The Endocannabinoid System and Physical Exercise

Cannabinoids-Multifunctional Compounds, Applications and Challenges-Mini Review

Cannabinoids represent a highly researched group of plant-derived ingredients. The substantial investment of funds from state and commercial sources has facilitated a significant increase in knowledge about these ingredients. Cannabinoids can be classified into three principal categories: plant-derived phytocannabinoids, synthetic cannabinoids and endogenous cannabinoids, along with the enzymes responsible for their synthesis and degradation. All of these compounds interact biologically with type 1 (CB1) and/or type 2 (CB2) cannabinoid receptors. A substantial body of evidence from in vitro and in vivo studies has demonstrated that cannabinoids and inhibitors of endocannabinoid degradation possess anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antitumour and antifibrotic properties with beneficial effects. This review, which spans the period from 1940 to 2024, offers an overview of the potential therapeutic applications of natural and synthetic cannabinoids. The development of these substances is essential for the global market of do-it-yourself drugs to fully exploit the promising therapeutic properties of cannabinoids.

Beneficial effects of physical exercise on cognitive-behavioral impairments and brain-derived neurotrophic factor alteration in the limbic system induced by neurodegeneration

Neurodegenerative diseases (NDDs) are a class of neurological disorders marked by the progressive loss of neurons that afflict millions of people worldwide. These illnesses affect brain connection, impairing memory, cognition, behavior, sensory perception, and motor function. Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, and Huntington's diseases are examples of common NDDs, which frequently include the buildup of misfolded proteins. Cognitive-behavioral impairments are early markers of neurodevelopmental disorders, emphasizing the importance of early detection and intervention. Neurotrophins such as brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) are critical for neuron survival and synaptic plasticity, which is required for learning and memory. NDDs have been associated with decreased BDNF levels. Physical exercise, a non-pharmacological intervention, benefits brain health by increasing BDNF levels, lowering cognitive deficits, and slowing brain degradation. Exercise advantages include increased well-being, reduced depression, improved cognitive skills, and neuroprotection by lowering amyloid accumulation, oxidative stress, and neuroinflammation. This study examines the effects of physical exercise on cognitive-behavioral deficits and BDNF levels in the limbic system impacted by neurodegeneration. The findings highlight the necessity of including exercise into NDD treatment to improve brain structure, function, and total BDNF levels. As research advances, exercise is becoming increasingly acknowledged as an important technique for treating cognitive decline and neurodegenerative disorders.

The efficacy of exercise interventions on depressive symptoms and cognitive function in adults with depression: An umbrella review

OBJECTIVE

This umbrella review aims to consolidate the evidence concerning the influence of exercise on depressive symptoms and cognitive performance in adults diagnosed with depression.

METHODS

An umbrella review of systematic reviews with meta-analyses investigating the effect of exercise on depression and cognition was performed. Databases (PubMed, Cochrane Library, Web of Science, Embase) were searched from inception until February 2024 for reviews of randomized controlled trials. Overlap within included reviews was assessed using the corrected covered area method (CCA). A random effects model was used to calculate overall pooled effect size with sub-analyses.

RESULTS

This study included 27 reviews, encompassing 190 experiments. In patients with depression, compared to the control group, exercise demonstrated a moderate effect size in reducing depressive symptoms (SMD = -0.67; SE = 0.04; p < 0.0001), with a Number Needed to Treat (NNT) of 2.78. When analyses were limited to data from studies with a low risk of bias, the effect on depressive symptoms was smaller (SMD = -0.38; SE = 0.07; p < 0.0001; NNT = 4.72). Exercise had a small effect on cognitive functions (SMD = 0.12; SE = 0.03; p < 0.0001), with an NNT for cognitive function treatment of 14.79.

CONCLUSIONS

All forms of exercise benefit patients with depression. However, for optimal intervention outcomes, it is essential to customize the intensity and type of exercise according to the specific characteristics of the patient's depressive symptoms and cognitive functions. It is recommended to implement a phased treatment approach for patients based on the intensity of exercise.

