Review: The potential of the common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) as a vehicle for iron biofortification

Advancing common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) disease detection with YOLO driven deep learning to enhance agricultural AI

Common beans (CB), a vital source for high protein content, plays a crucial role in ensuring both nutrition and economic stability in diverse communities, particularly in Africa and Latin America. However, CB cultivation poses a significant threat to diseases that can drastically reduce yield and quality. Detecting these diseases solely based on visual symptoms is challenging, due to the variability across different pathogens and similar symptoms caused by distinct pathogens, further complicating the detection process. Traditional methods relying solely on farmers' ability to detect diseases is inadequate, and while engaging expert pathologists and advanced laboratories is necessary, it can also be resource intensive. To address this challenge, we present a AI-driven system for rapid and cost-effective CB disease detection, leveraging state-of-the-art deep learning and object detection technologies. We utilized an extensive image dataset collected from disease hotspots in Africa and Colombia, focusing on five major diseases: Angular Leaf Spot (ALS), Common Bacterial Blight (CBB), Common Bean Mosaic Virus (CBMV), Bean Rust, and Anthracnose, covering both leaf and pod samples in real-field settings. However, pod images are only available for Angular Leaf Spot disease. The study employed data augmentation techniques and annotation at both whole and micro levels for comprehensive analysis. To train the model, we utilized three advanced YOLO architectures: YOLOv7, YOLOv8, and YOLO-NAS. Particularly for whole leaf annotations, the YOLO-NAS model achieves the highest mAP value of up to 97.9% and a recall of 98.8%, indicating superior detection accuracy. In contrast, for whole pod disease detection, YOLOv7 and YOLOv8 outperformed YOLO-NAS, with mAP values exceeding 95% and 93% recall. However, micro annotation consistently yields lower performance than whole annotation across all disease classes and plant parts, as examined by all YOLO models, highlighting an unexpected discrepancy in detection accuracy. Furthermore, we successfully deployed YOLO-NAS annotation models into an Android app, validating their effectiveness on unseen data from disease hotspots with high classification accuracy (90%). This accomplishment showcases the integration of deep learning into our production pipeline, a process known as DLOps. This innovative approach significantly reduces diagnosis time, enabling farmers to take prompt management interventions. The potential benefits extend beyond rapid diagnosis serving as an early warning system to enhance common bean productivity and quality.

Legumes and common beans in sustainable diets: nutritional quality, environmental benefits, spread and use in food preparations

In recent decades, scarcity of available resources, population growth and the widening in the consumption of processed foods and of animal origin have made the current food system unsustainable. High-income countries have shifted towards food consumption patterns which is causing an increasingly process of environmental degradation and depletion of natural resources, with the increased incidence of malnutrition due to excess (obesity and non-communicable disease) and due to chronic food deprivation. An urgent challenge is, therefore, to move towards more healthy and sustainable eating choices and reorientating food production and distribution to obtain a human and planetary health benefit. In this regard, legumes represent a less expensive source of nutrients for low-income countries, and a sustainable healthier option than animal-based proteins in developed countries. Although legumes are the basis of many traditional dishes worldwide, and in recent years they have also been used in the formulation of new food products, their consumption is still scarce. Common beans, which are among the most consumed pulses worldwide, have been the focus of many studies to boost their nutritional properties, to find strategies to facilitate cultivation under biotic/abiotic stress, to increase yield, reduce antinutrients contents and rise the micronutrient level. The versatility of beans could be the key for the increase of their consumption, as it allows to include them in a vast range of food preparations, to create new formulations and to reinvent traditional legume-based recipes with optimal nutritional healthy characteristics.

Race Structure and Molecular Diversity of Colletotrichum lindemuthianum of Common Bean in Zambia

Anthracnose, caused by the fungus Colletotrichum lindemuthianum, is a major disease of common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) worldwide. C. lindemuthianum is genetically highly variable, and understanding the pathogen's diversity and distribution is a key step in developing common bean varieties with durable anthracnose resistance. The objectives of this study were to (i) characterize the race structure of C. lindemuthianum in Zambia and (ii) assess the molecular diversity of C. lindemuthianum in Zambia. A field survey was conducted in 20 bean-growing districts in Zambia to collect anthracnose symptomatic bean plants. A total of 103 C. lindemuthianum isolates were collected and characterized based on their reactions on 12 common bean race differential cultivars. RAM and ERIC-BOX DNA markers were used to assess molecular diversity of 60 isolates. A total of 58 races were characterized from the 103 isolates. Race 5 was the least virulent, and race 1631 was the most virulent based on their reaction on the 12 race differential cultivars. Race 19 had the highest recovery frequency (11%) and was the most extensively dispersed among the 22 bean-growing districts from where the isolates were collected. Only six races had previously been reported in Zambia, and 52 races were identified as new races reported for the first time in Zambia. Two races were virulent only on Andean cultivars, 11 races were virulent only on Middle American cultivars, and 45 races were virulent on both Andean and Middle American cultivars. No individual isolate showed pathogenicity on all the differential cultivars, and no isolate overcame the Co-4, Co-5, and Co-7 resistance gene pyramid that naturally exists in G2333. Phylogenetic analysis categorized the 60 isolates in six major clusters and six subclusters. The 60 isolates showed high genetic heterogeneity among and within a race of the same virulence. The study has revealed the existence of both Andean and Middle American races and extensive molecular diversity of C. lindemuthianum in Zambia. The knowledge on the race structure of C. lindemuthianum that this study has provided will be valuable for making breeding decisions on the host plant resistance genes required for developing common bean varieties with durable resistance to anthracnose in Zambia.

