Nasal delivery of high molecular weight drugs

Paper based analytical devices for ions determination in nasal secretions demonstrating association with olfactory function

Nasal ions environment plays a crucial role in maintaining nasal physiology and supports olfactory transmission. Addressing the limited research on nasal ion levels and their association with olfactory function, paper-based sensors were developed for determination of sodium, potassium, calcium and chloride in the nasal mucus of healthy volunteers and patients with olfactory dysfunction. Multi-walled carbon nanotubes and carbon quantum dots from beetroot were incorporated into paper substrate where sensors were designed with ion association complexes for sodium, potassium, calcium and chloride enhancing the recognition sensing capabilities. The sensors composition was optimized, including ion-exchange materials and plasticizers, to enhance sensitivity and selectivity. The performance of the sensors is evaluated based on Nernstian slope, dynamic range, detection limit and response time. Selectivity of the sensors was tested and the results demonstrated high selectivity for the target ions. The sensors were successfully determined sodium, potassium, calcium and chloride levels in nasal mucus of healthy volunteers and patients with olfactory dysfunction. The results revealed elevated calcium levels in patients with olfactory dysfunction, highlighting associated diagnostic implications. This suggests that the proposed sensors could serve as a diagnostic tool for olfactory evaluation, particularly in resource-constrained settings where access to advanced diagnostic tools is limited.

Nanoplatform Based Intranasal Vaccines: Current Progress and Clinical Challenges

Multiple vaccine platforms have been employed to develop the nasal SARS-CoV-2 vaccines in preclinical studies, and the dominating pipelines are viral vectored as protein-based vaccines. Among them, several viral vectored-based vaccines have entered clinical development. Nevertheless, some unsatisfactory results were reported in these clinical studies. In the face of such urgent situations, it is imperative to rapidly develop the next-generation intranasal COVID-19 vaccine utilizing other technologies. Nanobased intranasal vaccines have emerged as an approach against respiratory infectious diseases. Harnessing the power of nanotechnology, these vaccines offer a noninvasive yet potent defense against pathogens, including the threat of COVID-19. The improvements made in vaccine mucosal delivery technologies based on nanoparticles, such as lipid nanoparticles, polymeric nanoparticles, inorganic nanoparticles etc., not only provide stability and controlled release but also enhance mucosal adhesion, effectively overcoming the limitations of conventional vaccines. Hence, in this review, we overview the evaluation of intranasal vaccine and highlight the current barriers. Next, the modern delivery systems based on nanoplatforms are summarized. The challenges in clinical application of nanoplatform based intranasal vaccine are finally discussed.

Implementation of multiomic mass spectrometry approaches for the evaluation of human health following environmental exposure

Omics analyses collectively refer to the possibility of profiling genetic variants, RNA, epigenetic markers, proteins, lipids, and metabolites. The most common analytical approaches used for detecting molecules present within biofluids related to metabolism are vibrational spectroscopy techniques, represented by infrared, Raman, and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopies and mass spectrometry (MS). Omics-based assessments utilizing MS are rapidly expanding and being applied to various scientific disciplines and clinical settings. Most of the omics instruments are operated by specialists in dedicated laboratories; however, the development of miniature portable omics has made the technology more available to users for field applications. Variations in molecular information gained from omics approaches are useful for evaluating human health following environmental exposure and the development and progression of numerous diseases. As MS technology develops so do statistical and machine learning methods for the detection of molecular deviations from personalized metabolism, which are correlated to altered health conditions, and they are intended to provide a multi-disciplinary overview for researchers interested in adding multiomic analysis to their current efforts. This includes an introduction to mass spectrometry-based omics technologies, current state-of-the-art capabilities and their respective strengths and limitations for surveying molecular information. Furthermore, we describe how knowledge gained from these assessments can be applied to personalized medicine and diagnostic strategies.

W/O/W Microemulsions for Nasal Delivery of Hydrophilic Compounds: A Preliminary Study

The administration of hydrophilic therapeutics has always been a great challenge because of their low bioavailability after administration. For this purpose, W/O/W microemulsion resulted to be a potential successful strategy for the delivery of hydrophilic compounds, interesting for the nasal mucosal therapy. Herein, an optimized biphasic W/O microemulsion was designed, through a preliminary screening, and it was inverted in a triphasic W/O/W microemulsion, intended for the nasal administration. In order to enhance the mucosal retention, surface modification of the biphasic W/O microemulsion was performed adding didodecyldimethylammonium bromide, and then converting the system into a cationic triphasic W/O/W microemulsion. The developed samples were characterized in terms of droplet size, polydispersity, zeta potential, pH and osmolality. The physical long-term stability was analyzed storing samples at accelerated conditions (40 ± 2 °C and 75 ± 5 % RH) for 6 months in a constant climate chamber, following ICH guidelines Q1A (R2). In order to verify the potential retention on the nasal mucosa, the two triphasic systems were analyzed in terms of mucoadhesive properties, measuring the in vitro interaction with mucin over time. Furthermore, fluorescein sodium salt was selected as a model hydrophilic drug to be encapsulated into the inner core of the two triphasic W/O/W microemulsions, and its release was analyzed compared to the free probe solution. The cytocompatibility of the two platforms was assessed on two cell lines, human fibroblasts HFF1 and Calu-3 cell lines, chosen as pre-clinical models for nasal and bronchial/tracheal airway epithelium.

Selective targeting and modulation of plaque associated microglia via systemic hydroxyl dendrimer administration in an Alzheimer's disease mouse model

BACKGROUND

In Alzheimer's disease (AD), microglia surround extracellular plaques and mount a sustained inflammatory response, contributing to the pathogenesis of the disease. Identifying approaches to specifically target plaque-associated microglia (PAMs) without interfering in the homeostatic functions of non-plaque associated microglia would afford a powerful tool and potential therapeutic avenue.

METHODS

Here, we demonstrated that a systemically administered nanomedicine, hydroxyl dendrimers (HDs), can cross the blood brain barrier and are preferentially taken up by PAMs in a mouse model of AD. As proof of principle, to demonstrate biological effects in PAM function, we treated the 5xFAD mouse model of amyloidosis for 4 weeks via systemic administration (ip, 2x weekly) of HDs conjugated to a colony stimulating factor-1 receptor (CSF1R) inhibitor (D-45113).

RESULTS

Treatment resulted in significant reductions in amyloid-beta (Aβ) and a stark reduction in the number of microglia and microglia-plaque association in the subiculum and somatosensory cortex, as well as a downregulation in microglial, inflammatory, and synaptic gene expression compared to vehicle treated 5xFAD mice.

CONCLUSIONS

This study demonstrates that systemic administration of a dendranib may be utilized to target and modulate PAMs.

