be used as important indicators to predict the biological behavior and prognosis of GC.

ANCA-associated vasculitis and lung cancer: an immunological perspective

Antineutrophil cytoplasmic antibody (ANCA)-associated vasculitis (AAV) is a severe autoimmune disease that often involves the upper and lower respiratory tracts. In recent years, numerous studies have found a significant increase in the incidence of cancer among AAV patients, but the association between lung cancer and AAV remains inconclusive, with relatively low clinical attention. This review summarizes the current literature on the risk of lung cancer in patients with ANCA-associated vasculitis (AAV), detailing the potential mechanisms by which AAV may contribute to lung cancer, and further elucidates the inherent carcinogenic risks of immunosuppressants.There is a correlation between AAV and lung cancer, which is related to T cell senescence and damage, as well as the abnormal expression of cytokines such as IL-6 and IL-10. In AAV patients, the use of cyclophosphamide and azathioprine (AZA) alone has a clear carcinogenic risk, with frequent use of CYC potentially posing a high risk for lung cancer. Although TNF inhibitors (TNFi) combined with CYC have carcinogenic risks, there is insufficient evidence to link them directly to an increased risk of lung cancer. For patients at high risk for lung cancer, the judicious use of immunosuppressants, timely computed tomography (CT), and lung cancer screening can reduce the risk of lung cancer in AAV patients.

CD147-K148me2-Driven Tumor Cell-Macrophage Crosstalk Provokes NSCLC Immunosuppression via the CCL5/CCR5 Axis

Immunosuppression is a major hallmark of tumor progression in non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). Cluster of differentiation 147 (CD147), an important pro-tumorigenic factor, is closely linked to NSCLC immunosuppression. However, the role of CD147 di-methylation in the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment (TME) remains unclear. Here, di-methylation of CD147 at Lys148 (CD147-K148me2) is identified as a common post-translational modification (PTM) in NSCLC that is significantly associated with unsatisfying survival outcomes among NSCLC sufferers, especially those in the advanced stages of the disease. The methyltransferase NSD2 catalyzes CD147 to generate CD147-K148me2. Further analysis demonstrates that CD147-K148me2 reestablishes the immunosuppressive TME and promotes NSCLC progression. Mechanistically, this modification promotes the interaction between cyclophilin A (CyPA) and CD147, and in turn, increases CCL5 gene transcription by activating p38-ZBTB32 signaling, leading to increased NSCLC cell-derived CCL5 secretion. Subsequently, CD147-K148me2-mediated CCL5 upregulation facilitates M2-like tumor-associated macrophage (TAM) infiltration in NSCLC tissues via CCL5/CCR5 axis-dependent intercellular crosstalk between tumor cells and macrophages, which is inhibited by blocking CD147-K148me2 with the targeted antibody 12C8. Overall, this study reveals the role of CD147-K148me2-driven intercellular crosstalk in the development of NSCLC immunosuppression, and provides a potential interventional strategy for PTM-targeted NSCLC therapy.

Development of a Sensitive Anti-Mouse CCR5 Monoclonal Antibody for Flow Cytometry

C-C chemokine receptor 5 (CCR5), a member of the G protein-coupled receptor family, is the most common coreceptor for the human immunodeficiency virus type 1. CCR5 is also involved in the pathogenesis of tumors and inflammatory diseases. The CCR5 antagonists including monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) have been developed and evaluated in clinical trials. In this study, we developed novel mAbs for mouse CCR5 (mCCR5) using the Cell-Based Immunization and Screening (CBIS) method. One of the established anti-mCCR5 mAbs, C5Mab-2 (rat IgG2b, kappa), reacted with mCCR5-overexpressed Chinese hamster ovary-K1 (CHO/mCCR5) and an endogenously mCCR5-expressing cell line (L1210) by flow cytometry. Using flow cytometry, the dissociation constant (KD) of C5Mab-2 for CHO/mCCR5 was determined as 4.3 × 10-8 M. These results indicated that C5Mab-2 is useful for the detection of mCCR5 in flow cytometry and may be applicable to obtain the proof of concept in preclinical studies.

Development of Sensitive Anti-Mouse CCR5 Monoclonal Antibodies Using the N-Terminal Peptide Immunization

One of the G protein-coupled receptors, C-C chemokine receptor 5 (CCR5), is an important regulator for the activation of T and B lymphocytes, dendritic cells, natural killer cells, and macrophages. Upon binding to its ligands, CCR5 activates downstream signaling, which is an important regulator in the innate and adaptive immune response through the promotion of lymphocyte migration and the secretion of proinflammatory cytokines. Anti-CCR5 monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) have been developed and evaluated in clinical trials for tumors and inflammatory diseases. In this study, we developed novel mAbs for mouse CCR5 (mCCR5) using the N-terminal peptide immunization. Among the established anti-mCCR5 mAbs, C5Mab-4 (rat IgG2a, kappa) and C5Mab-8 (rat IgG1, kappa), recognized mCCR5-overexpressing Chinese hamster ovary-K1 (CHO/mCCR5) and an endogenously mCCR5-expressing cell line (L1210) by flow cytometry. The dissociation constant (KD) values of C5Mab-4 and C5Mab-8 for CHO/mCCR5 were determined as 3.5 × 10-8 M and 7.3 × 10-9 M, respectively. Furthermore, both C5Mab-4 and C5Mab-8 could detect mCCR5 by western blotting. These results indicated that C5Mab-4 and C5Mab-8 are useful for detecting mCCR5 by flow cytometry and western blotting and provide a possibility to obtain the proof of concept in preclinical studies.

Prognostic and Predictive Potential of CCL5 Expression in Muscle-Invasive Bladder Cancer Patients

Bladder cancer (BC) is the 12th most commonly diagnosed cancer worldwide. Although there are several well-established molecular and immunological classifications, prognostic and predictive markers for tumor cells and immune cells are still needed. Using a tissue microarray, we analyzed the expression of the chemokine CC motif ligand 5 (CCL5) by immunohistochemistry (IHC) in 175 muscle-invasive BC samples. The application of a single cutoff for the staining status of tumor cells (TCs; positive vs. negative) and immune cells (ICs; positive vs. negative) revealed 75 patients (42.9%) and 123 patients (70.3%) with CCL5-positive TCs or ICs, respectively. IHC results were associated with prognostic and predictive data. Multivariate Cox regression analysis revealed that positive CCL5 staining in TCs was associated with significantly shorter disease-specific survival (DSS; RR = 1.51; p = 0.047), but CCL5-negative ICs were associated with significantly shorter overall survival (OS; RR = 1.66; p = 0.005), DSS (RR = 2.02; p = 0.001) and recurrence-free survival (RFS; RR = 1.94; p = 0.002). Adjuvant chemotherapy was favorable for patients with CCL5-negative ICs for OS (RR = 0.30; p = 0.006), DSS (RR = 0.36; p = 0.022) and RFS (RR = 0.41; p = 0.046) but not for patients with CCL5-positive ICs, except in the subgroup of N1 + N2 patients, where it was associated with better OS. We suggest that CCL5 expression can be a prognostic and predictive marker for muscle-invasive bladder cancer patients.