Estimating phenotypic stability for relevant yield and quality traits in French bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) using AMMI analysis

The presence of strong G x E (genotype by environment interaction) is a major hurdle for selecting superior genotypes when genotypes are placed into new and unfamiliar production systems. Genotype or cultivar (s) with high yield potential and having less adaptability and stability to particular environment is never a suitable choice for a breeder and farmer particularly. Purposefully, four successive seasons were chosen to enumerate the phenotypic stability of 27 French bean genotypes for yield and quality traits by involving modern statistical tools like AMMI (Additive Main Effect and Multiplicative Interaction), GGE [G + (G x E)] and cluster analysis. AMMI analysis of variance witnessed magnitude of G, E and G x E was 81.94%, 11.58% and 6.48% of the total variation respectively. The IPCA I (Interaction Principal Component Axes) was contributed with 55.44%, 73.60%, 71.81%, 81.69% and 72.16% G x E variations of days to 50% flowering, pod length, number of pods per plant, average pod weight and pod yield respectively. For qualitative traits i.e., protein content (mg/100g FW), total soluble solids (%) and total phenol content (mg GAE/g FW) the involvement of IPCA I to total genotype by environment interaction variations were 89.55%, 96.07% and 66.52% respectively. The AMMI biplot revealed French bean genotypes viz., IC632961, Arka Sukomal, IIHR-PV-29, IIHR-PV-30 having low AMMI stability value and higher mean value for relevant yield and quality traits in both late kharif and rabi as two mega-environments. Multivariate analysis demonstrated significant higher contribution of pod yield associated traits towards total variations and positive correlation between them. The 27 French bean genotypes formed five groups as per Euclidean distance and the clustering revealed the nature of diversity of French bean genotypes viz., IC 632961, IIHR-B-PV-24, Arka Sukomal, Arka Arjun, Ayoka and Phalguni in response to changing environments and can be utilized in future breeding programme. The study revealed pole type French bean genotypes viz., IC 632961, Arka Sukomal and bush type French bean genotypes viz., IIHR-B-PV-29, IIHR-B-PV-30 could be promising for utilization in future breeding programmes for the concerned traits.

Dynamic Expressions of Yellow Stripe-Like (YSL) Genes During Pod Development Shed Light on Associations with Iron Distribution in Phaseolus vulgaris

The global prevalence of iron deficiency-induced "hidden hunger" highlights a critical health concern, underscoring the pressing need to improve iron nutrition through safe and efficient means, such as increasing iron intake from plant-based foods. Yellow Stripe-Like (YSL) genes play a crucial role in long-distance iron transport between source and sink tissues in plants. Here, we report on the analysis of YSL family genes in the common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.), an iron-rich legume crop. We identified 9 YSL genes in the common bean genome using BLAST and HMM methods. Gene duplication analysis revealed that PvYSL7a and PvYSL7b originated through tandem duplication events. Structural analysis noted an absence of conservative motifs in PvYSL3b and PvYSL7a, which led to distinct predicted 3D protein structures. Leveraging publicly available RNA-seq data from developing bean pods, the expression patterns of PvYSL genes alongside pod and seed development were analyzed. Notably, PvYSL7a and PvYSL7b, as well as PvYSL1a and PvYSL1b, exhibited diverged expression patterns in seeds, signifying their functional divergence in this tissue. Moreover, PvYSL3a and PvYSL3b exhibited divergent expression patterns in both pod walls and seeds during pod development, underscoring their distinct roles in facilitating iron transportation between pods and seeds. This study provides valuable insights into the gene regulatory basis of iron accumulation in bean pods and seeds.