In-depth Mechanism, Challenges, and Opportunities of Delivering Therapeutics in Brain Using Intranasal Route

Central nervous system-related disorders have become a continuing threat to human life and the current statistic indicates an increasing trend of such disorders worldwide. The primary therapeutic challenge, despite the availability of therapies for these disorders, is to sustain the drug's effective concentration in the brain while limiting its accumulation in non-targeted areas. This is attributed to the presence of the blood-brain barrier and first-pass metabolism which limits the transportation of drugs to the brain irrespective of popular and conventional routes of drug administration. Therefore, there is a demand to practice alternative routes for predictable drug delivery using advanced drug delivery carriers to overcome the said obstacles. Recent research attracted attention to intranasal-to-brain drug delivery for promising targeting therapeutics in the brain. This review emphasizes the mechanisms to deliver therapeutics via different pathways for nose-to-brain drug delivery with recent advancements in delivery and formulation aspects. Concurrently, for the benefit of future studies, the difficulties in administering medications by intranasal pathway have also been highlighted.

An overview of in vitro and in vivo techniques for characterization of intranasal protein and peptide formulations for brain targeting

The surge in neurological disorders necessitates innovative strategies for delivering active pharmaceutical ingredients to the brain. The non-invasive intranasal route has emerged as a promising approach to optimize drug delivery to the central nervous system by circumventing the blood-brain barrier. While the intranasal approach offers numerous advantages, the lack of a standardized protocol for drug testing poses challenges to both in vitro and in vivo studies, limiting the accurate interpretation of nasal drug delivery and pharmacokinetic data. This review explores the in vitro experimental assays employed by the pharmaceutical industry to test intranasal formulation. The focus lies on understanding the diverse techniques used to characterize the intranasal delivery of drugs targeting the brain. Parameters such as drug release, droplet size measurement, plume geometry, deposition in the nasal cavity, aerodynamic performance and mucoadhesiveness are scrutinized for their role in evaluating the performance of nasal drug products. The review further discusses the methodology for in vivo characterization in detail, which is essential in evaluating and refining drug efficacy through the nose-to-brain pathway. Animal models are indispensable for pre-clinical drug testing, offering valuable insights into absorption efficacy and potential variables affecting formulation safety. The insights presented aim to guide future research in intranasal drug delivery for neurological disorders, ensuring more accurate predictions of therapeutic efficacy in clinical contexts.

Intranasal delivery of mitochondria targeted neuroprotective compounds for traumatic brain injury: screening based on pharmacological and physiological properties

Targeting drugs to the mitochondrial level shows great promise for acute and chronic treatment of traumatic brain injury (TBI) in both military and civilian sectors. Perhaps the greatest obstacle to the successful delivery of drug therapies is the blood brain barrier (BBB). Intracerebroventricular and intraparenchymal routes may provide effective delivery of small and large molecule therapies for preclinical neuroprotection studies. However, clinically these delivery methods are invasive, and risk inadequate exposure to injured brain regions due to the rapid turnover of cerebral spinal fluid. The direct intranasal drug delivery approach to therapeutics holds great promise for the treatment of central nervous system (CNS) disorders, as this route is non-invasive, bypasses the BBB, enhances the bioavailability, facilitates drug dose reduction, and reduces adverse systemic effects. Using the intranasal method in animal models, researchers have successfully reduced stroke damage, reversed Alzheimer's neurodegeneration, reduced anxiety, improved memory, and delivered neurotrophic factors and neural stem cells to the brain. Based on literature spanning the past several decades, this review aims to highlight the advantages of intranasal administration over conventional routes for TBI, and other CNS disorders. More specifically, we have identified and compiled a list of most relevant mitochondria-targeted neuroprotective compounds for intranasal administration based on their mechanisms of action and pharmacological properties. Further, this review also discusses key considerations when selecting and testing future mitochondria-targeted drugs given intranasally for TBI.

Cell-penetrating peptides for transmucosal delivery of proteins

Enabling non-invasive delivery of proteins across the mucosal barriers promises improved patient compliance and therapeutic efficacies. Cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs) are emerging as a promising and versatile tool to enhance protein and peptide permeation across various mucosal barriers. This review examines the structural and physicochemical attributes of the nasal, buccal, sublingual, and oral mucosa that hamper macromolecular delivery. Recent development of CPPs for overcoming those mucosal barriers for protein delivery is summarized and analyzed. Perspectives regarding current challenges and future research directions towards improving non-invasive transmucosal delivery of macromolecules for ultimate clinical translation are discussed.

A comprehensive review of advanced nasal delivery: Specially insulin and calcitonin

Peptide drugs through nasal mucous membrane, such as insulin and calcitonin have been widely used in the medical field. There are always two sides to a coin. One side, intranasal drug delivery can imitate the secretion pattern in human body, having advantages of physiological structure and convenient use. Another side, the low permeability of nasal mucosa, protease environment and clearance effect of nasal cilia hinder the intranasal absorption of peptide drugs. Researchers have taken multiple means to achieve faster therapeutic concentration, lower management dose, and fewer side effects for better nasal preparations. To improve the peptide drugs absorption, various strategies had been explored via the nasal mucosa route. In this paper, we reviewed the achievements of 18 peptide drugs in the past decade about the perspectives of the efficacy, mechanism of enhancing intranasal absorption and safety. The most studies were insulin and calcitonin. As a result, absorption enhancers, nanoparticles (NPs) and bio-adhesive system are the most widely used. Among them, chitosan (CS), cell penetrating peptides (CPPs), tight junction modulators (TJMs), soft NPs and gel/hydrogel are the most promising strategies. Moreover, two or three strategies can be combined to prepare drug vectors. In addition, spray freeze dried (SFD), self-emulsifying nano-system (SEN), and intelligent glucose reaction drug delivery system are new research directions in the future.

A new approach for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease: insulin-quantum dots

The potential use of insulin supplementation for Alzheimer's Disease (AD) was aimed to investigate and explore CQDs as an alternative delivery system. CQDs were produced by microwave and characterised. Insulin-loaded Ins-CQDs and in-situ Gel-Ins-CQDs were developed. The in vitro release kinetics, penetrations of insulin through excised sheep nasal mucosa were determined. Toxicity of CQDs were calculated on SH-SY5Y cells. The stability and usability of the prepared formulations were assessed. The insulin release from the solution was 70.75% after 3 hours, while it was 37.51% for in-situ Gel-Ins-CQDs. IC50 value was 52 µM. The mean particle diameters of Ins-CQDs and in-situ Gel-Ins-CQDs varied between 8.35 ± 0.19 to 8.75 ± 0.03 nm during a 6-month period. Zeta potentials ranged from -31.51 ± 1.39 to -24.43 ± 0.26 mV, and PDI values were between 9.8 ± 0.01 to 5.3 ± 3.2%(SD, n = 3) for Ins-CQDs and in-situ Gel-Ins-CQDs, respectively.Our results show that Gel-Ins-CQDs represented a controlled release over time and can be used for AD through the nasal route.