Epigenetic modulation of cytokine expression in gastric cancer: influence on angiogenesis, metastasis and chemoresistance

Cytokines are proteins that act in the immune response and inflammation and have been associated with the development of some types of cancer, such as gastric cancer (GC). GC is a malignant neoplasm that ranks fifth in incidence and third in cancer-related mortality worldwide, making it a major public health issue. Recent studies have focused on the role these cytokines may play in GC associated with angiogenesis, metastasis, and chemoresistance, which are key factors that can affect carcinogenesis and tumor progression, quality, and patient survival. These inflammatory mediators can be regulated by epigenetic modifications such as DNA methylation, histone protein modification, and non-coding RNA, which results in the silencing or overexpression of key genes in GC, presenting different targets of action, either direct or mediated by modifications in key genes of cytokine-related signaling pathways. This review seeks insight into the relationship between cytokine-associated epigenetic regulation and its potential effects on the different stages of development and chemoresistance in GC.

T cell senescence: a new perspective on immunotherapy in lung cancer

T cell senescence is an indication of T cell dysfunction. The ability of senescent T cells to respond to cognate antigens is reduced and they are in the late stage of differentiation and proliferation; therefore, they cannot recognize and eliminate tumor cells in a timely and effective manner, leading to the formation of the suppressive tumor microenvironment. Establishing methods to reverse T cell senescence is particularly important for immunotherapy. Aging exacerbates profound changes in the immune system, leading to increased susceptibility to chronic, infectious, and autoimmune diseases. Patients with malignant lung tumors have impaired immune function with a high risk of recurrence, metastasis, and mortality. Immunotherapy based on PD-1, PD-L1, CTLA-4, and other immune checkpoints is promising for treating lung malignancies. However, T cell senescence can lead to low efficacy or unsuccessful treatment results in some immunotherapies. Efficiently blocking and reversing T cell senescence is a key goal of the enhancement of tumor immunotherapy. This study discusses the characteristics, mechanism, and expression of T cell senescence in malignant lung tumors and the treatment strategies.

C-C Motif Chemokine Ligand 5 (CCL5): A Potential Biomarker and Immunotherapy Target for Osteosarcoma

BACKGROUND

Osteosarcoma (OS) is the most common primary malignant tumor of bone tissue, which has an insidious onset and is difficult to detect early, and few early diagnostic markers with high specificity and sensitivity. Therefore, this study aims to identify potential biomarkers that can help diagnose OS in its early stages and improve the prognosis of patients.

METHODS

The data sets of GSE12789, GSE28424, GSE33382 and GSE36001 were combined and normalized to identify Differentially Expressed Genes (DEGs). The data were analyzed by Gene Ontology (GO), Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genome (KEGG) and Disease Ontology (DO). The hub gene was selected based on the common DEG that was obtained by applying two regression methods: the Least Absolute Shrinkage and Selection Operator (LASSO) and Support vVector Machine (SVM). Then the diagnostic value of the hub gene was evaluated in the GSE42572 data set. Finally, the correlation between immunocyte infiltration and key genes was analyzed by CIBERSORT.

RESULTS

The regression analysis results of LASSO and SVM are the following three DEGs: FK501 binding protein 51 (FKBP5), C-C motif chemokine ligand 5 (CCL5), complement component 1 Q subcomponent B chain (C1QB). We evaluated the diagnostic performance of three biomarkers (FKBP5, CCL5 and C1QB) for osteosarcoma using receiver operating characteristic (ROC) analysis. In the training group, the area under the curve (AUC) of FKBP5, CCL5 and C1QB was 0.907, 0.874 and 0.676, respectively. In the validation group, the AUC of FKBP5, CCL5 and C1QB was 0.618, 0.932 and 0.895, respectively. It is noteworthy that these genes were more expressed in tumor tissues than in normal tissues by various immune cell types, such as plasma cells, CD8+ T cells, T regulatory cells (Tregs), activated NK cells, activated dendritic cells and activated mast cells. These immune cell types are also associated with the expression levels of the three diagnostic genes that we identified.

CONCLUSION

We found that CCL5 can be considered an early diagnostic gene of osteosarcoma, and CCL5 interacts with immune cells to influence tumor occurrence and development. These findings have important implications for the early detection of osteosarcoma and the identification of novel therapeutic targets.

The Role of TAMs in the Regulation of Tumor Cell Resistance to Chemotherapy

Tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) are the predominant cell infiltrate in the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment (TME). TAMs are central to fostering pro-inflammatory conditions, tumor growth, metastasis, and inhibiting therapy responses. Many cancer patients are innately refractory to chemotherapy and or develop resistance following initial treatments. There is a clinical correlation between the level of TAMs in the TME and chemoresistance. Hence, the pivotal role of TAMs in contributing to chemoresistance has garnered significant attention toward targeting TAMs to reverse this resistance. A prerequisite for such an approach requires a thorough understanding of the various underlying mechanisms by which TAMs inhibit response to chemotherapeutic drugs. Such mechanisms include enhancing drug efflux, regulating drug metabolism and detoxification, supporting cancer stem cell (CSCs) resistance, promoting epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), inhibiting drug penetration and its metabolism, stimulating angiogenesis, impacting inhibitory STAT3/NF-κB survival pathways, and releasing specific inhibitory cytokines including TGF-β and IL-10. Accordingly, several strategies have been developed to overcome TAM-modulated chemoresistance. These include novel therapies that aim to deplete TAMs, repolarize them toward the anti-tumor M1-like phenotype, or block recruitment of monocytes into the TME. Current results from TAM-targeted treatments have been unimpressive; however, the use of TAM-targeted therapies in combination appears promising These include targeting TAMs with radiotherapy, chemotherapy, chemokine receptor inhibitors, immunotherapy, and loaded nanoparticles. The clinical limitations of these strategies are discussed.