Nutritional and chemical composition of Alpinia zerumbet leaves, a traditional functional food

Alpinia zerumbet, a species of the Zingiberaceae family, is a common plant in tropical and subtropical areas used in traditional medicine to treat various diseases and also included as food in the traditional Okinawan diet (Japan). The leaves and rhizomes of this plant are used as spice and flavoring in foods such as rice, meats, and pasta. Studies of the chemical and nutritional characteristics of fresh leaves and of leaves submitted to thermal treatments such as boiling and steaming are lacking. In the current study, the leaves of A. zerumbet were subjected to boiling or steaming for 10, 20, and 30 min as part of the thermal treatments. The study also provides noteworthy results regarding the proximate composition, physical-chemical data, minerals, phenolic compounds, antioxidant activity, volatile compounds, and LC-MS chromatographic profiles of the extracts produced with fresh leaves and with thermal treatments. The carbohydrate content of A. zerumbet leaves improved during the thermal treatments, showing an increase after steaming (18.86 to 19.79%) and boiling for 30 min (25.85%). After boiling treatment for 20 min, a significant amount of protein was found (6.79%) and all heat treatments resulted in low content of lipid (<1.0%). The boiling treatment for 10 min (BT10) resulted in the highest concentrations of total phenolic components (TPC), 339.5 mg/g, and flavonoids (TF), 54.6 mg/g, among the three thermal treatments (BT10, BT20 and BT30). The results of the steaming treatments (ST 10, 20, and 30 min) differed, with ST20 leading to higher TPC (150.4 mg/g) and TF (65.0 mg/g). The quantity of total phenolics and flavonoids, as well as the antioxidant activity, were significantly affected by the cooking method and the length of time of sample exposure to heat. The samples boiled for 30 and 10 min had higher concentrations of antioxidant activity as measured by the phosphomolybdenum and DPPH methods (151.5 mg/g of extract and 101.5 μg/mL, respectively). Thirty-eight volatile organic compounds (VOCs) were identified by chromatographic analysis of fresh and thermally treated leaves of A. zerumbet. Terpenoids were the predominant class of volatile compounds in the fresh leaves and in all thermal treatments. p-Cymene, 1,8-cineole, 4-terpineol, linalool, α-copaene and β-bisabolene have the greatest impact on overall aroma perception, with odor activity values (OAV) greater than five. Among the phenolic compounds identified by LC-HRMS in the extracts of fresh and thermally treated leaves were proanthocyanidins, (+) catechin, (-) epicatechin, quercetin-3-O-glucoronide, isorhamnetin-3-O-glucoronide, kaempferol-3-O-rutinoside, pinocembrin, alpinetin, pinostrobin, and other compounds. The present results support the traditional use of this plant as a potential food with properties that certainly contribute to health improvement.

A systematic review of the impacts of post-harvest handling on provitamin A, iron and zinc retention in seven biofortified crops

Post-harvest handling can affect micronutrient retention in biofortified crops through to the point of consumption. Here we conduct a systematic review identifying 67 articles examining the retention of micronutrients in conventionally bred biofortified maize, orange sweet potato, cassava, pearl millet, rice, beans and wheat. Provitamin A crops maintain high amounts compared with non-biofortified counterparts. Iron and zinc crops have more variability in micronutrient retention dependent on processing method; for maximum iron and zinc content, whole grain product consumption such as whole wheat flour or only slightly milled brown rice is beneficial. We offer preliminary suggestions for households, regulatory bodies and programme implementers to increase consumer awareness on best practices for preparing crops to maximize micronutrient content, while highlighting gaps in the literature. Our online, interactive Micronutrient Retention Dashboard ( https://www.cpnh.cornell.edu/mn-retention-db ) offers an at-a-glance view of the compiled minimum and maximum retention found, organized by processing method.

Characterization of Two-Component System gene (TCS) in melatonin-treated common bean under salt and drought stress

The two-component system (TCS) generally consists of three elements, namely the histidine kinase (HK), response regulator (RR), and histidine phosphotransfer (HP) gene families. This study aimed to assess the expression of TCS genes in P. vulgaris leaf tissue under salt and drought stress and perform a genome-wide analysis of TCS gene family members using bioinformatics methods. This study identified 67 PvTCS genes, including 10 PvHP, 38 PvRR, and 19 PvHK, in the bean genome. PvHK2 had the maximum number of amino acids with 1261, whilst PvHP8 had the lowest number with 87. In addition, their theoretical isoelectric points were between 4.56 (PvHP8) and 9.15 (PvPRR10). The majority of PvTCS genes are unstable. Phylogenetic analysis of TCS genes in A. thaliana, G. max, and bean found that PvTCS genes had close phylogenetic relationships with the genes of other plants. Segmental and tandem duplicate gene pairs were detected among the TCS genes and TCS genes have been subjected to purifying selection pressure in the evolutionary process. Furthermore, the TCS gene family, which has an important role in abiotic stress and hormonal responses in plants, was characterized for the first time in beans, and its expression of TCS genes in bean leaves under salt and drought stress was established using RNAseq and qRT-PCR analyses. The findings of this study will aid future functional and genomic studies by providing essential information about the members of the TCS gene family in beans.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s12298-023-01406-5.