The Ambiguous Correlation of Blautia with Obesity: A Systematic Review

Obesity is a complex and multifactorial disease with global epidemic proportions, posing significant health and economic challenges. Whilst diet and lifestyle are well-established contributors to the pathogenesis, the gut microbiota's role in obesity development is increasingly recognized. Blautia, as one of the major intestinal bacteria of the Firmicutes phylum, is reported with both potential probiotic properties and causal factors for obesity in different studies, making its role controversial. To summarize the current understanding of the Blautia-obesity correlation and to evaluate the evidence from animal and clinical studies, we used "Blautia" AND "obesity" as keywords searching through PubMed and SpringerLink databases for research articles. After removing duplicates and inadequate articles using the exclusion criteria, we observed different results between studies supporting and opposing the beneficial role of Blautia in obesity at the genus level. Additionally, several studies showed probiotic effectiveness at the species level for Blautia coccoides, B. wexlerae, B. hansenii, B. producta, and B. luti. Therefore, the current evidence does not demonstrate Blautia's direct involvement as a pathogenic microbe in obesity development or progression, which informs future research and therapeutic strategies targeting the gut Blautia in obesity management.

The Role of Physical Fitness in Emotional Well-Being and Distress during Pregnancy: The GESTAFIT Project

Pregnancy involves various physiological, physical, and social changes that can impact the mental health of the woman, causing her to have a stressful experience. Physical fitness (PF) is postulated as a powerful marker of health in this population. Therefore, this longitudinal study examined the association of PF with maternal emotional well-being and ill-being outcomes at 16th and 34th gestational weeks (g.w.) in a sample of 158 pregnant women (32.9 ± 4.7 years old). Self-reported PF was assessed with the valid and feasible International Fitness Scale [i.e., overall PF, cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF), muscular strength, speed-agility, and flexibility]; positive and negative affect, emotional intelligence, and resilience were measured using validated questionnaires specifically designed for this purpose. The results showed that women with greater overall PF and its components showed higher positive affect and lower negative affect (all, p < 0.05); greater emotional intelligence (all, p < 0.05); and greater resilience (all, p < 0.05), with similar results both in the 16th and the 34th g.w. These findings underscore the pivotal role of PF in promoting emotional health and resilience during pregnancy, thereby highlighting the need for integrating PF enhancement strategies in prenatal care programs.

Peripheral endocannabinoids in major depressive disorder and alcohol use disorder: a systematic review

BACKGROUND

Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) and Alcohol Use Disorder (AUD) are two high-prevalent conditions where the Endocannabinoid system (ECS) is believed to play an important role. The ECS regulates how different neurotransmitters interact in both disorders, which is crucial for controlling emotions and responses to stress and reward stimuli. Measuring peripheral endocannabinoids (eCBs) in human serum and plasma can help overcome the limitations of detecting endocannabinoid levels in the brain. This systematic review aims to identify levels of peripheral eCBs in patients with MDD and/or AUD and find eCBs to use as diagnostic, prognostic biomarkers, and potential therapeutic targets.

METHODS

We conducted a systematic literature search according to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) guidelines from the earliest manuscript until October 22, 2023, in three electronic databases. We included studies of human adults who had a current diagnosis of AUD and/or MDD and evaluated plasma or serum endocannabinoids. We carefully considered known variables that may affect endocannabinoid levels.

RESULTS

We included 17 articles in this systematic review, which measured peripheral eCBs in 170 AUD and 359 MDD patients. Stressors increase peripheral 2-arachidonyl-glycerol (2-AG) concentrations, and 2-AG may be a particular feature of depression severity and chronicity. Anxiety symptoms are negatively correlated with anandamide (AEA) concentrations, and AEA significantly increases during early abstinence in AUD. Studies suggest a negative correlation between Oleoylethanolamide (OEA) and length of abstinence in AUD patients. They also show a significant negative correlation between peripheral levels of AEA and OEA and fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH) activity. Eicosapentaenoylethanolamide (EPEA) is correlated to clinical remission rates in depression. Included studies show known variables such as gender, chronicity, symptom severity, comorbid psychiatric symptoms, length of abstinence in the case of AUD, and stress-inducibility that can affect peripheral eCBs.

CONCLUSIONS

This systematic review highlights the important role that the ECS plays in MDD and AUD. Peripheral eCBs appear to be useful biomarkers for these disorders, and further research may identify potential therapeutic targets. Using accessible biological samples such as blood in well-designed clinical studies is crucial to develop novel therapies for these disorders.

Exploring the Association Between Physical Fitness (High Intensity and Low Intensity) and the Incidence of Temporomandibular Disorders: A Comparative Study

BACKGROUND

Temporomandibular joint disorders affect the temporomandibular joint (TMJ), masticatory muscles, and associated structures. Symptoms include TMJ pain, limited jaw movement, muscle tenderness, and referred pain. Physical activity can alleviate musculoskeletal pain. This study explored the link between physical fitness (high and low intensity) and temporomandibular disorder (TMD) incidence.