CCL5 promotes the proliferation and metastasis of bladder cancer via the JAK2/STAT3 signaling pathway

Background

Non-muscle invasive bladder cancer (NMIBC) is one of the most common malignant tumors of the urinary system. There is an urgent need for further studies to elucidate the underlying mechanisms of bladder cancer (BC) progression. It has been observed that C-C chemokine ligand 5 (CCL5) and its receptor C-C chemokine receptor type 5 (CCR5) are expressed abnormally and activated in solid tumors and hematological malignancies, which is gaining increasing attention. However, the underlying mechanism of CCL5 in BC remains unclear.

Methods

The expression levels of CCL5 were analyzed by real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and western blot. Proliferation analysis of cells was carried out using Cell Counting Kit-8 (CCK-8). The assessment of the migration was conducted using a wound-healing assay. A Matrigel-coated transwell chamber was used to test cell invasiveness. A subcutaneous transplantation tumor model and tail vein injection pulmonary metastasis tumor model were used to evaluate the proliferation and metastasis of BC cell in vivo.

Results

This study showed that CCL5 promotes proliferative, migratory, and tumor-growing BC cells in vitro and tumor metastasizing BC cells in vivo. Moreover, we found that the tumor-promotive role of CCL5 is dependent on activation of the JAK2/STAT3 signaling pathway.

Conclusions

CCL5 may play an oncogenic role in BC and may also serve as a potential diagnostic and prognostic biomarker.

Oncofetal reprogramming in tumor development and progression: novel insights into cancer therapy

Emerging evidence indicates that cancer cells can mimic characteristics of embryonic development, promoting their development and progression. Cancer cells share features with embryonic development, characterized by robust proliferation and differentiation regulated by signaling pathways such as Wnt, Notch, hedgehog, and Hippo signaling. In certain phase, these cells also mimic embryonic diapause and fertilized egg implantation to evade treatments or immune elimination and promote metastasis. Additionally, the upregulation of ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters, including multidrug resistance protein 1 (MDR1), multidrug resistance-associated protein 1 (MRP1), and breast cancer-resistant protein (BCRP), in drug-resistant cancer cells, analogous to their role in placental development, may facilitate chemotherapy efflux, further resulting in treatment resistance. In this review, we concentrate on the underlying mechanisms that contribute to tumor development and progression from the perspective of embryonic development, encompassing the dysregulation of developmental signaling pathways, the emergence of dormant cancer cells, immune microenvironment remodeling, and the hyperactivation of ABC transporters. Furthermore, we synthesize and emphasize the connections between cancer hallmarks and embryonic development, offering novel insights for the development of innovative cancer treatment strategies.

The regulatory network of the chemokine CCL5 in colorectal cancer

The chemokine CCL5 plays a potential role in the occurrence and development of colorectal cancer (CRC). Previous studies have shown that CCL5 directly acts on tumor cells to change tumor metastatic rates. In addition, CCL5 recruits immune cells and immunosuppressive cells into the tumor microenvironment (TME) and reshapes the TME to adapt to tumor growth or increase antitumor immune efficacy, depending on the type of secretory cells releasing CCL5, the cellular function of CCL5 recruitment, and the underlying mechanisms. However, at present, research on the role played by CCL5 in the occurrence and development of CRC is still limited, and whether CCL5 promotes the occurrence and development of CRC and its role remain controversial. This paper discusses the cells recruited by CCL5 in patients with CRC and the specific mechanism of this recruitment, as well as recent clinical studies of CCL5 in patients with CRC.Key MessagesCCL5 plays dual roles in colorectal cancer progression.CCL5 remodels the tumor microenvironment to adapt to colorectal cancer tumor growth by recruiting immunosuppressive cells or by direct action.CCL5 inhibits colorectal cancer tumor growth by recruiting immune cells or by direct action.

The Role and Therapeutic Targeting of CCR5 in Breast Cancer

The G-protein-coupled receptor C-C chemokine receptor 5 (CCR5) functions as a co-receptor for the entry of HIV into immune cells. CCR5 binds promiscuously to a diverse array of ligands initiating cell signaling that includes guided migration. Although well known to be expressed on immune cells, recent studies have shown the induction of CCR5 on the surface of breast cancer epithelial cells. The function of CCR5 on breast cancer epithelial cells includes the induction of aberrant cell survival signaling and tropism towards chemo attractants. As CCR5 is not expressed on normal epithelium, the receptor provides a potential useful target for therapy. Inhibitors of CCR5 (CCR5i), either small molecules (maraviroc, vicriviroc) or humanized monoclonal antibodies (leronlimab) have shown anti-tumor and anti-metastatic properties in preclinical studies. In early clinical studies, reviewed herein, CCR5i have shown promising results and evidence for effects on both the tumor and the anti-tumor immune response. Current clinical studies have therefore included combination therapy approaches with checkpoint inhibitors.

Role of chemokines in the crosstalk between tumor and tumor-associated macrophages

Tumor microenvironment (TME) consists of a dynamic network of non-tumoral stromal cells, including cancer-associated fibroblasts, endothelial cells, tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs), B and T cells. In the TME, TAMs support tumor initiation, progression, invasion and metastasis by promoting angiogenesis and immunosuppression of the tumor cells. There is close crosstalk between TAMs and tumor cells. Notably, chemokines are a significant messenger mediating the crosstalk between tumor cells and TAMs. TAMs can promote tumor progression via secretion of chemokines. Various chemokines secreted by tumors are involved in the generation and polarization of TAMs, the infiltration of TAMs in tumors, and the development of TAMs' suppressive function. This paper reviews CCL2-CCR2, CCL3/5-CCR5, CCL15-CCR1, CCL18-CCR8, CX3CL1/CCL26-CX3CR1, CXCL8-CXCR1/2, CXCL12-CXCR4/CXCR7 signaling pathways, their role in the recruitment, polarization and exertion of TAMs, and their correlation with tumor development, metastasis and prognosis. Furthermore, we present the current research progress on modulating the effects of TAMs with chemokine antagonists and discuss the prospects and potential challenges of using chemokine antagonists as therapeutic tools for cancer treatment. The TAMs targeting by chemokine receptor antagonists in combination with chemotherapy drugs, immune checkpoint inhibitors or radiotherapy appears to be a promising approach.