Recent advances in iron encapsulation and its application in food fortification

Iron (Fe) is an important element for our body since it takes part in a huge variety of metabolic processes. However, the direct incorporation of Fe into food fortification causes a number of problems along with undesirable organoleptic properties. Thus, encapsulation has been suggested to alleviate this problem. This study first sheds more light on the Fe encapsulation strategies and comprehensively explains the results of Fe encapsulation studies in the last decade. Then, the latest attempts to use Fe (in free or encapsulated forms) to fortify foods such as bakery products, dairy products, rice, lipid-containing foods, salt, fruit/vegetable-based products, and infant formula are presented. Double emulsions are highly effective at keeping their Fe content and display encapsulation efficiency (EE) > 88% although it decreases upon storage. The encapsulation by gel beads possesses several advantages including high EE, as well as reduced and great Fe release in gastric and duodenal conditions, respectively. Cereals, particularly bread and wheat, are common staple foods globally; they are very suitable for food fortification by Fe derivatives. Nevertheless, the majority of Fe in flour is available as salts of phytic acid (IP6) and phytates, reducing Fe bioavailability in the human body. The sourdough process degrades IP6 completely while Chorleywood Bread Making Process and conventional processes decrease it by 75% in comparison with whole meal flour.

Genetic studies on iron and zinc concentrations in common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) in Ghana

Iron and zinc deficiencies cause high health risk to young children and expectant mothers in sub Saharan Africa. The development of biofortified common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) varieties could address the acute micronutrient deficiencies with associated improvement in the nutrition and health of women, children and adults. The objective of this study was to determine the mode of gene action and genetic advance in iron and zinc levels in common bean. Field experiment was carried out using six generations of two populations made of crosses between pairs of low iron, low zinc and high iron, moderate zinc genotypes (Cal 96 ˣ RWR 2154; MCR-ISD-672 ˣ RWR 2154). Each generation (P₁, P₂, F₁, F₂, BC₁P₁ and BC₁P₂) was evaluated on the field in a randomized complete block design with three replications. Generation mean analysis were performed for each trait measured in each of the crosses while iron and zinc levels were quantified by x-ray fluorescence. The study showed that both additive and non-additive gene effects were important in determining the expression of high iron and zinc levels. Iron concentration in the common bean seeds ranged from 60.68 to 101.66 ppm while zinc levels ranged from 25.87 to 34.04 ppm. Broad sense heritability estimates of iron and zinc were high in the two crosses (62-82% for Fe and 60-74% for Zn) while narrow sense heritability ranged from low to high (53-75% for Fe and 21-46% for Zn). Heritability and genetic gain were used as selection criteria for iron and zinc, and it was concluded that doing so would be beneficial for future improvement.

The potential of bamboo seeds for natural biofortification of dietary zinc and iron

Moso bamboo has been shown to accumulate high concentrations of iron and zinc in the seeds. However, the bioavailablity of iron and zinc in bamboo seeds is poorly understood. Here, we evaluated the bioaccessibility and bioavailability of iron and zinc in bamboo seeds by using an in vitro digestion protocol. Our evaluations revealed that values of bioaccessibility and bioavailability of iron were 25 and 21 mg kg^-1 in bamboo seeds which were 1.6- and 1.7- fold higher than in rice, respectively. Also, values of bioaccessibility and bioavailability of zinc were 20 and 13 mg kg^-1 in bamboo seeds which were 1.9- and 2.6- fold higher than in rice, respectively. Boiling process reduced both the bioaccessibility and bioavailability of iron and zinc. In addition, phytic acid concentration in bamboo seeds was only 0.42 times higher than in rice. By contrast, the tannins concentration in bamboo seeds was 2.2 times higher than in rice. Cellular localization results showed that iron and zinc were mainly concentrated in the embryo and the aleurone layer. These results clearly suggest that Moso bamboo seeds are rich in iron and zinc and have potential as a food for iron and zinc biofortification.