METHODOLOGY

Sixty patients were divided into three groups in this comparative study. Group I underwent 30 minutes of high-intensity aerobic training. Group II had 30 minutes of low-intensity yoga sessions weekly. Group III received health education. TMD was diagnosed using the Fonseca Anamnestic Index (FAI). Pain intensity was measured using the Visual Analogue Scale (VAS) and the Pain Self-Efficacy Questionnaire (PSEQ).

RESULTS

Of the participants, 38.1% were males and 61.9% were females. TMD severity was mild (25.0%), moderate (55.0%), and severe (20.0%). High-intensity training groups had higher TMD symptom severity than low-intensity groups (p = 0.001). VAS scores increased in group I and decreased in group II (significant). PSEQ scores decreased in group I and increased significantly in group II. Group III showed no significant differences in PSEQ scores.

CONCLUSION

High-intensity training resulted in moderate TMD symptoms. Low-intensity training was beneficial for TMD pain. The study recommends combining low-intensity physical workouts with medications to alleviate TMD.

Energy Expenditure Validation of an Exergame Platform: Ring Fit Adventure Use in Adults with Overweight and Obesity

Objective: This study aims at comparing the energy expenditure (EE) and heart rate (HR) data from Ring Fit Adventure (RFA) with those from indirect calorimetry (COSMED) and a heart rate monitor (Polar FT7). A secondary goal is to evaluate self-reported enjoyment and perceived effort levels. Materials and Methods: Thirty participants (age = 21.8 ± 2.2; body mass index = 31.8 ± 4.4) were recruited for two laboratory visits. The first visit involved baseline measurements. In the second visit, participants performed a 55-minute ad libitum exercise session with the RFA in adventure mode with moderate difficulty. During this session, EE, HR, perceived effort, and enjoyment of physical activity were recorded. Results: Although no statistically significant overestimation of EE was found between the RFA and the metabolic cart, two-way analysis of variance results show a main effect of condition (RFA vs. Polar FT7) on HR (122.8 ± 20.1 bpm and 129.0 ± 18.6 bpm; P = 0.007; ᶯp2 = 0.235). Based on comprehensive statistical evaluations, including the mean absolute percent error, intraclass correlations, typical error of measurement, and limits of agreement, the data suggest that the RFA provides reliable estimates for EE and HR. Overall, participants enjoyed the game considerably (71.3 ± 5.9/80 arbitrary units), and their reported perceived exertion was low. Conclusion: This study underscores that the RFA values are relatively accurate and precise, and thus it can be safely suggested for individuals with overweight and obesity to adopt an active lifestyle.

Physical Activity and Mental Health of Employed Adults: Mediation and Moderation Effects of Beliefs in the Benefits of Physical Activity

Numerous studies have shown physical activity (PA) improves psychological functioning and well-being. However, the underpinning processes and mediating variables are less known. There is evidence that beliefs about the benefits of PA contribute to physical health, regardless of actual PA. By applying these findings in the context of mental health, we sought to investigate the role of belief in the benefits of PA in the relationship between self-reported PA and mental health. A total of 381 employed adults completed the Godin Leisure-Time Exercise Questionnaire, Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale, and Anxiety subscale of the Emotional state scale. Furthermore, participants reported the degree to which they believe that PA has benefits for their psychological health. The mediation analysis shows that greater PA intensity was associated with lower levels of depression and anxiety. Additionally, belief in the benefits of PA on psychological health had a mediating role. Specifically, more intensive PA was related to a stronger belief in PA benefits, subsequently leading to reduced levels of depression and anxiety. We discuss the neurobiological mechanisms underlying the relationship between PA and mental health, alongside the significant role of mindset.