A Comprehensive Study on Nanoparticle Drug Delivery to the Brain: Application of Machine Learning Techniques

The delivery of drugs to specific target tissues and cells in the brain poses a significant challenge in brain therapeutics, primarily due to limited understanding of how nanoparticle (NP) properties influence drug biodistribution and off-target organ accumulation. This study addresses the limitations of previous research by using various predictive models based on collection of large data sets of 403 data points incorporating both numerical and categorical features. Machine learning techniques and comprehensive literature data analysis were used to develop models for predicting NP delivery to the brain. Furthermore, the physicochemical properties of loaded drugs and NPs were analyzed through a systematic analysis of pharmacodynamic parameters such as plasma area under the curve. The analysis employed various linear models, with a particular emphasis on linear mixed-effect models (LMEMs) that demonstrated exceptional accuracy. The model was validated via the preparation and administration of two distinct NP formulations via the intranasal and intravenous routes. Among the various modeling approaches, LMEMs exhibited superior performance in capturing underlying patterns. Factors such as the release rate and molecular weight had a negative impact on brain targeting. The model also suggests a slightly positive impact on brain targeting when the drug is a P-glycoprotein substrate.

Innovative drug delivery strategies to the CNS for the treatment of multiple sclerosis

Disorders of the central nervous system (CNS), such as multiple sclerosis (MS) represent a great emotional, financial and social burden. Despite intense efforts, great unmet medical needs remain in that field. MS is an autoimmune, chronic inflammatory demyelinating disease with no curative treatment up to date. The current therapies mostly act in the periphery and seek to modulate aberrant immune responses as well as slow down the progression of the disease. Some of these therapies are associated with adverse effects related partly to their administration route and show some limitations due to their rapid clearance and inability to reach the CNS. The scientific community have recently focused their research on developing MS therapies targeting different processes within the CNS. However, delivery of therapeutics to the CNS is mainly limited by the presence of the blood-brain barrier (BBB). Therefore, there is a pressing need to develop new drug delivery strategies that ensure CNS availability to capitalize on identified therapeutic targets. Several approaches have been developed to overcome or bypass the BBB and increase delivery of therapeutics to the CNS. Among these strategies, the use of alternative routes of administration, such as the nose-to-brain (N2B) pathway, offers a promising non-invasive option in the scope of MS, as it would allow a direct transport of the drugs from the nasal cavity to the brain. Moreover, the combination of bioactive molecules within nanocarriers bring forth new opportunities for MS therapies, allowing and/or increasing their transport to the CNS. Here we will review and discuss these alternative administration routes as well as the nanocarrier approaches useful to deliver drugs for MS.

Role of Calcitonin and Strontium Ranelate in Osteoporosis

Background

Both Strontium Ranelate (SR) and Calcitonin (CT) can be used to treat osteoporosis. Calcitonin was actually one of the very initial medicines used to treat osteoporosis, especially in postmenopausal cases. However, the fracture prevention effect of Calcitonin is only proven to be in vertebrae and that too with nasal route only. When comparing Calcitonin with other conventional medications in treating osteoporosis, Calcitonin has got no additional advantages. Strontium Ranelate has got double effect, i.e., less bone resorption and more bone formation. Therefore, it can lead to an increase in bone mass significantly. Strontium Ranelate has been proven to decrease the risk of non-vertebral fractures as well as vertebral fractures.

Conclusion

Both Calcitonin and Strontium Ranelate are used only as a second-line therapy for the treatment of osteoporosis and not as first-line therapy, mainly because of their safety concern and also because they do not provide any advantages compared to other therapy for the treatment of osteoporosis.

Intranasal nanoparticulate delivery systems for neurodegenerative disorders: a review

Neurodegenerative diseases are a significant cause of mortality worldwide, and the blood-brain barrier (BBB) poses a significant challenge for drug delivery. An intranasal route is a prominent approach among the various methods to bypass the BBB. There are different pathways involved in intranasal drug delivery. The drawbacks of this method include mucociliary clearance, enzymatic degradation and poor drug permeation. Novel nanoformulations and intranasal drug-delivery devices offer promising solutions to overcome these challenges. Nanoformulations include polymeric nanoparticles, lipid-based nanoparticles, microspheres, liposomes and noisomes. Additionally, intranasal devices could be utilized to enhance drug-delivery efficacy. Therefore, intranasal drug-delivery systems show potential for treating neurodegenerative diseases through trigeminal or olfactory pathways, which can significantly improve patient outcomes.

The Path from Nasal Tissue to Nasal Mucosa on Chip: Part 1-Establishing a Nasal In Vitro Model for Drug Delivery Testing Based on a Novel Cell Line

In recent years, there has been a significant increase in the registration of drugs for nasal application with systemic effects. Previous preclinical in vitro test systems for transmucosal drug absorption studies have mostly been based on primary cells or on tumor cell lines such as RPMI 2650, but both approaches have disadvantages. Therefore, the aim of this study was to establish and characterize a novel immortalized nasal epithelial cell line as the basis for an improved 3D cell culture model of the nasal mucosa. First, porcine primary cells were isolated and transfected. The P1 cell line obtained from this process was characterized in terms of its expression of tissue-specific properties, namely, mucus expression, cilia formation, and epithelial barrier formation. Using air-liquid interface cultivation, it was possible to achieve both high mucus formation and the development of functional cilia. Epithelial integrity was expressed as both transepithelial electrical resistance and mucosal permeability, which was determined for sodium fluorescein, rhodamine B, and FITC-dextran 4000. We noted a high comparability of the novel cell culture model with native excised nasal mucosa in terms of these measures. Thus, this novel cell line seems to offer a promising approach for developing 3D nasal mucosa tissues that exhibit favorable characteristics to be used as an in vitro system for testing drug delivery systems.

The Potential of the Nose-to-Brain Delivery of PACAP for the Treatment of Neuronal Disease

Research on the neuroprotective effect of pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide (PACAP) and its use as a therapeutic agent has grown over the past 30 years. Both in vitro and in vivo experiments have shown that PACAP exerts a strong neuroprotective effect in many central and peripheral neuronal diseases. Various delivery routes have been employed from intravenous (IV) injections to intracerebroventricular (ICV) administration, leading either to systemic or topical delivery of the peptide. Over the last decade, a growing interest in the use of intranasal (IN) administration of PACAP and other therapeutic agents has emerged as an alternative delivery route to target the brain. The aim of this review is to summarize the findings on the neuroprotective effect of PACAP and to discuss how the IN administration of PACAP could contribute to target the effects of this pleiotropic peptide.

Practical Considerations for Next-Generation Adjuvant Development and Translation

Over the last several years, there has been increased interest from academia and the pharmaceutical/biotech industry in the development of vaccine adjuvants for new and emerging vaccine modalities. Despite this, vaccine adjuvant development still has some of the longest timelines in the pharmaceutical space, from discovery to clinical approval. The reasons for this are manyfold and range from complexities in translation from animal to human models, concerns about safety or reactogenicity, to challenges in sourcing the necessary raw materials at scale. In this review, we will describe the current state of the art for many adjuvant technologies and how they should be approached or applied in the development of new vaccine products. We postulate that there are many factors to be considered and tools to be applied earlier on in the vaccine development pipeline to improve the likelihood of clinical success. These recommendations may require a modified approach to some of the common practices in new product development but would result in more accessible and practical adjuvant-containing products.