The Addition of Pinto Bean Flour and Margarine in the Development of Red Rice-Based Novel Gluten-Free Cookies to Improve the Technological, Sensory and Physicochemical Properties

This study aimed to understand how the addition of pinto bean flour (PBF) and margarine affected the technological, sensory, and physicochemical properties of red rice-based gluten-free cookies. PBF addition (25-75 g/100 g) and margarine content (13.3-19.3 g/100 g dough) were varied according to a central composite rotatable design. Cookies selection was performed by overlaid contour and principal component analysis (PCA) for technological properties and sensory evaluation, respectively. Chemical composition analyses, bioactive compounds, and microstructure were carried out in the selected formulations. In addition, other physicochemical analyses were carried out during storage time. PBF addition affected the technological properties and increased the nutritional content of proteins (up to 13%), fibers (8.28%), iron (2.13%), zinc (1.54%), and phenolic compounds (139.46 mg gallic acid equivalent/100 g), but it negatively affected sensory acceptance. However, margarine's addition improved all the sensory attributes in all the trials, showing an acceptance greater than 70%. Cookies with 50 g PBF, 50 g red rice flour, and 16.3 g margarine/100 g dough showed better technological, nutritional characteristics, and physicochemical quality up to 60 days of storage. This work contributed to the incorporation of mixtures of red rice and pinto bean for developing more nutritious cookies for celiac patients or even those who wish to consume gluten-free products.

Biofortification of common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) with iron and zinc: Achievements and challenges

Micronutrient deficiencies (hidden hunger), particularly in iron (Fe) and zinc (Zn), remain one of the most serious public health challenges, affecting more than three billion people globally. A number of strategies are used to ameliorate the problem of micronutrient deficiencies and to improve the nutritional profile of food products. These include (i) dietary diversification, (ii) industrial food fortification and supplements, (iii) agronomic approaches including soil mineral fertilisation, bioinoculants and crop rotations, and (iv) biofortification through the implementation of biotechnology including gene editing and plant breeding. These efforts must consider the dietary patterns and culinary preferences of the consumer and stakeholder acceptance of new biofortified varieties. Deficiencies in Zn and Fe are often linked to the poor nutritional status of agricultural soils, resulting in low amounts and/or poor availability of these nutrients in staple food crops such as common bean. This review describes the genes and processes associated with Fe and Zn accumulation in common bean, a significant food source in Africa that plays an important role in nutritional security. We discuss the conventional plant breeding, transgenic and gene editing approaches that are being deployed to improve Fe and Zn accumulation in beans. We also consider the requirements of successful bean biofortification programmes, highlighting gaps in current knowledge, possible solutions and future perspectives.

Genetic Diversity and Population Structure of Common Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) Landraces in the Lazio Region of Italy

Common bean cultivation has historically been a typical component of rural economies in Italy, particularly in mountainous and hilly zones along the Apennine ridge of the central and southern regions, where the production is focused on local landraces cultivated by small-scale farmers using low-input production systems. Such landraces are at risk of genetic erosion because of the recent socioeconomic changes in rural communities. One hundred fourteen accessions belonging to 66 landraces still being grown in the Lazio region were characterized using a multidisciplinary approach. This approach included morphological (seed traits), biochemical (phaseolin and phytohemagglutinin patterns), and molecular (microsatellite loci) analyses to investigate their genetic variation, structure, and distinctiveness, which will be essential for the implementation of adequate ex situ and in situ conservation strategies. Another objective of this study was to determine the original gene pool (Andean and Mesoamerican) of the investigated landraces and to evaluate the cross-hybridization events between the two ancestral gene pools in the P. vulgaris germplasm in the Lazio region. Molecular analyses on 456 samples (four for each of the 114 accessions) revealed that the P. vulgaris germplasm in the Lazio region exhibited a high level of genetic diversity (He = 0.622) and that the Mesoamerican and Andean gene pools were clearly differentiated, with the Andean gene pool prevailing (77%) and 12% of landraces representing putative hybrids between the two gene pools. A model-based cluster analysis based on the molecular markers highlighted three main groups in agreement with the phaseolin patterns and growth habit of landraces. The combined utilisation of morphological, biochemical, and molecular data allowed for the differentiation of all landraces and the resolution of certain instances of homonymy and synonymy. Furthermore, although a high level of homozygosity was found across all landraces, 32 of the 66 examined (49%) exhibited genetic variability, indicating that the analysis based on a single or few plants per landrace, as usually carried out, may provide incomplete information.

Iodine Biofortification and Seaweed Extract-Based Biostimulant Supply Interactively Drive the Yield, Quality, and Functional Traits in Strawberry Fruits

The horticultural sector is seeking innovative and sustainable agronomic practices which could lead to enhanced yield and product quality. Currently, plant biofortification is recognized as a valuable technique to improve microelement concentrations in plant tissues. Among trace elements, iodine (I) is an essential microelement for human nutrition. Concomitantly, the application of biostimulants may improve overall plant production and quality traits. With the above background in mind, an experiment was designed with the aim of assessing the interactive impact of a seaweed extract-based biostimulant (SwE) (0 mL L^-1 (served as control) or 3 mL L^-1 (optimal dosage)) and 0, 100, 300, or 600 mg L^-1 I on the growth parameters, yield, fruit quality, minerals, and functional characteristics of the tunnel-grown "Savana" strawberry. SwE foliar application improved the plant growth-related traits, total and marketable yield, fruit color parameters, soluble solids content, nitrogen (N), potassium (K), and magnesium (Mg) fruit concentrations. Furthermore, an enhancement in the fruit dry matter content, ascorbic acid, and I concentration in fruits was detected when the SwE supply interacted with a mild I dose (100 or 300 mg L^-1). The research underlined that combining SwE application and I biofortification increased the strawberry yield and quality and enhanced the plant nutritional status variation, thereby, determining a boosted strawberry I tolerance.