Structural dynamics of chemokine receptors

Membrane proteins such as G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are involved in awide range of physiological and pathological cellular processes. Binding of extracellular signals to GPCRs, including hormones, neurotransmitters, peptides and proteins, can activate intracellular signaling cascades via G protein interaction. Chemokine receptors are key GPCRs implicated in cancers, immune responses, cell migration and inflammation. Specifically, the CCR5 and CXCR4 chemokine receptors serve as important therapeutic targets against Human Immunodeficiency virus (HIV) entry into human cells. Maraviroc and Vicriviroc, two clinically used HIV entry inhibitors, are antagonists of the CCR5 receptor. These drugs block HIV entry, but ultimately resistance develops, due to emergence of viruses that can utilize the CXCR4 co-receptor. Unfortunately, development of chemokine receptor antagonists as selective drugs of HIV infection has been greatly hindered as their target orthosteric site is conserved among different receptor subtypes. Accordingly, it is important to understand the structural dynamics of these receptors to develop more effective therapeutics. In this chapter, we describe the latest advances in studies of these two key chemokine receptors with respect to their structures, dynamics and function.

CKLF1 interference alleviates IL‑1β‑induced inflammation, apoptosis and degradation of the extracellular matrix in chondrocytes via CCR5

Osteoarthritis (OA) is a type of joint disease with a rising prevalence and incidence among the elderly across the global population. Chemokine-like factor 1 (CKLF1) is a human cytokine, which has been demonstrated to be involved in the progression of multiple human diseases. However, little attention has been paid to the impact of CKLF1 on OA. The present study was designed to identify the role of CKLF1 in OA and to clarify the regulatory mechanism. The expression levels of CKLF1 and its receptor CC chemokine receptor 5 (CCR5) were examined by reverse transcription-quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR) and western blotting. A Cell Counting Kit-8 assay was used to estimate cell viability. The levels and expression of inflammatory factors were determined by ELISA and RT-qPCR, respectively. Apoptosis was investigated by TUNEL assays and the protein levels of apoptosis-related factors were analyzed by western blotting. RT-qPCR and western blotting were used to examine the expression of extracellular matrix (ECM) degradation-associated proteins and ECM components. Dimethylmethylene blue analysis was used to analyze the production of soluble glycosamine sulfate additive. A co-immunoprecipitation assay was used to confirm the protein interaction between CKLF1 and CCR5. The results revealed that CKLF1 expression was increased in IL-1β-exposed murine chondrogenic ATDC5 cells. Furthermore, CKLF1 silencing enhanced the viability of IL-1β-induced ATDC5 cells, while inflammation, apoptosis and degradation of the ECM were reduced. Additionally, CKLF1 knockdown led to decreased CCR5 expression in IL-1β-challenged ATDC5 cells, and CKLF1 bound with CCR5. The enhanced viability, as well as the suppressed inflammation, apoptosis and degradation of the ECM, following CKLF1 knockdown in the IL-1β-induced ATDC5 cells were all restored after CCR5 was overexpressed. In conclusion, CKLF1 might serve a detrimental role in the development of OA by targeting its receptor CCR5.

Chordoma recruits and polarizes tumor-associated macrophages via secreting CCL5 to promote malignant progression

BACKGROUND

Chordoma is an extremely rare, locally aggressive malignant bone tumor originating from undifferentiated embryonic remnants. There are no effective therapeutic strategies for chordoma. Herein, we aimed to explore cellular interactions within the chordoma immune microenvironment and provide new therapeutic targets.

METHODS

Spectrum flow cytometry and multiplex immunofluorescence (IF) staining were used to investigate the immune microenvironment of chordoma. Cell Counting Kit-8, Edu, clone formation, Transwell, and healing assays were used to validate tumor functions. Flow cytometry and Transwell assays were used to analyze macrophage phenotype and chemotaxis alterations. Immunohistochemistry, IF, western blot, PCR, and ELISA assays were used to analyze molecular expression. An organoid model and a xenograft mouse model were constructed to investigate the efficacy of maraviroc (MVC).

RESULTS

The chordoma immune microenvironment landscape was characterized, and we observed that chordoma exhibits a typical immune exclusion phenotype. However, macrophages infiltrating the tumor zone were also noted. Through functional assays, we demonstrated that chordoma-secreted CCL5 significantly promoted malignancy progression, macrophage recruitment, and M2 polarization. In turn, M2 macrophages markedly enhanced the proliferation, invasion, and migration viability of chordoma. CCL5 knockdown and MVC (CCL5/CCR5 inhibitor) treatment both significantly inhibited chordoma malignant progression and M2 macrophage polarization. We established chordoma patient-derived organoids, wherein MVC exhibited antitumor effects, especially in patient 4, with robust killing effect. MVC inhibits chordoma growth and lung metastasis in vivo.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study implicates that the CCL5-CCR5 axis plays an important role in the malignant progression of chordoma and the regulation of macrophages, and that the CCL5-CCR5 axis is a potential therapeutic target in chordoma.

The Relationship of CCL5 and CCR1 Variants with Response Rate and Survival Taking into Account Thalidomide/Bortezomib Treatment in Patients with Multiple Myeloma

(1) Background: Chemokines and chemokine receptors play an important role in tumor development. The aim of this study was to check the significance of CCL5 and CCR1 variants with response rate, survival, and the level of regulated on activation, normal T cells expressed and secreted (RANTES/CCL5) in multiple myeloma (MM) patients; (2) Methods: Genomic DNA from 101 newly diagnosed MM patients and 100 healthy blood donors were analyzed by Real-time PCR method (for CCL5 and CCR1 genotyping). In a subgroup of 70 MM patients, serum samples were collected to determine the level of RANTES; (3) Results: multivariate Cox regression showed increased risk of disease relapse or progression (HR = 4.77; p = 0.01) in MM patients with CG + CC genotypes of CCL5 rs2280788. In contrast, CT + TT genotypes of CCL5 rs2107538 were associated withdecreased risk of death (HR = 0.18; p = 0.028) and disease relapse or progression (HR = 0.26; p = 0.01). In MM patients with major genotypes of rs2280789, rs2280788, and rs2107538, higher survival rates were observed in response to treatment with thalidomide and bortezomib. Statistically significant lower RANTES levels were seen in minor genotypes and heterozygotes of CCL5 and CCR1 variants; (4) Conclusions: Major genotypes of CCL5 variants may be independent positive prognostic factors in MM.