Development and Evaluation of an FDM Printed Nasal Device for CPZ Solid Nanoparticles

Nasal drug delivery has been a focus of scientific interest for decades. A number of drug delivery systems and devices are available and have been highly successful in providing better and more comfortable therapy. The benefits of nasal drug delivery are not in question. The nasal surface provides an excellent context for the targeted delivery of active substances. In addition to the large nasal surface area and intensive absorption, the active substances delivered through the nose overcome the blood-brain barrier and can be delivered directly to the central nervous system. Formulations for nasal administration are typically solutions or liquid dispersed systems such as emulsions or suspensions. Formulation techniques for nanostructures have recently undergone intensive development. Solid-phase heterogeneous dispersed systems represent a new direction in pharmaceutical formulations. The wide range of possible examples and the variety of excipients allow for the delivery of a wide range of active ingredients. The aim of our experimental work was to develop a solid drug delivery system that possesses all of the above-mentioned advantageous properties. In developing solid nanosystems, we not only exploited the advantages of size but also the adhesive and penetration-enhancing properties of excipients. During formulation, several amphiphilic compounds with adhesion properties and penetration enhancing effects were incorporated. We used chlorpromazine (CPZ), which is mainly used in the treatment of psychotic disorders such as schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. Chlorpromazine has been previously investigated by our team in other projects. With the availability of previous methods, the analytical characterization of the drug was carried out effectively. Due to the frequent and severe side effects of the drug, the need for therapeutic dose reduction is indisputable. In this series of experiments, we succeeded in constructing drug delivery systems. Finely divided Na nanoparticles were formed using a Büchi B90 nanospray dryer. An important step in the development of the drug carrier was the selection of suitable inert carrier compounds. Particle size determination and particle size distribution analysis were performed to characterize the prepared nanostructures. As safety is the most important aspect of any drug formulation, all components and systems were tested with different biocompatibility assays. The tests performed demonstrated the safe applicability of our systems. The bioavailability of chlorpromazine was studied as a function of the ratio of the active ingredient administered nasally and intravenously. As described above, most nasal formulations are liquids, but our system is solid, so there is currently no tool available to accurately target this system. As a supplement of the project, a nasal dosing device was developed, corresponding to the anatomical structure; a prototype of the device was made using 3D FDM technology. Our results lay the foundation for the design and industrial scaling of a new approach to the design and production of a high-bioavailability nasal medicinal product.

Recent advances in respiratory immunization: A focus on COVID-19 vaccines

The development of vaccines has always been an essential task worldwide since vaccines are regarded as powerful weapons in protecting the global population. Although the vast majority of currently authorized human vaccinations are administered intramuscularly or subcutaneously, exploring novel routes of immunization has been a prominent area of study in recent years. This is particularly relevant in the face of pandemic diseases, such as COVID-19, where respiratory immunization offers distinct advantages, such as inducing systemic and mucosal responses to prevent viral infections in both the upper and lower respiratory tracts and also leading to higher patient compliance. However, the development of respiratory vaccines confronts challenges due to the physiological barriers of the respiratory tract, with most of these vaccines still in the research and development stage. In this review, we detail the structure of the respiratory tract and the mechanisms of mucosal immunity, as well as the obstacles to respiratory vaccination. We also examine the considerations necessary in constructing a COVID-19 respiratory vaccine, including the dosage form of the vaccines, potential excipients and mucosal adjuvants, and delivery systems and devices for respiratory vaccines. Finally, we present a comprehensive overview of the COVID-19 respiratory vaccines currently under clinical investigation. We hope this review can provide valuable insights and inspiration for the future development of respiratory vaccinations.

Investigating the Targeting Power to Brain Tissues of Intranasal Rasagiline Mesylate-Loaded Transferosomal In Situ Gel for Efficient Treatment of Parkinson's Disease

Rasagiline mesylate (RSM) is a hydrophilic drug with poor oral bioavailability (36%) because of hepatic first-pass metabolism. The present study focuses on delivering RSM directly to the brain through its inclusion within transferosomal in situ gel administered through the intranasal (IN) route. Transferosomes were formed by the thin-film hydration method with the aid of Design-Expert^® software by varying the edge activator (EA) type in the absence or presence of cholesterol. By desirability calculations, the optimum formulation was composed of phosphatidylcholine and sodium deoxycholate as an EA (5:1% w/w) with no cholesterol. The optimum formulation was 198.63 ± 34.98 nm in size and displayed an entrapment efficiency of 95.73 ± 0.09%. Transmission electron microscopy revealed discrete and spherical vesicles. Optimized transferosomes were further incorporated into an in situ gel composed of 0.5% pectin, 15% Pluronic^® F-127, and 5% Pluronic^® F-68 and tested for the in vivo performance. The systemic as well as brain kinetics were assessed in rats by comparing the IN-administered in situ gel to the IV aqueous solution. The optimum in situ gel showed safety and biocompatibility on rats' nasal mucosa with enhanced brain bioavailability (131.17%). Drug targeting efficiency and direct transport percentage indices (304.53% and 67.16%, respectively) supported successful brain targeting offering direct nose-to-brain drug delivery.

Nanotechnological Advances for Nose to Brain Delivery of Therapeutics to Improve the Parkinson Therapy

Blood-Brain Barrier (BBB) acts as a highly impermeable barrier, presenting an impediment to the crossing of most classical drugs targeted for neurodegenerative diseases including Parkinson's disease (PD). About the nature of drugs and other potential molecules, they impose unavoidable doserestricted limitations eventually leading to the failure of therapy. However, many advancements in formulation technology and modification of delivery approaches have been successful in delivering the drug to the brain in the therapeutic window. The nose to the brain (N2B) drug delivery employing the nanoformulation, is one such emerging delivery approach, overcoming both classical drug formulation and delivery-associated limitations. This latter approach offers increased bioavailability, greater patient acceptance, lesser metabolic degradation of drugs, circumvention of BBB, ample drug loading along with the controlled release of the drugs. In N2B delivery, the intranasal (IN) route carries therapeutics firstly into the nasal cavity followed by the brain through olfactory and trigeminal nerve connections linked with nasal mucosa. The N2B delivery approach is being explored for delivering other biologicals like neuropeptides and mitochondria. Meanwhile, this N2B delivery system is associated with critical challenges consisting of mucociliary clearance, degradation by enzymes, and drug translocations by efflux mechanisms. These challenges finally culminated in the development of suitable surfacemodified nano-carriers and Focused- Ultrasound-Assisted IN as FUS-IN technique which has expanded the horizons of N2B drug delivery. Hence, nanotechnology, in collaboration with advances in the IN route of drug administration, has a diversified approach for treating PD. The present review discusses the physiology and limitation of IN delivery along with current advances in nanocarrier and technical development assisting N2B drug delivery.