Comparative Transcriptome Analysis of Tolerant and Sensitive Genotypes of Common Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) in Response to Terminal Drought Stress

We conducted a genome-wide transcriptomic analysis of three drought tolerant and sensitive genotypes of common bean to examine their transcriptional responses to terminal drought stress. We then conducted pairwise comparisons between the root and leaf transcriptomes from the resulting tissue based on combined transcriptomic data from the tolerant and sensitive genotypes. Our transcriptomic data revealed that 491 (6.4%) DEGs (differentially expressed genes) were upregulated in tolerant genotypes, whereas they were downregulated in sensitive genotypes; likewise, 396 (5.1%) DEGs upregulated in sensitive genotypes were downregulated in tolerant genotypes. Several transcription factors, heat shock proteins, and chaperones were identified in the study. Several DEGs in drought DB (data Base) overlapped between genotypes. The GO (gene ontology) terms for biological processes showed upregulation of DEGs in tolerant genotypes for sulfate and drug transmembrane transport when compared to sensitive genotypes. A GO term for cellular components enriched with upregulated DEGs for the apoplast in tolerant genotypes. These results substantiated the temporal pattern of root growth (elongation and initiation of root growth), and ABA-mediated drought response in tolerant genotypes. KEGG (kyoto encyclopedia of genes and genomes) analysis revealed an upregulation of MAPK (mitogen activated protein kinase) signaling pathways and plant hormone signaling pathways in tolerant genotypes. As a result of this study, it will be possible to uncover the molecular mechanisms of drought tolerance in response to terminal drought stress in the field. Further, genome-wide transcriptomic analysis of both tolerant and sensitive genotypes will assist us in identifying potential genes that may contribute to improving drought tolerance in the common bean.

Phenotype based clustering, and diversity of common bean genotypes in seed iron concentration and cooking time

Common bean is the world's most important directly consumed legume food crop that is popular for calories, protein and micronutrients. It is a staple food in sub-Saharan Africa, and a significant source of iron for anemic people. However, several pests, soil and weather challenges still impede its production. Long cooking time, and high phytic acid and polyphenols that influence bioavailable iron also limit the health benefits. To inform population improvement strategies and selection decisions for resilient fast cooking and iron biofortified beans, the study determined diversity and population structure within 427 breeding lines, varieties, or landraces mostly from Alliance Uganda and Columbia. The genotypes were evaluated for days to flowering and physiological maturity, yield, seed iron (FESEED) and zinc (ZNSEED) and cooking time (COOKT). Data for all traits showed significant (P≤0.001) differences among the genotypes. Repeatability was moderate to high for most traits. Performance ranged from 52 to 87 ppm (FESEED), 23-38 ppm (ZNSEED), 36-361 minutes (COOKT), and 397-1299 kg/ha (yield). Minimal differences existed between the gene pools in the mean performance except in yield, where Mesoamerican beans were better by 117 kg/ha. The genotypes exhibited high genetic diversity and thus have a high potential for use in plant breeding. Improvement of FESEED and ZNSEED, COOKT and yield performance within some markets such as red and small white beans is possible. Hybridization across market classes especially for yellow beans is essential but this could be avoided by adding other elite lines to the population. Superior yielding and fast cooking, yellow and large white beans were specifically lacking. Adding Fe dense elite lines to the population is also recommended. The population was clustered into three groups that could be considered for specific breeding targets based on trait correlations.

Phytotoxic effect of the insecticide imidacloprid in Phaseolus vulgaris L. plant and evaluation of its bioaccumulation and translocation by electrochemical methods

The objective of this work is to study the toxicological effect of the imidacloprid (IMD) on common bean plants (Phaseolus vulgaris L) when used at high doses and its quantification by electrochemical method. Common bean plants were exposed to increasing concentrations of IMD and the different plant tissues were subjected to various analyses. The IMD detection in different tissues of the bean plant was performed after extraction on the metallic silver electrode using square wave voltammetry. The analytical and calibration parameters (Slope, correlation coefficient, linear range, detection limit and relative standard deviation) were calculated for the different plant tissues. The effect of different doses (5.0 × 10^-3 to 5.0 × 10^-2 mol L^-1) of IMD was evaluated on germination, seedling (vigour, growth) and photosynthetic pigments in the bean plant. The results indicate that germination rate and seed vigour index reduced significantly (p ≤ 0.05) only in the applied concentrations above the recommended dose. A similar effect of IMD was observed on seedling development in term of roots length, plant length, number of leaves and number of nods. Concerning pigments content, chlorophyll a, b and total chlorophyll maximally decreased by 95.26%, 80.44% and 82.15% respectively at high applied dose. The bioaccumulation and translocation behaviour of IMD in bean plant was investigated, revealing that the IMD can be bioaccumulated in roots and can easily be translocated into stems and leaves.