CXCL11-armed oncolytic adenoviruses enhance CAR-T cell therapeutic efficacy and reprogram tumor microenvironment in glioblastoma

Glioblastoma (GBM) is the most aggressive primary malignant brain cancer and urgently requires effective treatments. Chimeric antigen receptor T (CAR-T) cell therapy offers a potential treatment method, but it is often hindered by poor infiltration of CAR-T cells in tumors and highly immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment (TME). Here, we armed an oncolytic adenovirus (oAds) with a chemokine CXCL11 to increase the infiltration of CAR-T cells and reprogram the immunosuppressive TME, thus improving its therapeutic efficacy. In both immunodeficient and immunocompetent orthotopic GBM mice models, we showed that B7H3-targeted CAR-T cells alone failed to inhibit GBM growth but, when combined with the intratumoral administration of CXCL11-armed oAd, it achieved a durable antitumor response. Besides, oAd-CXCL11 had a potent antitumor effect and reprogramed the immunosuppressive TME in GL261 GBM models, in which increased infiltration of CD8+ T lymphocytes, natural killer (NK) cells, and M1-polarized macrophages, while decreased proportions of myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs), regulatory T cells (Tregs) and M2-polarized macrophages were observed. Furthermore, the antitumor effect of the oAd-CXCL11 was CD8+ T cell dependent. Our findings thus revealed that CXCL11-armed oAd can improve immune-virotherapy and can be a promising adjuvant of CAR-T therapy for GBM.

Fentanyl Promoted the Growth of Placenta Trophoblast Cells through Regulating the METTL14 Mediated CCL5 Levels

Gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) is an important cause of the increase in incidence rate and mortality of pregnant women and perinatal infants. This study aimed to analyze the role of fentanyl, a μ-opioid agonist, in the GDM progression. The high glucose (HG) treatment HTR8/SVneo cells was used as a GDM model in vitro. The cell viability was assessed with cell counting kit-8 assay. The apoptosis rate was analyzed with flow cytometry and the transwell assay was conducted to test the cell migration and invasion. RT-quantitative PCR (qPCR) assay was performed to determine the relative expressions of related genes. The N6-Methyladenosine (m6A) levels were analyzed with MeRIP analysis. The tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin 1β (IL-1β), and IL-10 levels of the cells were analyzed with commercial kits. The results showed that fentanyl increased the cell viability, migration and invasion, and IL-10 levels, and declined the apoptosis rate, TNF-α and IL-1β levels of the HG stimulated HTR8/SVneo cells. The chemokine ligand 5 (CCL5) was over expressed in GDM tissues and HG stimulated HTR8/SVneo cells, which was depleted after fentanyl treatment. Over expressed CCL5 neutralized the fentanyl roles in the HG stimulated HTR8/SVneo cells. The methyltransferase-like protein 14 (METTL14) levels was decreased in HG stimulated HTR8/SVneo cells, which was up-regulated after fentanyl treatment. Additionally, METTL14 silenced prominently decreased the m6A and mRNA levels, along with the mRNA stability of CCL5. In conclusion, fentanyl promoted the growth and inhibited the apoptosis of the HG stimulated HTR8/SVneo cells through regulating the METTL14 mediated CCL5 levels.

Therapeutic Perspectives of HIV-Associated Chemokine Receptor (CCR5 and CXCR4) Antagonists in Carcinomas

The interaction between malignant cells and the tumor microenvironment is critical for tumor progression, and the chemokine ligand/receptor axes play a crucial role in this process. The CXCR4/CXCL12 and CCR5/CCL5 axes, both related to HIV, have been associated with the early (epithelial-mesenchymal transition and invasion) and late events (migration and metastasis) of cancer progression. In addition, these axes can also modulate the immune response against tumors. Thus, antagonists against the receptors of these axes have been proposed in cancer therapy. Although preclinical studies have shown promising results, clinical trials are needed to include these drugs in the oncological treatment protocols. New alternatives for these antagonists, such as dual CXCR4/CCR5 antagonists or combined therapy in association with immunotherapy, need to be studied in cancer therapy.

Effect of crosstalk among conspirators in tumor microenvironment on niche metastasis of gastric cancer

In Traditional Chinese medicine, the metaphoric views of the human body are based on observations of nature guided by the theory of "Yin-Yang". The direct meanings of yin and yang are the bright and dark sides of an object, which often represent a wider range of opposite properties. When we shifted our view to gastric cancer (GC), we found that there are more distinctive Yin and Yang features in the mechanism of GC development and metastasis, which is observed in many mechanisms such as GC metastasis, immune escape, and stem cell homing. When illustrating this process from the yin-yang perspective, categorizing different cells in the tumor microenvironment enables new and different perspectives to be put forward on the mechanism and treatment of GC metastasis.

Single-molecule and super-resolved imaging deciphers membrane behavior of onco-immunogenic CCR5

The ability of tumors to establish a pro-tumorigenic microenvironment is an important point of investigation in the search for new therapeutics. Tumors form microenvironments in part by the "education" of immune cells attracted via chemotactic axes such as that of CCR5-CCL5. Further, CCR5 upregulation by cancer cells, coupled with its association with pro-tumorigenic features such as drug resistance and metastasis, has suggested CCR5 as a therapeutic target. However, with several conformational "pools" being reported, phenotypic investigations must be capable of unveiling conformational heterogeneity. Addressing this challenge, we performed super-resolution structured illumination microscopy (SIM) and single molecule partially TIRF-coupled HILO (PaTCH) microscopy of CCR5 in fixed cells. SIM data revealed a non-random spatial distribution of CCR5 assemblies, while Intensity-tracking of CCR5 assemblies from PaTCH images indicated dimeric sub-units independent of CCL5 perturbation. These biophysical methods can provide important insights into the structure and function of onco-immunogenic receptors and many other biomolecules.

Deep learning explains the biology of branched glycans from single-cell sequencing data

Glycosylation is ubiquitous and often dysregulated in disease. However, the regulation and functional significance of various types of glycosylation at cellular levels is hard to unravel experimentally. Multi-omics, single-cell measurements such as SUGAR-seq, which quantifies transcriptomes and cell surface glycans, facilitate addressing this issue. Using SUGAR-seq data, we pioneered a deep learning model to predict the glycan phenotypes of cells (mouse T lymphocytes) from transcripts, with the example of predicting β1,6GlcNAc-branching across T cell subtypes (test set F1 score: 0.9351). Model interpretation via SHAP (SHapley Additive exPlanations) identified highly predictive genes, in part known to impact (i) branched glycan levels and (ii) the biology of branched glycans. These genes included physiologically relevant low-abundance genes that were not captured by conventional differential expression analysis. Our work shows that interpretable deep learning models are promising for uncovering novel functions and regulatory mechanisms of glycans from integrated transcriptomic and glycomic datasets.