Impact of Cannabidiol and Exercise on Clinical Outcomes and Gut Microbiota for Chemotherapy-Induced Peripheral Neuropathy in Cancer Survivors: A Case Report

Chemotherapy-induced peripheral neuropathy (CIPN) remains a clinical challenge for up to 80% of breast cancer survivors. In an open-label study, participants underwent three interventions: standard care (duloxetine) for 1 month (Phase 1), oral cannabidiol (CBD) for 2 months (Phase 2), and CBD plus multi-modal exercise (MME) for another 2 months (Phase 3). Clinical outcomes and gut microbiota composition were assessed at baseline and after each phase. We present the case of a 52-year-old female with a history of triple-negative breast cancer in remission for over five years presenting with CIPN. She showed decreased monocyte counts, c-reactive protein, and systemic inflammatory index after each phase. Duloxetine provided moderate benefits and intolerable side effects (hyperhidrosis). She experienced the best improvement and least side effects with the combined (CBD plus MME) phase. Noteworthy were clinically meaningful improvements in CIPN symptoms, quality of life (QoL), and perceived physical function, as well as improvements in pain, mobility, hand/finger dexterity, and upper and lower body strength. CBD and MME altered gut microbiota, showing enrichment of genera that produce short-chain fatty acids. CBD and MME may improve CIPN symptoms, QoL, and physical function through anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective effects in cancer survivors suffering from long-standing CIPN.

Comparison between Physical Activity and Stress-Related Lifestyle between Orthorexic and Non-Orthorexic University Students: A Case-Control Study

(1) Background: The literature regarding orthorexia nervosa (ON) has well documented the association with other mental disorders, such as obsessive-compulsive and eating disorders. However, the research has not taken into account stress-related behavior and the conduction of physical activity (PA), both structured and unstructured. (2) Methods: In this cross-sectional study, 165 students of the University of Parma (92 females and 74 males) aged between 18 and 49 years old (mean = 24.62 ± 4.81) were consecutively recruited. The ORTO-15 questionnaire was used to divide the total sample into a group without orthorexia (score > 40) and a group with orthorexia (score < 40). All subjects completed the P Stress Questionnaire, and specific items were extrapolated from the Eating Habits Structured Interview (EHSI) to investigate lifestyle, including structured and unstructured PA. (3) Results: Subjects with orthorexia represented 83% of the total sample and reported higher levels of stress-related risk behaviors (i.e., sense of responsibility (t = -1.99, p = 0.02), precision (t = -1.99, p = 0.03), stress disorders (t = -1.38, p = 0.05), reduced spare time (t = -1.97, p = 0.03), and hyperactivity (t = -1.68, p = 0.04)) and a higher frequency of PA (i.e., hours spent training in structured PA, daily (t = -1.68, p = 0.05), weekly (t = -1.91, p = 0.03), and monthly (t = -1.91, p = 0.03), the tendency to carry out physical exercise even if tired (t = -1.97, p = 0.02), and to adhere to unstructured PA (i.e., moving on foot or by bike rather than using transport (t = 1.27, p = 0.04)). (4) Conclusions: The results confirmed the presence of hyperactivity at a motor and behavioral level in people with orthorexia. Further studies are necessary to highlight the causality between ON, stress, and physical activity but it may be possible to hypothesize that "obsessive" physical exercise may not generate the benefits generally known by the literature.

Cannabinoids and Sleep: Exploring Biological Mechanisms and Therapeutic Potentials

The endogenous cannabinoid system (ECS) plays a critical role in the regulation of various physiological functions, including sleep, mood, and neuroinflammation. Phytocannabinoids such as Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), cannabidiol (CBD), cannabinomimimetics, and some N-acylethanolamides, particularly palmitoyethanolamide, have emerged as potential therapeutic agents for the management of sleep disorders. THC, the psychoactive component of cannabis, may initially promote sleep, but, in the long term, alters sleep architecture, while CBD shows promise in improving sleep quality without psychoactive effects. Clinical studies suggest that CBD modulates endocannabinoid signaling through several receptor sites, offering a multifaceted approach to sleep regulation. Similarly, palmitoylethanolamide (PEA), in addition to interacting with the endocannabinoid system, acts as an agonist on peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs). The favorable safety profile of CBD and PEA and the potential for long-term use make them an attractive alternative to conventional pharmacotherapy. The integration of the latter two compounds into comprehensive treatment strategies, together with cognitive-behavioral therapy for insomnia (CBT-I), represents a holistic approach to address the multifactorial nature of sleep disorders. Further research is needed to establish the optimal dosage, safety, and efficacy in different patient populations, but the therapeutic potential of CBD and PEA offers hope for improved sleep quality and general well-being.

Analysis of physical activity and prescription opioid use among US adults: a cross-sectional study

BACKGROUND

Opioid crisis has become a global concern, but whether physical activity (PA) can effectively reduce prescription opioid use remains unclear. The study aimed to examine the relationship of different domains of PA (e.g., occupation-related PA [OPA], transportation-related PA [TPA], leisure-time PA [LTPA]) with prescription opioid use and duration of prescription opioid use.