Oromucosal delivery of macromolecules: Challenges and recent developments to improve bioavailability

Owing to their biological diversity, high potency, good tolerability, low immunogenicity, site-specific activity, and great efficacy, macromolecular drugs (i.e., proteins and peptides, antibodies, hormones, nucleic acids, vaccines, etc.) are extensively used as diagnostics, prophylactics, and therapeutics in various diseases. To overcome drawbacks associated with parenteral (invasive) delivery of macromolecules as well as to preserve their therapeutic integrity, oromucosal route (sublingual and buccal) has been proven efficient alternate port of delivery. This review aims to summarize challenges associated with oromucosal route and overtime developments in conventional delivery systems with special emphasis on most recent delivery strategies. Over the past few decades, significant efforts have been made for improving the oromucosal absorption of macromolecules by employing chemical penetration enhancers (CPE), enzyme inhibitors, chemical modification of drug structure (i.e., lipidation, PEGylation, etc.), and mucoadhesive materials in the form of buccal tablets, films (or patches), sprays, fast disintegrating tablets, and microneedles. Adaptation of adjunct strategies (e.g., iontophoresis in conjunction with CPE) has shown significant improvement in oromucosal absorption of macromolecules; however, these approaches were also associated with many drawbacks. To overcome these shortcomings and to further improve therapeutic outcomes, specialized delivery devices called "hybrid nanosystems" have been designed in recent times. This newer intervention showed promising potential for promoting oromucosal absorption and absolute bioavailability of macromolecules along with improved thermostability (cold chain free storage), enabling self-administration, site-specific activity, improving therapeutic efficacy and patient compliance. We anticipate that tailoring of hybrid nanosystems to clinical trials as well as establishing their short- and long-term safety profile would substantiate their therapeutic value as pharmaceutical devices for oromucosal delivery of macromolecules.

Systemic and brain delivery of antidiabetic peptides through nasal administration using cell-penetrating peptides

The intranasal route has emerged as a promising strategy that can direct delivery of drugs into the systemic circulation because the high-vascularized nasal cavity, among other advantages, avoids the hepatic first-pass metabolism. The nose-to-brain pathway provides a non-invasive alternative to other routes for the delivery of macromolecular therapeutics. A great variety of methodologies has been developed to enhance the efficiency of transepithelial translocation of macromolecules. Among these, the use of cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs), short protein transduction domains (PTDs) that facilitate the intracellular transport of various bioactive molecules, has become an area of extensive research in the intranasal delivery of peptides and proteins either to systemic or to brain compartments. Some CPPs have been applied for the delivery of peptide antidiabetics, including insulin and exendin-4, for treating diabetes and Alzheimer's disease. This review highlights the current status of CPP-driven intranasal delivery of peptide drugs and its potential applicability as a universal vehicle in the nasal drug delivery.

Bacteriophage-encoded lethal membrane disruptors: Advances in understanding and potential applications

Holins and spanins are bacteriophage-encoded membrane proteins that control bacterial cell lysis in the final stage of the bacteriophage reproductive cycle. Due to their efficient mechanisms for lethal membrane disruption, these proteins are gaining interest in many fields, including the medical, food, biotechnological, and pharmaceutical fields. However, investigating these lethal proteins is challenging due to their toxicity in bacterial expression systems and the resultant low protein yields have hindered their analysis compared to other cell lytic proteins. Therefore, the structural and dynamic properties of holins and spanins in their native environment are not well-understood. In this article we describe recent advances in the classification, purification, and analysis of holin and spanin proteins, which are beginning to overcome the technical barriers to understanding these lethal membrane disrupting proteins, and through this, unlock many potential biotechnological applications.

Development of Nasal Vaccines and the Associated Challenges

Viruses, bacteria, fungi, and several other pathogenic microorganisms usually infect the host via the surface cells of respiratory mucosa. Nasal vaccination could provide a strong mucosal and systemic immunity to combat these infections. The intranasal route of vaccination offers the advantage of easy accessibility over the injection administration. Therefore, nasal immunization is considered a promising strategy for disease prevention, particularly in the case of infectious diseases of the respiratory system. The development of a nasal vaccine, particularly the strategies of adjuvant and antigens design and optimization, enabling rapid induction of protective mucosal and systemic responses against the disease. In recent times, the development of efficacious nasal vaccines with an adequate safety profile has progressed rapidly, with effective handling and overcoming of the challenges encountered during the process. In this context, the present report summarizes the most recent findings regarding the strategies used for developing nasal vaccines as an efficient alternative to conventional vaccines.

A Review of Non-Invasive Drug Delivery through Respiratory Routes

With rapid and non-invasive characteristics, the respiratory route of administration has drawn significant attention compared with the limitations of conventional routes. Respiratory delivery can bypass the physiological barrier to achieve local and systemic disease treatment. A scientometric analysis and review were used to analyze how respiratory delivery can contribute to local and systemic therapy. The literature data obtained from the Web of Science Core Collection database showed an increasing worldwide tendency toward respiratory delivery from 1998 to 2020. Keywords analysis suggested that nasal and pulmonary drug delivery are the leading research topics in respiratory delivery. Based on the results of scientometric analysis, the research hotspots mainly included therapy for central nervous systems (CNS) disorders (Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease, depression, glioblastoma, and epilepsy), tracheal and bronchial or lung diseases (chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, asthma, acute lung injury or respiratory distress syndrome, lung cancer, and idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis), and systemic diseases (diabetes and COVID-19). The study of advanced preparations contained nano drug delivery systems of the respiratory route, drug delivery barriers investigation (blood-brain barrier, BBB), and chitosan-based biomaterials for respiratory delivery. These results provided researchers with future research directions related to respiratory delivery.

Peptide loaded polymeric nanoparticles by non-aqueous nanoprecipitation

It is always a challenge to encapsulate water-soluble peptides in polymer nanoparticle (NP) systems. We establish and validate our newly developed non-aqueous nanoprecipitation method to encapsulate neuro-peptides drugs such as oxytocin and Luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone (LHRH) in poly(sebacic anhydride) (PSA) NPs. NPs were prepared by a solvent-antisolvent process under a strict anhydrous environment to obtain high drug loading and to avoid premature PSA degradation and drug release. Dynamic light scattering (DLS) and Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) reveal the size for both drug loaded PSA NPs to ∼ 300 nm. The drug loaded NPs were dispersible and spherical in shape with uniform morphology. The in vitro release profile of oxytocin from PSA NPs occurs with the burst release of ∼ 50% within the first hour in the aqueous release medium, whereas LHRH release is comparatively slow. Thus, looking into the fast degrading properties of PSA and drug release behavior, the developed NPs can be used for direct delivery of the neuropeptides to the olfactory epithelium using a refillable nasal atomizer that deposits mist onto the olfactory neuro-epithelium. We also applied our developed method to prepare NPs of poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA), polylactic acid (PLA), and poly(ε-caprolactone) (PCL). A Thyrotropin releasing hormone (TRH) was used as the sample neuropeptide drug to validate our non-aqueous method. The results reveal the formation of TRH loaded PLGA, PLA and PCL NPs with 100% drug loading. TEM analysis shows the formation of spherical NPs, having similar release properties as those of PSA NPs. Overall, we report that our developed method is suitable for co-encapsulating hydrophilic drugs in polymer NPs with high drug loading and release properties.