Goat CCL5 promotes cell viability and inflammatory factors production in lung fibroblasts and macrophages

Inflammatory chemokine CCL5 can mediate the occurrence of inflammatory reactions and participate in various disease processes. (Ch)CCL5 gene of Jintang black goat (Capra hircus, C. hircus) was cloned. The CDS (coding sequences) was 276 bp in length and encoded 91 amino acids. The 26.5 kDa recombinant protein was expressed by Escherichia coli system and purified by Ni-Agarose. The viabilities of primary goat lung fibroblasts could be enhanced after treating with ChCCL5 protein (12.5, 25, 50 μg/mL) (P < 0.05). The expression levels of interleukin-1beta (IL-1β), interleukin 6 (IL-6), tumor necrosis factor (TNF-α), C-C motif chemokine ligand 2 (CCL2) and heat-shock proteins (Hsp70) genes were upregulated after treating with ChCCL5 protein (12.5, 25, 50 μg/mL). Besides, the viabilities and phagocytic abilities of primary mouse peritoneal macrophages could be enhanced after treating with ChCCL5 protein (12.5, 25, 50 μg/mL) (P < 0.05). The expression levels of IL-1β, IL-6, toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4), inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOs) and TNF-α genes were upregulated after treating with ChCCL5 protein (12.5, 25, 50 μg/mL) (P < 0.05). These results indicated that goat CCL5 might play a role in the inflammatory response by regulating the inflammatory cytokines produced by lung fibroblasts and macrophages.

Tumor-associated macrophage-derived chemokine CCL5 facilitates the progression and immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment of clear cell renal cell carcinoma

Background: Tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) dominate the malignancy of cancers by perturbing the tumor microenvironment (TME). However, the clinical implications of heterogeneous subpopulations of TAMs in clear cell renal cell carcinoma (ccRCC) remain to be elucidated. Methods: We comprehensively evaluated the prognostic implications, biological behaviors, and immunogenomics features of the C-C Motif Chemokine Ligand 5 (CCL5) expression and CCL5+ TME in vitro and in 932 real-world ccRCC patients from testing and public validation cohorts. Flow cytometry was used to examine the functional patterns of CCL5+ TAMs with TME cell-infiltrating characterizations. Results: Our results identified distinct prognostic clusters with gradual changes in clinicopathological indicators based on CCL5 expression. Knockdown of CCL5 significantly restrained cell viability, migration capabilities of ccRCC cells, and the inhibits the proliferation and chemotaxis of THP1-derived TAMs. Mechanically, down-regulation of CCL5 arrested epithelial-mesenchymal transition by modulating the PI3K/AKT pathway in ccRCC cells. In ccRCC samples with CCL5 upregulation, the proportion of CCL5+ TAMs and PD-L1+ CD68+ TAMs were prominently increased, showing a typical suppressive tumor immune microenvironment (TIME). Besides, intra-tumoral CCL5+ TAMs showed distinct pro-tumorigenic TME features characterized by exhausted CD8+ T cells and increased expression of immune checkpoints. Furthermore, elevated CCL5+ TAMs infiltration was prominently associated with a dismal prognosis for patients with ccRCC. Conclusion: In conclusion, this study first revealed the predictive value of the chemokine CCL5 on the progression and TME of ccRCC. The intra-tumoral CCL5+ TAMs could be applied to comprehensively evaluate the prognostic patterns as well as unique TME characteristics among individuals, allowing for the identification of immunophenotypes and promotion of treatment efficiency for ccRCC.

Novel small synthetic HIV-1 V3 crown variants: CCR5 targeting ligands

The CC chemokine receptor 5 (CCR5) antagonism represents a promising pharmacological strategy for therapeutic intervention as it plays a significant role in reducing the severity and progression of a wide range of pathological conditions. Here we designed and generated peptide ligands targeting the chemokine receptor, CCR5, that were derived from the critical interaction sites of the V3 crown domain of envelope protein glycoprotein gp120 (TRKSIHIGPGRAFYTTGEI) of HIV-1 using computational biology approach and the peptide sequence corresponding to this region was taken as the template peptide, designated as TMP-1. The peptide variants were synthesized by employing Fmoc chemistry using polymer support and were labelled with rhodamine B to study their interaction with the CCR5 receptor expressed on various cells. TMP-1 and TMP-2 were selected as the high-affinity ligands from in vitro receptor-binding assays. Specific receptor-binding experiments in activated peripheral blood mononuclear cells and HOS.CCR5 cells indicated that TMP-1 and TMP-2 had significant CCR5 specificity. Further, the functional analysis of TMP peptides using chemotactic migration assay showed that both peptides did not mediate the migration of responsive cells. Thus, template TMP-1 and TMP-2 represent promising CCR5 targeting peptide candidates.

Characterization of the Prognostic Values of CXCL Family in Epstein-Barr Virus Associated Gastric Cancer

Background

CXCL family is a class of secreted growth factors signaling through G-protein-coupled receptors, and abnormal expression is associated with the growth and progression of many tumors. However, their prognostic value has been poorly studied in Epstein-Barr virus- (EBV-) associated gastric cancer (EBVaGC). Therefore, it is of great significance to explore the prognostic value of the CXCL family in EBVaGC.

Methods

CXCL family mRNA expression was analyzed in STAD data from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA). Kaplan-Meier Plotter was used to assess the prognostic value of the CXCL family. Transcription factors (TFs) and miRNAs associated with the CXCL family were identified by TFCheckpoint, miRWalk, and ViRBase databases. The prognostic model was evaluated using the EBVaGC patient cohort GSE51575.