Small and Medium Enterprises' Perspectives on Food Fortification Amid the Growing Burden of Malnutrition

The need for a profound food system transformation has never been greater. The growing burden of malnutrition has become the new normal, with two billion people who are overweight, over 140 million children under five who are stunted and over two billion people affected by hidden hunger. Food fortification has been recognized as a cost-effective strategy to address micronutrient deficiencies. Small and medium enterprises (SMEs) play a strategic role in the food supply chain in low- and middle-income countries, accounting for over 80% of food sales. It is therefore critical to create an enabling environment to facilitate SMEs' involvement in food fortification practices as a potential solution to tackle all forms of malnutrition. This review highlights SMEs' relevance as agents of change in the food system through food fortification practices and their indirect yet key role in producing nutritious, tasty and affordable foods. It discusses their challenges (e.g., access to long-term finance, sustainable technical assistance, limited capacity), presents solutions and discusses how different actors can help SMEs to overcome these challenges. Furthermore, it presents a relevant public-private partnership case study to demonstrate how SMEs can address the growing burden of malnutrition through food fortification practices, nutrient profiling schemes and demand generation.

Survey for Virus Diversity in Common Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) Fields and the Detection of a Novel Strain of Cowpea polerovirus 1 in Zambia

The production of common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) is adversely affected by virus-like diseases globally, but little is known about the occurrence, distribution, and diversity of common bean-infecting viruses in Zambia. Consequently, field surveys were conducted during the 2018 season in 128 fields across six provinces of Zambia and 640 common bean leaf tissue samples were collected with (n = 585) or without (n = 55) symptoms. The prevalence of symptomatic fields was 100%, but incidence of symptomatic plants ranged from 32 to 67.5%. Metagenomic analyses of nine composite samples and a single plant sample of interest revealed the occurrence of isolates of Bean common mosaic necrosis virus, Bean common mosaic virus, Cowpea aphid-borne mosaic virus, Peanut mottle virus, Southern bean mosaic virus (SBMV), Cucumber mosaic virus, Phaseolus vulgaris alphaendornavirus 1 (PvEV-1), PvEV-2, Ethiopian tobacco bushy top virus (ETBTV), and a novel strain of Cowpea polerovirus 1 (CPPV1-Pv) of 5,902 nt in length. While CPPV1-Pv was consistently detected in mixed infection with ETBTV and its satellite RNA molecule, based on results of mechanical transmission assays it does not appear to be involved in disease etiology, suggesting that its role may be limited to being a helper virus for the umbravirus. Screening of the survey samples by real-time PCR for the viruses detected by high-throughput sequencing revealed the prevalence of single (65.2% or 417/640) over mixed (1.9% or 12/640) infections in the samples. SBMV was the most frequently detected virus, occurring in ∼29.4% (188/640) of the samples and at a prevalence rate of 58.6% (75/128) across fields. The results showed that diverse virus species are present in Zambian common bean fields and the information will be useful for the management of common bean viral diseases.

Improving Association Studies and Genomic Predictions for Climbing Beans With Data From Bush Bean Populations

Common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) has two major origins of domestication, Andean and Mesoamerican, which contribute to the high diversity of growth type, pod and seed characteristics. The climbing growth habit is associated with increased days to flowering (DF), seed iron concentration (SdFe), nitrogen fixation, and yield. However, breeding efforts in climbing beans have been limited and independent from bush type beans. To advance climbing bean breeding, we carried out genome-wide association studies and genomic predictions using 1,869 common bean lines belonging to five breeding panels representing both gene pools and all growth types. The phenotypic data were collected from 17 field trials and were complemented with 16 previously published trials. Overall, 38 significant marker-trait associations were identified for growth habit, 14 for DF, 13 for 100 seed weight, three for SdFe, and one for yield. Except for DF, the results suggest a common genetic basis for traits across all panels and growth types. Seven QTL associated with growth habits were confirmed from earlier studies and four plausible candidate genes for SdFe and 100 seed weight were newly identified. Furthermore, the genomic prediction accuracy for SdFe and yield in climbing beans improved up to 8.8% when bush-type bean lines were included in the training population. In conclusion, a large population from different gene pools and growth types across multiple breeding panels increased the power of genomic analyses and provides a solid and diverse germplasm base for genetic improvement of common bean.