Nose-to-Brain Delivery of Therapeutic Peptides as Nasal Aerosols

Central nervous system (CNS) disorders, such as psychiatric disorders, neurodegeneration, chronic pain, stroke, brain tumor, spinal cord injury, and many other CNS diseases, would hugely benefit from specific and potent peptide pharmaceuticals and their low inherent toxicity. The delivery of peptides to the brain is challenging due to their low metabolic stability, which decreases their duration of action, poor penetration of the blood-brain barrier (BBB), and their incompatibility with oral administration, typically resulting in the need for parenteral administration. These challenges limit peptides’ clinical application and explain the interest in alternative routes of peptide administration, particularly nose-to-brain (N-to-B) delivery, which allows protein and peptide drugs to reach the brain noninvasively. N-to-B delivery can be a convenient method for rapidly targeting the CNS, bypassing the BBB, and minimizing systemic exposure; the olfactory and trigeminal nerves provide a unique pathway to the brain and the external environment. This review highlights the intranasal delivery of drugs, focusing on peptide delivery, illustrating various clinical applications, nasal delivery devices, and the scope and limitations of this approach.

LNIT-Local nasal immunotherapy in allergic rhinitis: revisited evidence and perspectives

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Allergen immunotherapy (AIT) is a personalized treatment approach for the allergic airway disease. The most common routes of administration are subcutaneous and sublingual. Local nasal immunotherapy (LNIT) presents another alternative route for allergen desensitization. Nasal mucosa is the first entry site of pathogens and numerous lymphoid organs are located in this area, making LNIT a favorable method for triggering immune tolerance. LNIT has shown promising results in reducing symptoms and medication use in allergic rhinitis patients. Over time, difficulties in dosing adjustments have made this method less popular. Recent advances in intranasal drug delivery systems warrant re-examination of LNIT as a viable option for the treatment of the allergic airway disease.

RECENT FINDINGS

The scope of the review includes evidences of LNIT in human trials including comparison with placebo and conventional method of immunotherapy. Recent articles regarding the mechanism of LNIT and the challenges of intranasal drug delivery are reviewed. Advances in the LNIT delivery system which have overcome previous limitations demonstrate promising effects.

SUMMARY

LNIT presents a judicious alternative for noninjection AIT. The evidences from previous clinical trials and the novel improvement of drug delivery system will lead into the future allergen vaccine production.

Preclinical Assessment of IgY Antibodies Against Recombinant SARS-CoV-2 RBD Protein for Prophylaxis and Post-Infection Treatment of COVID-19

Within the framework of the current COVID-19 pandemic, there is a race against time to find therapies for the outbreak to be controlled. Since vaccines are still tedious to develop and partially available for low-income countries, passive immunity based on egg-yolk antibodies (IgY) is presented as a suitable approach to preclude potential death of infected patients, based on its high specificity/avidity/production yield, cost-effective manufacture, and ease of administration. In the present study, IgY antibodies against a recombinant RBD protein of SARS-CoV-2 were produced in specific-pathogen-free chickens and purified from eggs using a biocompatible method. In vitro immunoreactivity was tested, finding high recognition and neutralization values. Safety was also demonstrated prior to efficacy evaluation, in which body weight, kinematics, and histopathological assessments of hamsters challenged with SARS-CoV-2 were performed, showing a protective effect administering IgY intranasally both as a prophylactic treatment or a post-infection treatment. The results of this study showed that intranasally delivered IgY has the potential to both aid in prevention and in overcoming COVID-19 infection, which should be very useful to control the advance of the current pandemic and the associated mortality.

Potent and pan-neutralization of SARS-CoV-2 variants of concern by DARPins

We report the engineering and selection of two synthetic proteins - FSR16m and FSR22 - for possible treatment of SARS-CoV-2 infection. FSR16m and FSR22 are trimeric proteins composed of DARPin SR16m or SR22 fused with a T4 foldon and exhibit broad spectrum neutralization of SARS-Cov-2 strains. The IC ₅₀ values of FSR16m against authentic B.1.351, B.1.617.2 and BA.1.1 variants are 3.4 ng/mL, 2.2 ng/mL and 7.4 ng/mL, respectively, comparable to currently used therapeutic antibodies. Despite the use of the spike protein from a now historical wild-type virus for design, FSR16m and FSR22 both exhibit increased neutralization against newly-emerged variants of concern (39- to 296-fold) in pseudovirus assays. Cryo-EM structures revealed that these DARPins recognize a region of the receptor binding domain (RBD, residues 455-456, 486-489) overlapping a critical portion of the ACE2-binding surface. K18-hACE2 transgenic mice inoculated with a B.1.617.2 variant and receiving intranasally-administered FSR16m were protected as judged by less weight loss and 10-100-fold reductions in viral burden in the upper and lower respiratory tracts. The strong and broad neutralization potency make FSR16m and FSR22 promising candidates for prevention and treatment of infection by current and potential future strains of SARS-CoV-2.

Spray dried powders for nasal delivery: Process and formulation considerations

Powders for nasal delivery have been recognized as advantageous dosage forms over liquids due to increased stability and residence time on nasal mucosa, with improved bioavailability. They can be manufactured by spray-drying, allowing the optimization of the particle properties that are critical to guarantee nasal deposition, as size and shape. It is also a scalable and flexible method already explored extensively in the pharmaceutical industry. However, it is important to understand how process parameters, particle physical properties and formulation considerations affect the product performance. Hence, this review aims to provide an overview of nasal powder formulation and processing through spray drying, with an emphasis on the variables that impact on performance. To this purpose, we describe the physical, biological and pharmacological phenomena prior to drug absorption as well as the most relevant powder properties. Formulation considerations including qualitative and quantitative composition are then reviewed, as well as manufacturing considerations including spray drying relevant parameters.