Results

The mRNA expression of CXCL1/3/5/6/8/9/10/11/16 was significantly upregulated, while the expression of CXCL12/14 was downregulated in EBVaGC compared with normal tissues from TCGA-STAD. The mRNA expressions of CXCL9, CXCL10, CXCL11, and CXCL17 in EBVaGCs were higher than those in EBVnGCs, but the mRNA expressions of CXCL6, CXCL12, and CXCL17 were lower than those in EBVnGCs. The mRNA expression levels of CXCL9, CXCL10, and CXCL11 in EBVaGCs were higher than those in EBVnGCs regardless of the tumor stage. High mRNA expression of CXCL8 was associated with better OS in patients with EBVaGC, while high expression of CXCL9 was associated with better OS in patients with EBVnGC. We obtained 10 candidate potential transcription factors (TFs) associated with CXCLs: OTOP3, NKX6-2, NKX2-2, FEV, SMYD1, TRIMSO, TBX10, CDX1, SLC26A3, and ARC. 576 miRNA-mRNA interactions were obtained. Among them, 65 miRNAs were predicted to be correlated with CXCL6, CXCL9, CXCL10, and CXCL11. Similar to the results of TCGA-STAD, the GSE51575 dataset also showed that the mRNA expression levels of CXCL1/3/9/10/11/16 were markedly enhanced in EBVaGC tissues compared with corresponding normal gastric mucosa tissues, while the mRNA expression levels of CXCL12/14 were significantly reduced. The mRNA expression levels of CXCL3/9/10/11/13/17 were increased in EBVaGC compared with EBVnGC tissues.

Conclusions

The expression differences of CXCL family members are closely associated with the progression of EBVaGC. Expression of CXCL9/10/11/17 mRNA may be a promising prognostic indicator for EBVaGC patients.

Role of chemokine systems in cancer and inflammatory diseases

Chemokines are a large family of small secreted proteins that have fundamental roles in organ development, normal physiology, and immune responses upon binding to their corresponding receptors. The primary functions of chemokines are to coordinate and recruit immune cells to and from tissues and to participate in regulating interactions between immune cells. In addition to the generally recognized antimicrobial immunity, the chemokine/chemokine receptor axis also exerts a tumorigenic function in many different cancer models and is involved in the formation of immunosuppressive and protective tumor microenvironment (TME), making them potential prognostic markers for various hematologic and solid tumors. In fact, apart from its vital role in tumors, almost all inflammatory diseases involve chemokines and their receptors in one way or another. Modulating the expression of chemokines and/or their corresponding receptors on tumor cells or immune cells provides the basis for the exploitation of new drugs for clinical evaluation in the treatment of related diseases. Here, we summarize recent advances of chemokine systems in protumor and antitumor immune responses and discuss the prevailing understanding of how the chemokine system operates in inflammatory diseases. In this review, we also emphatically highlight the complexity of the chemokine system and explore its potential to guide the treatment of cancer and inflammatory diseases.

PARG suppresses tumorigenesis and downregulates genes controlling angiogenesis, inflammatory response, and immune cell recruitment

Chemokines are highly expressed in tumor microenvironment and play a critical role in all aspects of tumorigenesis, including the recruitment of tumor-promoting immune cells, activation of cancer-associated fibroblasts, angiogenesis, metastasis, and growth. Poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) is a multi-target transcription regulator with high levels of poly(ADP-ribose) (pADPr) being reported in a variety of cancers. Furthermore, poly (ADP-ribose) glycohydrolase (PARG), an enzyme that degrades pADPr, has been reported to be downregulated in tumor tissues with abnormally high levels of pADPr. In conjunction to this, we have recently reported that the reduction of pADPr, by either pharmacological inhibition of PARP or PARG's overexpression, disrupts renal carcinoma cell malignancy in vitro. Here, we use 3 T3 mouse embryonic fibroblasts, a universal model for malignant transformation, to follow the effect of PARG upregulation on cells' tumorigenicity in vivo. We found that the overexpression of PARG in mouse allografts produces significantly smaller tumors with a delay in tumor onset. As downregulation of PARG has also been implicated in promoting the activation of pro-inflammatory genes, we also followed the gene expression profile of PARG-overexpressing 3 T3 cells using RNA-seq approach and observed that chemokine transcripts are significantly reduced in those cells. Our data suggest that the upregulation of PARG may be potentially useful for the tumor growth inhibition in cancer treatment and as anti-inflammatory intervention.

Expression and purification of recombinant human CCL5 and its biological characterization

C-C motif chemokine ligand 5 (CCL5) is crucial in the tumor microenvironment. It has been previously reported to act as a key role in tumor invasion and metastasis. However, the function of exogenous CCL5 in ovarian cancer has not been well-characterized. The present study attempted to express and purify recombinant CCL5 protein and investigate the exogenous CCL5 in ovarian cancer cell proliferation. The human CCL5 was amplified and inserted into the pET-30a vectors for prokaryotic expression in Escherichia coli BL21. Soluble His-CCL5 was successfully expressed with 0.1 mmol/L of isopropyl-β-D-1-tiogalactopiranoside at 25 ℃ and purified by affinity chromatography. Additionally, methyl thiazolyl tetrazolium (MTT) assay demonstrated that CCL5 promotes ovarian cancer cell proliferation; increases the phosphorylation levels of extracellular-signal-regulated kinase and mitogen-activated protein kinase/ERK kinase, and increases the mRNA levels of Jun, NF-κB2, Nras, Relb, and Traf2. Furthermore, treatment with the MEK inhibitor reduced the Jun, NF-κB2, and Traf2 mRNA levels, indicating that exogenous CCL5 increased ovarian cancer cell proliferation, through MEK/ERK pathway activation, and Jun, NF-κB2, and Traf2 expression. The present study provided primary data for further studies to discover more CCL5 functions in ovarian cancer.

Transcriptional Expressions of ALDH1A1/B1 as Independent Indicators for the Survival of Thyroid Cancer Patients

Background

Aldehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH) 1 is an important enzyme involved in the regulation of several cellular mechanisms via aldehyde detoxification. High ALDH1 levels were correlated with tumorigenesis and stemness maintenance in cancer.

Methods

We used UALCAN, Human Protein Atlas, Kaplan–Meier plotter, TISIDB, TIMER, and KOBAS databases to investigate the expression and role of ALDH1 in thyroid cancer progression. In addition, quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction was performed to detect the expression of the target genes in thyroid cancer cell lines and cancer tissues.

Results

Expression of ALDH1A1/B1 was significantly decreased based on individual cancer stages and tumor histology, and high levels of ALDH1A1/B1 were associated with poor overall survival in thyroid cancer patients. Moreover, ALDH1A1/B1 expression was negatively correlated with immune-stimulating genes, major histocompatibility complex, chemokines, and receptors.

Conclusions

These results suggest that ALDH1A1/B1 might serve as potential prognostic biomarkers for thyroid cancer diagnosis.