METHODS

This cross-sectional study was conducted on 27,943 participants aged ≥ 18 years from National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES, 2007- March 2020). We examined the relationship of different domains of PA with prescription opioid use and duration of prescription opioid use using multivariable logistic regression. Stratified analysis and a series of sensitivity analysis were used to elevate robustness. All analyses were conducted using appropriate sampling weights.

RESULTS

Of the 27,943 participants, the mean age was 45.10 years, with 14,018 [weighted, 50.0%] females and 11,045 [weighted, 66.0%] non-Hispanic White. After multivariable adjustment, inverse associations between PA and prescription opioid use were observed for sufficient (≥ 150 min/week) total PA (OR,0.68 95%CI [0.56-0.81]), TPA (OR,0.73 95%CI [0.58-0.92]), and LTPA (OR,0.60 95%CI [0.48-0.75]) compared with insufficient PA(< 150 min/week), but not for sufficient OPA (OR,0.93 95%CI [0.79-1.10]). In addition, the associations were dose-responsive, participants had 22-40%, 27-36%, and 26-47% lower odds of using prescription opioids depending on the duration of total PA, TPA, and LTPA, respectively. Nevertheless, the impact of PA on prescription opioid use varied by duration of opioid use. Sufficient total PA was associated with elevated odds of short-term use of prescription opioids (< 90 days). Comparatively, sufficient total PA, TPA, and LTPA had different beneficial effects on reducing long-term use of prescription opioids (≥ 90 days) depending on the strength of opioids.

CONCLUSIONS

This study demonstrated sufficient total PA, TPA, and LTPA were inversely associated with prescription opioid use and varied depending on the duration and strength of prescription opioid use. These findings highlight PA can provide policy guidance to address opioid crisis.

The importance of a healthy lifestyle despite chronic pain: Prospective cohort with 11-year register follow-up

The purpose of the study was to investigate to which extent a healthy lifestyle in female healthcare workers with chronic pain contributes to reducing the risk of disability pension. We conducted a prospective cohort study with an 11-year registry follow-up. Overall, 2386 Danish female healthcare workers with chronic pain completed a questionnaire about work and lifestyle (leisure-time physical activity, smoking, and body mass index (BMI)). Data on disability benefit payments were obtained from the Danish Register for Evaluation of Marginalization. Two models (minimally and fully adjusted for different potential confounders) were tested using the Cox proportional hazards model. During the follow-up period, 17.9% of the healthcare workers obtained disability pension. Low levels of leisure time physical activity (reference: moderate level) increased the risk of disability pension in the minimally (Hazard Ratio: 1.38 (95% CI: 1.14-1.69)) and fully adjusted models (Hazard Ratio: 1.27 (95% CI: 1.04-1.56)). Being highly physically active, as opposed to being moderately active, did not confer additional protection. Additionally, a positive association was observed between smoking and disability pension in the minimally adjusted model (Hazard Ratio: 1.27 (95% CI: 1.05-1.54)). BMI was not an influential factor. In female healthcare workers with chronic pain, at least moderate levels of physical activity is a protective factor for disability pension. Effective promotion strategies should be designed for both workplace and non-workplace settings.

Association between the perceived value of adopting new behaviors and depressive symptoms among older adults

Early preventive measures against depression have become important with unprecedented global aging. Increase in one's perceived value (PV) may correspond to better mental health outcomes. This cross-sectional observation study aimed to clarify whether the PV of adopting new behaviors is associated with depressive symptoms. The participants were 5266 community-dwelling older adults aged ≥ 65 years. We developed a questionnaire to measure the PV of adopting new behaviors, specifically activities beneficial for preventing depressive symptoms (physical, cognitive, and social activities) in older adults. The questionnaire asked whether adopting the ten selected behaviors was valuable. The scores were added, and the total score ranged from - 20 to 20. The odds ratios (OR) of depressive symptoms were calculated using binomial logistic regression according to the PV score quartiles. Depressive symptoms were reported by 595 (11.3%) participants. After adjusting for potential confounders, higher quartiles of PV scores were significantly associated with lower prevalence of depressive symptoms: vs Q1; Q2 OR 0.76 (95% confidence interval: 0.59-0.97); Q3 0.67 (0.51-0.87); Q4 0.54 (0.40-0.73) (P for trend < .001). Having a higher PV of adopting new behaviors may prevent depressive symptoms among older adults. Healthcare professionals need to pay attention to poor value orientation among older adults.