Advances and Challenges in Intranasal Delivery of Antipsychotic Agents Targeting the Central Nervous System

Treatment of central nervous system (CNS) disorders is challenging using conventional delivery strategies and routes of administration because of the presence of the blood–brain barrier (BBB). This BBB restricts the permeation of most of the therapeutics targeting the brain because of its impervious characteristics. Thus, the challenges of delivering the therapeutic agents across the BBB to the brain overcoming the issue of insufficient entry of neurotherapeutics require immediate attention for recovering from the issues by the use of modern platforms of drug delivery and novel routes of administration. Therefore, the advancement of drug delivery tools and delivering these tools using the intranasal route of drug administration have shown the potential of circumventing the BBB, thereby delivering the therapeutics to the brain at a significant concentration with minimal exposure to systemic circulation. These novel strategies could lead to improved efficacy of antipsychotic agents using several advanced drug delivery tools while delivered via the intranasal route. This review emphasized the present challenges of delivering the neurotherapeutics to the brain using conventional routes of administration and overcoming the issues by exploring the intranasal route of drug administration to deliver the therapeutics circumventing the biological barrier of the brain. An overview of different problems with corresponding solutions in administering therapeutics via the intranasal route with special emphasis on advanced drug delivery systems targeting to deliver CNS therapeutics has been focused. Furthermore, preclinical and clinical advancements on the delivery of antipsychotics using this intranasal route have also been emphasized.

The nanotechnological approach for nasal delivery of peptide drugs: a comprehensive review

This review gathers recent studies, patents, and clinical trials involving the nasal administration of peptide drugs to supply a panorama of developing nanomedicine advances in this field. Peptide drugs have been featured in the pharmaceutical market, due to their high efficacy, biological activity, and low immunogenicity. Pharmaceutical industries need technology to circumvent issues relating to peptide stability and bioavailability. The oral route offers very harsh and unfavourable conditions for peptide administration, while the parenteral route is inconvenient and risky for patients. Nasal administration is an attractive alternative, mainly when associated with nanotechnological approaches. Nanomedicines may improve the nasal administration of peptide drugs by providing protection for the macromolecules from enzymes while also increasing their time of retention and permeability in the nasal mucosa. Nanomedicines for nasal administration containing peptide drugs have been acclaimed for both prevention, and treatment, of infections, including the pandemic COVID-19, cancers, metabolic and neurodegenerative diseases.

Cerebral mucormycosis: intranasal route to deliver amphotericin B for effective management?

As cerebral mucormycosis is devastating in nature, here we discuss possible use of the intranasal route, in comparison to or in addition to intravenous administration, as a therapeutic approach to manage cases of mucormycosis with central nervous system involvement.

In Vitro Evaluation of Curcumin- and Quercetin-Loaded Nanoemulsions for Intranasal Administration: Effect of Surface Charge and Viscosity

The nose-to-brain delivery of neuroprotective natural compounds is an appealing approach for the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases. Nanoemulsions containing curcumin (CUR) and quercetin (QU) were prepared by high-pressure homogenization and characterized physicochemically and structurally. A negative (CQ_NE−), a positive (CQ_NE+), and a gel (CQ_NEgel) formulation were developed. The mean particle size of the CQ_NE− and CQ_NE+ was below 120 nm, while this increased to 240 nm for the CQ_NEgel. The formulations showed high encapsulation efficiency and protected the CUR/QU from biological/chemical degradation. Electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy showed that the CUR/QU were located at the interface of the oil phase in the proximity of the surfactant layer. The cytotoxicity studies showed that the formulations containing CUR/QU protected human nasal cells from the toxicity evidenced for blank NEs. No permeation across an in vitro model nasal epithelium was evidenced for CUR/QU, probably due to their poor water-solubility and instability in physiological buffers. However, the nasal cells’ drug uptake showed that the total amount of CUR/QU in the cells was related to the NE characteristics (CQ_NE− > CQ_NE+ > CQ_NEgel). The method used allowed the obtainment of nanocarriers of an appropriate size for nasal administration. The treatment of the cells showed the protection of cellular viability, holding promise as an anti-inflammatory treatment able to prevent neurodegenerative diseases.

LAIR-1 acts as an immune checkpoint on activated ILC2s and regulates the induction of airway hyperreactivity

BACKGROUND

Type 2 innate lymphoid cells (ILC2s) are relevant players in type 2 asthma. They initiate eosinophil infiltration and airway hyperreactivity (AHR) through cytokine secretion. Leukocyte-associated immunoglobulin-like receptor 1 (LAIR-1) is an inhibitory receptor considered to be an immune checkpoint in different inflammatory diseases.

OBJECTIVE

Our aim here was to investigate the expression of LAIR-1 and assess its role in human and murine ILC2s.

METHODS

Wild-type and LAIR-1 knockout mice were intranasally challenged with IL-33, and pulmonary ILC2s were sorted to perform an ex vivo comparative study based on RNA sequencing and flow cytometry. We next studied the impact of LAIR-1 deficiency on AHR and lung inflammation by using knockout mice and adoptive transfer experiments in Rag2-/-Il2rg-/- mice. Knockdown antisense strategies and humanized mice were used to assess the role of LAIR-1 in human ILC2s.

RESULTS

We have demonstrated that LAIR-1 is inducible on activated ILC2s and downregulates cytokine secretion and effector function. LAIR-1 signaling in ILC2s was mediated via inhibitory pathways, including SHP1/PI3K/AKT, and LAIR-1 deficiency led to exacerbated ILC2-dependent AHR in IL-33 and Alternaria alternata models. In adoptive transfer experiments, we confirmed the LAIR-1-mediated regulation of ILC2s in vivo. Interestingly, LAIR-1 was expressed and inducible in human ILC2s, and knockdown approaches of Lair1 resulted in higher cytokine production. Finally, engagement of LAIR-1 by physiologic ligand C1q significantly reduced ILC2-dependent AHR in a humanized ILC2 murine model.

CONCLUSION

Our results unravel a novel regulatory axis in ILC2s with the capacity to reduce allergic AHR and lung inflammation.

Nasal vaccine as a booster shot: a viable solution to restrict pandemic?

The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic revolutionized the vaccine market and initiated the momentum for alternative routes of administration for vaccines. The intranasal route of immunization is one such possibility that appears to be the most promising since it has some significant advantages, particularly in the prevention of respiratory infection. To analyze and summarize the role of nasal vaccines over conventional vaccines during COVID-19 and the need for the nasal vaccine as a booster shot. In this narrative review, the required data was retrieved using keywords “COVID-19,” “Intranasal,” “Immunity,” “Nasal spray,” and “Mucosal” in databases including PubMed, Scopus, Embase, Science Direct, and Web of Sciences. The results of the study showed that the nasal vaccines were both effective and protective according to the current researches approaching during the COVID-19 period and the preclinical and clinical phase trials prove the intranasal vaccination elicits more robust and cross-protective immunity than conventional vaccines. In this narrative review article, mechanisms across the nasal mucosa will be briefly presented and the current status of nasal vaccines during the COVID-19 pandemic is summarized, and advantages over traditional vaccines are provided. Furthermore, after exploring the primary benefits and kinetics of nasal vaccine, the potential for consideration of nasal vaccine as a booster dose is also discussed.