CCL5 Deficiency Enhanced Cryo–Thermal-Triggered Long-Term Anti-Tumor Immunity in 4T1 Murine Breast Cancer

Breast cancer remains one of the most common solid tumors. Tumor immunosuppressive factors mainly hinder the control of tumors. We previously developed an innovative cryo–thermal therapy that was shown to significantly suppress distal metastasis and improve long-term survival in murine B16F10 melanoma and 4T1 mammary carcinoma models. However, the effect of cryo–thermal therapy on the 4T1 model was not excellent. CCL5 has been reported to help the progression of breast cancer, so in this study, CCL5−/− was used to explore the role of host-derived CCL5 after cryo–thermal therapy. CCL5−/− could not completely resist tumor development, but it significantly improved survival rates when combined with cryo–thermal therapy. Mechanically, CCL5−/− mildly decreases the percentage of MDSCs, increases DC maturation and macrophage’s inflammatory function at an early stage after tumor inoculation, and later up-regulate the level of Th1 and down-regulate the level of Tregs. When combined with cryo–thermal therapy, CCL5−/− dramatically down-regulated the proportion of MDSCs and induced full M1 macrophage polarization, which further promoted Th1 differentiation and the cytotoxicity of CD8+ T cells. Our results indicated that CCL5−/− contributed to cryo–thermal-triggered, long-lasting anti-tumor memory immunity. The combination of cryo–thermal therapy and CCL5 blockades might extend the survival rates of patients with aggressive breast cancer.

Identification of the hub genes and transcription factor-miRNA axes involved in Helicobacter pylori-associated gastric cancer

It has been previously reported that transcription factor-microRNA (TF-miRNA) axes play a significant role in the carcinogenesis of several types of malignant tumor. However, there is a lack of research into the differences in the mechanism of Helicobacter pylori (HP)-positive [HP(+)] and HP-negative [HP(−)] gastric cancer. The aim of the present study was to identify the hub genes and TF-miRNA axes, and to determine the potential mechanisms involved in HP-associated gastric cancer. HP-associated mRNA and miRNA data, as well as the corresponding clinical information, was downloaded from The Cancer Genome Atlas database. Differentially expressed genes (DEGs) and DE miRNAs (DEMs) were then identified from the HP(+) and HP(−) cancer mRNA and miRNA datasets, respectively. Subsequently, gene set enrichment analysis and the protein-protein interaction (PPI) networks were investigated using the ClusterProfiler packages. Lastly, TF-miRNA-DEG networks were constructed using the miRWalk online tool. A total of 1,050 DEGs and 13 DEMs were identified from the normalized mRNA and miRNA expression datasets, respectively. In addition, 180 Gene Ontology terms and 30 Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes pathways were found to be enriched, while 6 hub genes were identified from the PPI analysis. Furthermore, 7 TF-miRNA interactions and 181 TF-miRNA-DEG axes were constructed using an integrated bioinformatics approach, while 2 TF-miRNA interactions (ZEB1-miRNA-144-3p and PAX2-miRNA-592) were confirmed using reverse transcription-quantitative PCR in samples from enrolled patients. Moreover, the ZEB1-miRNA-144-3p axis was further validated based on dual luciferase reporter assay results. In summary, an integrated bioinformatics approach was used to screen the significant molecular and regulatory axes, which may provide a novel direction to investigate the pathogenesis of gastric cancer associated with HP.

CCL5/CCR5 axis in human diseases and related treatments

To defense harmful stimuli or maintain the immune homeostasis, the body produces and recruits a superfamily of cytokines such as interleukins, interferons, chemokines etc. Among them, chemokines act as crucial regulators in defense systems. CCL5/CCR5 combination is known for facilitating inflammatory responses, as well as inducing the adhesion and migration of different T cell subsets in immune responses. In addition, recent studies have shown that the interaction between CCL5 and CCR5 is involved in various pathological processes including inflammation, chronic diseases, cancers as well as the infection of COVID-19. This review focuses on how CCL5/CCR5 axis participates in the pathological processes of different diseases and their relevant signaling pathways for the regulation of the axis. Moreover, we highlighted the gene therapy and chemotherapy studies for treating CCR5-related diseases, including the ongoing clinical trials. The barriers and perspectives for future application and translational research were also summarized.

CCL5 production in lung cancer cells leads to an altered immune microenvironment and promotes tumor development

Current immunotherapies for lung cancer are only effective in a subset of patients. Identifying tumor-derived factors that facilitate immunosuppression offers the opportunity to develop novel strategies to supplement and improve current therapeutics. We sought to determine whether expression of driver oncogenes in lung cancer cells affects cytokine secretion, alters the local immune environment, and influences lung tumor progression. We demonstrate that oncogenic EGFR and KRAS mutations, which are early events in lung tumourigenesis, can drive cytokine and chemokine production by cancer cells. One of the most prominent changes was in CCL5, which was rapidly induced by KRAS^G12V or EGFR^L858R expression, through MAPK activation. Immunocompetent mice implanted with syngeneic KRAS-mutant lung cancer cells deficient in CCL5 have decreased regulatory T cells (T_regs), evidence of T cell exhaustion, and reduced lung tumor burden, indicating tumor-cell CCL5 production contributes to an immune suppressive environment in the lungs. Furthermore, high CCL5 expression correlates with poor prognosis, immunosuppressive regulatory T cells, and alteration to CD8 effector function in lung adenocarcinoma patients. Our data support targeting CCL5 or CCL5 receptors on immune suppressive cells to prevent formation of an immune suppressive tumor microenvironment that promotes lung cancer progression and immunotherapy insensitivity.

Tumor Associated Macrophages: Origin, Recruitment, Phenotypic Diversity, and Targeting

The tumor microenvironment (TME) is known to have a strong influence on tumorigenesis, with various components being involved in tumor suppression and tumor growth. A protumorigenic TME is characterized by an increased infiltration of tumor associated macrophages (TAMs), where their presence is strongly associated with tumor progression, therapy resistance, and poor survival rates. This association between the increased TAMs and poor therapeutic outcomes are stemming an increasing interest in investigating TAMs as a potential therapeutic target in cancer treatment. Prominent mechanisms in targeting TAMs include: blocking recruitment, stimulating repolarization, and depletion methods. For enhancing targeting specificity multiple nanomaterials are currently being explored for the precise delivery of chemotherapeutic cargo, including the conjugation with TAM-targeting peptides. In this paper, we provide a focused literature review of macrophage biology in relation to their role in tumorigenesis. First, we discuss the origin, recruitment mechanisms, and phenotypic diversity of TAMs based on recent investigations in the literature. Then the paper provides a detailed review on the current methods of targeting TAMs, including the use of nanomaterials as novel cancer therapeutics.