Fractional amplitude of low-frequency fluctuations associated with μ-opioid and dopamine receptor distributions in the central nervous system after high-intensity exercise bouts

Introduction

Dopaminergic, opiod and endocannabinoid neurotransmission are thought to play an important role in the neurobiology of acute exercise and, in particular, in mediating positive affective responses and reward processes. Recent evidence indicates that changes in fractional amplitude of low-frequency fluctuations (zfALFF) in resting-state functional MRI (rs-fMRI) may reflect changes in specific neurotransmitter systems as tested by means of spatial correlation analyses.

Methods

Here, we investigated this relationship at different exercise intensities in twenty young healthy trained athletes performing low-intensity (LIIE), high-intensity (HIIE) interval exercises, and a control condition on three separate days. Positive And Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS) scores and rs-fMRI were acquired before and after each of the three experimental conditions. Respective zfALFF changes were analyzed using repeated measures ANOVAs. We examined the spatial correspondence of changes in zfALFF before and after training with the available neurotransmitter maps across all voxels and additionally, hypothesis-driven, for neurotransmitter maps implicated in the neurobiology of exercise (dopaminergic, opiodic and endocannabinoid) in specific brain networks associated with "reward" and "emotion."

Results

Elevated PANAS Positive Affect was observed after LIIE and HIIE but not after the control condition. HIIE compared to the control condition resulted in differential zfALFF decreases in precuneus, temporo-occipital, midcingulate and frontal regions, thalamus, and cerebellum, whereas differential zfALFF increases were identified in hypothalamus, pituitary, and periaqueductal gray. The spatial alteration patterns in zfALFF during HIIE were positively associated with dopaminergic and μ-opioidergic receptor distributions within the 'reward' network.

Discussion

These findings provide new insight into the neurobiology of exercise supporting the importance of reward-related neurotransmission at least during high-intensity physical activity.

Potential mechanisms of exercise for relieving inflammatory pain: a literature review of animal studies

Inflammatory pain (IP) is one of the most prevalent and intractable human conditions, and it leads to progressive dysfunction and reduced quality of life. Additionally, IP is incredibly challenging to treat successfully with drugs or surgery. The development of IP is complex and multifactorial, and peripheral and central sensitization may influence chronicity and treatment resistance in IP. Understanding the mechanisms underlying IP is vital for developing novel therapies. Strong evidence suggests that exercise can be a first-line relief for patients with IP during rehabilitation. However, the mechanisms through which exercise improves IP remain unclear. Here, we reviewed the current animal experimental evidence for an exercise intervention in IP and proposed biological mechanisms for the effects of synaptic plasticity in the anterior cingulate cortex, endocannabinoids, spinal dorsal horn excitability balance, immune cell polarization balance, cytokines, and glial cells. This information will contribute to basic science and strengthen the scientific basis for exercise therapy prescriptions for IP in clinical practice.

Exerkines, Nutrition, and Systemic Metabolism

The cornerstones of good health are exercise, proper food, and sound nutrition. Physical exercise should be a lifelong routine, supported by proper food selections to satisfy nutrient requirements based on energy needs, energy management, and variety to achieve optimal metabolism and physiology. The human body is sustained by intermediary and systemic metabolism integrating the physiologic processes for cells, tissues, organs, and systems. Recently, interest in specific metabolites, growth factors, cytokines, and hormones called exerkines has emerged to explain cooperation between nutrient supply organs and the brain during exercise. Exerkines consist of different compounds described as signaling moiety released during and after exercise. Examples of exerkines include oxylipin 12, 13 diHOME, lipid hormone adiponectin, growth factor BDNF, metabolite lactate, reactive oxygen species (ROS), including products of fatty acid oxidation, and cytokines such as interleukin-6. At this point, it is believed that exerkines are immediate, fast, and long-lasting factors resulting from exercise to support body energy needs with an emphasis on the brain. Although exerkines that are directly a product of macronutrient metabolism such as lactate, and result from catabolism is not surprising. Furthermore, other metabolites of macronutrient metabolism seem to be candidate exerkines. The exerkines originate from muscle, adipose, and liver and support brain metabolism, energy, and physiology. The purpose of this review is to integrate the actions of exerkines with respect to metabolism that occurs during exercise and propose other participating factors of exercise and brain physiology. The role of diet and macronutrients that influence metabolism and, consequently, the impact of exercise will be discussed. This review will also describe the evidence for PUFA, their metabolic and physiologic derivatives endocannabinoids, and oxylipins that validate them being exerkines. The intent is to present additional insights to better understand exerkines with respect to systemic metabolism.