Treating Bacterial Infections with Bacteriophage-Based Enzybiotics: In Vitro, In Vivo and Clinical Application

Over the past few decades, we have witnessed a surge around the world in the emergence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria. This global health threat arose mainly due to the overuse and misuse of antibiotics as well as a relative lack of new drug classes in development pipelines. Innovative antibacterial therapeutics and strategies are, therefore, in grave need. For the last twenty years, antimicrobial enzymes encoded by bacteriophages, viruses that can lyse and kill bacteria, have gained tremendous interest. There are two classes of these phage-derived enzymes, referred to also as enzybiotics: peptidoglycan hydrolases (lysins), which degrade the bacterial peptidoglycan layer, and polysaccharide depolymerases, which target extracellular or surface polysaccharides, i.e., bacterial capsules, slime layers, biofilm matrix, or lipopolysaccharides. Their features include distinctive modes of action, high efficiency, pathogen specificity, diversity in structure and activity, low possibility of bacterial resistance development, and no observed cross-resistance with currently used antibiotics. Additionally, and unlike antibiotics, enzybiotics can target metabolically inactive persister cells. These phage-derived enzymes have been tested in various animal models to combat both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, and in recent years peptidoglycan hydrolases have entered clinical trials. Here, we review the testing and clinical use of these enzymes.

Hemagglutinin Nanoparticulate Vaccine with Controlled Photochemical Immunomodulation for Pathogenic Influenza-Specific Immunity

Recently, viral infectious diseases, including COVID-19 and Influenza, are the subjects of major concerns worldwide. One strategy for addressing these concerns focuses on nasal vaccines, which have great potential for achieving successful immunization via safe, easy, and affordable approaches. However, conventional nasal vaccines have major limitations resulting from fast removal when pass through nasal mucosa and mucociliary clearance hindering their effectiveness. Herein a nanoparticulate vaccine (NanoVac) exhibiting photochemical immunomodulation and constituting a new self-assembled immunization system of a photoactivatable polymeric adjuvant with influenza virus hemagglutinin for efficient nasal delivery and antigen-specific immunity against pathogenic influenza viruses is described. NanoVac increases the residence period of antigens and further enhances by spatiotemporal photochemical modulation in the nasal cavity. As a consequence, photochemical immunomodulation of NanoVacs successfully induces humoral and cellular immune responses followed by stimulation of mature dendritic cells, plasma cells, memory B cells, and CD4+ and CD8+ T cells, resulting in secretion of antigen-specific immunoglobulins, cytokines, and CD8+ T cells. Notably, challenge with influenza virus after nasal immunization with NanoVacs demonstrates robust prevention of viral infection. Thus, this newly designed vaccine system can serve as a promising strategy for developing vaccines that are active against current hazardous pathogen outbreaks and pandemics.

Innovative Drying Technologies for Biopharmaceuticals

In the past two decades, biopharmaceuticals have been a breakthrough in improving the quality of lives of patients with various cancers, autoimmune, genetic disorders etc. With the growing demand of biopharmaceuticals, the need for reducing manufacturing costs is essential without compromising on the safety, quality, and efficacy of products. Batch Freeze-drying is the primary commercial means of manufacturing solid biopharmaceuticals. However, Freeze-drying is an economically unfriendly means of production with long production cycles, high energy consumption and heavy capital investment, resulting in high overall costs. This review compiles some potential, innovative drying technologies that have not gained popularity for manufacturing parenteral biopharmaceuticals. Some of these technologies such as Spin-freeze-drying, Spray-drying, Lynfinity® Technology etc. offer a paradigm shift towards continuous manufacturing, whereas PRINT® Technology and Microglassification^TM allow controlled dry particle characteristics. Also, some of these drying technologies can be easily scaled-up with reduced requirement for different validation processes. The inclusion of Process Analytical Technology (PAT) and offline characterization techniques in tandem can provide additional information on the Critical Process Parameters (CPPs) and Critical Quality Attributes (CQAs) during biopharmaceutical processing. These processing technologies can be envisaged to increase the manufacturing capacity for biopharmaceutical products at reduced costs.

An integrative review on the uses of plant-derived bioactives formulated in conventional and innovative dosage forms for the local treatment of damaged nasal cavity

Plants and their derivates have been used as medicines for centuries and today is being re-discovered their usefulness for the human health. The therapeutic properties of phytochemicals are re-evaluated under the light of medical and pharmacological research, pushed by a constantly growing market demand, where consumers trust more natural products than synthetic drugs. New studies are enlightening the effectiveness of phytochemicals against a wide range of ailments, nevertheless very few evaluate the efficacy of topical formulations based on natural bioactive molecules in the treatment of nasal mucosal diseases. This review aims at exploring this little covered topic. An overview on the properties and functionality of the nasal mucosa and the different diseases affecting it has been provided. We summarized various nasal dosage forms containing natural bioactive and explored how innovative delivery systems loading phytochemicals can improve the treatment results. Finally, the potential use of novel nanocarriers for the treatment of nasal ailments has been covered as well.

Can the Nasal Cavity Help Tackle COVID-19?

Despite the progress made in the fight against the COVID-19 pandemic, it still poses dramatic challenges for scientists around the world. Various approaches are applied, including repurposed medications and alternative routes for administration. Several vaccines have been approved, and many more are under clinical and preclinical investigation. This review aims to systemize the available information and to outline the key therapeutic strategies for COVID-19, based on the nasal route of administration.

Repurpose but also (nano)-reformulate! The potential role of nanomedicine in the battle against SARS-CoV2

The coronavirus disease-19 (COVID-19), caused by the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV2) has taken the world by surprise. To date, a worldwide approved treatment remains lacking and hence in the context of rapid viral spread and the growing need for rapid action, drug repurposing has emerged as one of the frontline strategies in the battle against SARS-CoV2. Repurposed drugs currently being evaluated against COVID-19 either tackle the replication and spread of SARS-CoV2 or they aim at controlling hyper-inflammation and the rampaged immune response in severe disease. In both cases, the target for such drugs resides in the lungs, at least during the period where treatment could still provide substantial clinical benefit to the patient. Yet, most of these drugs are administered systemically, questioning the percentage of administered drug that actually reaches the lung and as a consequence, the distribution of the remainder of the dose to off target sites. Inhalation therapy should allow higher concentrations of the drug in the lungs and lower concentrations systemically, hence providing a stronger, more localized action, with reduced adverse effects. Therefore, the nano-reformulation of the repurposed drugs for inhalation is a promising approach for targeted drug delivery to lungs. In this review, we critically analyze, what nanomedicine could and ought to do in the battle against SARS-CoV2. We start by a brief description of SARS-CoV2 structure and pathogenicity and move on to discuss the current limitations of repurposed antiviral and immune-modulating drugs that are being clinically investigated against COVID-19. This account focuses on how nanomedicine could address limitations of current therapeutics, enhancing the efficacy, specificity and safety of such drugs. With the appearance of new variants of SARS-CoV2 and the potential implication on the efficacy of vaccines and diagnostics, the presence of an effective therapeutic solution is inevitable and could be potentially achieved via nano-reformulation. The presence of an inhaled nano-platform capable of delivering antiviral or immunomodulatory drugs should be available as part of the repertoire in the fight against current and future outbreaks.