Targeting the Endocannabinoid System Present in the Glioblastoma Tumour Microenvironment as a Potential Anti-Cancer Strategy

The highly aggressive and invasive glioblastoma (GBM) tumour is the most malignant lesion among adult-type diffuse gliomas, representing the most common primary brain tumour in the neuro-oncology practice of adults. With a poor overall prognosis and strong resistance to treatment, this nervous system tumour requires new innovative treatment. GBM is a polymorphic tumour consisting of an array of stromal cells and various malignant cells contributing to tumour initiation, progression, and treatment response. Cannabinoids possess anti-cancer potencies against glioma cell lines and in animal models. To improve existing treatment, cannabinoids as functionalised ligands on nanocarriers were investigated as potential anti-cancer agents. The GBM tumour microenvironment is a multifaceted system consisting of resident or recruited immune cells, extracellular matrix components, tissue-resident cells, and soluble factors. The immune microenvironment accounts for a substantial volume of GBM tumours. The barriers to the treatment of glioblastoma with cannabinoids, such as crossing the blood-brain barrier and psychoactive and off-target side effects, can be alleviated with the use of nanocarrier drug delivery systems and functionalised ligands for improved specificity and targeting of pharmacological receptors and anti-cancer signalling pathways. This review has shown the presence of endocannabinoid receptors in the tumour microenvironment, which can be used as a potential unique target for specific drug delivery. Existing cannabinoid agents, studied previously, show anti-cancer potencies via signalling pathways associated with the hallmarks of cancer. The results of the review can be used to provide guidance in the design of future drug therapy for glioblastoma tumours.

Interplay between the Glymphatic System and the Endocannabinoid System: Implications for Brain Health and Disease

The intricate mechanisms governing brain health and function have long been subjects of extensive investigation. Recent research has shed light on two pivotal systems, the glymphatic system and the endocannabinoid system, and their profound role within the central nervous system. The glymphatic system is a recently discovered waste clearance system within the brain that facilitates the efficient removal of toxic waste products and metabolites from the central nervous system. It relies on the unique properties of the brain's extracellular space and is primarily driven by cerebrospinal fluid and glial cells. Conversely, the endocannabinoid system, a multifaceted signaling network, is intricately involved in diverse physiological processes and has been associated with modulating synaptic plasticity, nociception, affective states, appetite regulation, and immune responses. This scientific review delves into the intricate interconnections between these two systems, exploring their combined influence on brain health and disease. By elucidating the synergistic effects of glymphatic function and endocannabinoid signaling, this review aims to deepen our understanding of their implications for neurological disorders, immune responses, and cognitive well-being.

Multi targets of cannabidiol (CBD) on skeletal mammalian and avian neuromuscular preparations

Cannabidiol (CBD) has been used in diseases that affect the central nervous system. Its effects on the peripheral synapses are of great interest, since endocannabinoid receptors are expressed in muscles. CBD (0.3 mM) was analysed using mammalian and avian neuromuscular preparations, through myographic techniques in complementary protocols. Mammalian cells were examined by light microscopy while exogenous acetylcholine (40 µM) and potassium chloride (100 mM) were added into avian preparations, before and at the end of experiments. Pharmacological tools such as atropine (2 µM), polyethylene glycol (PEG 400, 20 µM), Ca2+ (1.8 mM), F55-6 (20 µg/mL), and nifedipine (1.3 mM) were assessed with CBD. In mice, CBD causes a facilitatory effect and paralysis, whereas in avian, paralysis. Concluding, CBD is responsible for activated or inhibited channels, for ACh release via muscarinic receptor modulation, and by the inhibition of nicotinic receptors leading to neuromuscular blockade, with no damage to striated muscle cells.

Exploring the therapeutic potential of natural compounds modulating the endocannabinoid system in various diseases and disorders: review

Cannabinoid receptors, endogenous cannabinoids (endocannabinoids), and the enzymes involved in the biosynthesis and degradation of the endocannabinoids make up the endocannabinoid system (ECS). The components of the ECS are proven to modulate a vast bulk of various physiological and pathological processes due to their abundance throughout the human body. Such discoveries have attracted the researchers' attention and emerged as a potential therapeutical target for the treatment of various diseases. In the present article, we reviewed the discoveries of natural compounds, herbs, herbs formula, and their therapeutic properties in various diseases and disorders by modulating the ECS. We also summarize the molecular mechanisms through which these compounds elicit their properties by interacting with the ECS based on the existing findings. Our study provides the insight into the use of natural compounds that modulate ECS in various diseases and disorders, which in turn may facilitate future studies exploiting natural lead compounds as novel frameworks for designing more effective and safer therapeutics.

Major Depressive Disorder and Gut Microbiota: Role of Physical Exercise

Major depressive disorder (MDD) has a high prevalence and is a major contributor to the global burden of disease. This psychiatric disorder results from a complex interaction between environmental and genetic factors. In recent years, the role of the gut microbiota in brain health has received particular attention, and compelling evidence has shown that patients suffering from depression have gut dysbiosis. Several studies have reported that gut dysbiosis-induced inflammation may cause and/or contribute to the development of depression through dysregulation of the gut-brain axis. Indeed, as a consequence of gut dysbiosis, neuroinflammatory alterations caused by microglial activation together with impairments in neuroplasticity may contribute to the development of depressive symptoms. The modulation of the gut microbiota has been recognized as a potential therapeutic strategy for the management of MMD. In this regard, physical exercise has been shown to positively change microbiota composition and diversity, and this can underlie, at least in part, its antidepressant effects. Given this, the present review will explore the relationship between physical exercise, gut microbiota and depression, with an emphasis on the potential of physical exercise as a non-invasive strategy for modulating the gut microbiota and, through this, regulating the gut-brain axis and alleviating MDD-related symptoms.

Crosstalk between Exercise-Derived Endocannabinoidome and Kynurenines: Potential Target Therapies for Obesity and Depression Symptoms

The kynurenine pathway (KP) and the endocannabinoid system (ECS) are known to be deregulated in depression and obesity; however, it has been recognized that acute physical exercise has an important modulating role inducing changes in the mobilization of their respective metabolites-endocannabinoids (eCBs) and kynurenines (KYNs)-which overlap at some points, acting as important antidepressant, anti-nociceptive, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant biomarkers. Therefore, the aim of this review is to analyze and discuss some recently performed studies to investigate the potential interactions between both systems, particularly those related to exercise-derived endocannabinoidome and kynurenine mechanisms, and to elucidate how prescription of physical exercise could represent a new approach for the clinical management of these two conditions.

Effects of Terpenes on the Osteoarthritis Cytokine Profile by Modulation of IL-6: Double Face versus Dark Knight?

BACKGROUND

Hemp seed oil and terpenes are emerging as a dietary supplement and complementary therapy for patients suffering from knee osteoarthritis (KOA). However, the mechanisms and effects induced by these molecules on inflammatory cytokines are not yet fully understood. The aim of this study was to evaluate the changes in the cytokine IL-1β, IL-1α, IL-2, IL-6, and TNF-α levels from two oral hemp seed oil-based dietary supplements, of which only one included the addition of terpenes, in a population of KOA patients.

METHODS

Sera from venous blood samples were collected from thirty-eight patients who were divided into two subgroups. The control group underwent a 45-day treatment with a dietary supplement containing only hemp seed oil, while the treatment group assumed a hemp seed oil and terpene-based dietary supplement for the same number of days. A Bio-Plex Human Cytokine assay was performed by a customized human cytokine five-plex panel for IL-1β, IL-1α, IL-2, IL-6, and TNF-α. Patients were evaluated before the beginning of the treatment (T0) and soon after it (T1).

RESULTS

No measurable levels of IL-2 and TNF-α were found in any of the subjects. Low levels of IL-1β were found, which were significantly decreased in the treatment group. No change in IL-1α levels was observed, while treated patients had a significant increase in IL-6 levels.

CONCLUSIONS

Hemp seed oil and terpene treatment modified the IL-1β and IL-6 levels, counteracting KOA inflammation in this way. In this study, IL-6 revealed its new and alternative action, since it is traditionally known as a pro-inflammatory factor, but it recently has been found to have anti-inflammatory activity in the muscle-derived form, which is the one it assumes as a myokine when activated by terpenes.