Genome-wide association studies dissect the genetic architecture of seed shape and size in common bean

Seed weight and size are important yield components. Thus, selecting for large seeds has been a key objective in crop domestication and breeding. In common bean, seed shape is also important since it influences industrial processing and plays a vital role in determining the choices of consumers and farmers. In this study, we performed genome-wide association studies on a core collection of common bean accessions to dissect the genetic architecture and identify genomic regions associated with seed morphological traits related to weight, size, and shape. Phenotypic data were collected by high-throughput image-based approaches, and utilized to test associations with 10,362 single-nucleotide polymorphism markers using multilocus mixed models. We searched within genome-associated regions for candidate genes putatively involved in seed phenotypic variation. The collection exhibited high variability for the entire set of seed traits, and the Andean gene pool was found to produce larger, heavier seeds than the Mesoamerican gene pool. Strong pairwise correlations were verified for most seed traits. Genome-wide association studies identified marker-trait associations accounting for a considerable amount of phenotypic variation in length, width, projected area, perimeter, and circularity in 4 distinct genomic regions. Promising candidate genes were identified, e.g. those encoding an AT-hook motif nuclear-localized protein 8, type 2C protein phosphatases, and a protein Mei2-like 4 isoform, known to be associated with seed size and weight regulation. Moreover, the genes that were pinpointed are also good candidates for functional analysis to validate their influence on seed shape and size in common bean and other related crops.

Effect of Drought and Low P on Yield and Nutritional Content in Common Bean

Common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) production in the tropics typically occurs in rainfed systems on marginal lands where yields are low, primarily as a consequence of drought and low phosphorus (P) availability in soil. This study aimed to investigate the physiological and chemical responses of 12 bush bean genotypes for adaptation to individual and combined stress factors of drought and low P availability. Water stress and P deficiency, both individually and combined, decreased seed weight and aboveground biomass by ∼80%. Water deficit and P deficiency decreased photosynthesis and stomatal conductance during plant development. Maximum rates of carboxylation, electron transport, and triose phosphate utilization were superior for two common bean genotypes (SEF60 and NCB226) that are better adapted to combined stress conditions of water deficit and low P compared to the commercial check (DOR390). In response to water deficit treatment, carbon isotope fractionation in the leaf tissue decreased at all developmental stages. Within the soluble leaf fraction, combined water deficit and low P, led to significant changes in the concentration of key nutrients and amino acids, whereas no impact was detected in the seed. Our results suggest that common bean genotypes have a degree of resilience in yield development, expressed in traits such as pod harvest index, and conservation of nutritional content in the seed. Further exploration of the chemical and physiological traits identified here will enhance the resilience of common bean production systems in the tropics.

Analysis of genetic diversity among common bean germplasm by start codon targeted (SCoT) markers

BACKGROUND

Breeding strategies to improve modern varieties having high yield, high nutritional value and resistance to biotic and abiotic stress, etc. is very important to make up for the food deficiencies. Molecular studies as a tool in breeding programs for the characterization of germplasm have been performed with several DNA marker systems.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In the present study, the genetic diversity of 53 common bean landraces and 22 registered varieties from Turkey, and 12 genotypes from USDA was investigated using start codon targeted (SCoT) markers for the first time worldwide. The 8 primers having stronger and more polymorphic bands were used for PCR amplification.

RESULTS

The mean polymorphic band of all primers was found as 13.13. The average of polymorphic information content and resolving power values was 0.34 and 7.55, respectively. Analysis of molecular variance (AMOVA) explored the existence of higher genetic diversity within populations accounting for 92% compared to among populations variations. According to cluster analysis (UPGMA) and genetic structure based on SCoT data, accessions were separated into Andean (PopA) and Mesoamerican PopB) gene pools. Moreover, accessions were mostly placed in the same groups/subgroups according to their geographical origin.

CONCLUSIONS

A high level of genetic diversity was observed between the investigated accessions in this work. The findings will help to plant breeders to characterize common bean accessions.

Looking inside Mexican Traditional Food as Sources of Synbiotics for Developing Novel Functional Products

Currently, emerging alimentary alternatives are growing, leading to the consumption of natural products including bio, fermented, and traditional foods. The studies over functional properties of food matrices and their derived compounds have resulted in the development of new functional alimentary items. However, most of the population still has limited access to, and information about, suitable foods. Analyzing traditional fermented products, we found fermented food matrices containing beneficial bacteria, with the possibility of exerting effects on different substrates enhancing the bioavailability of short-chain fatty acids (SFCAs), antioxidants, among other food-derived products. Maize (Zea mays L.), agave varieties, nopal (Opuntia ficus-indica), and beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) were key foods for the agricultural and nutritional development of Mesoamerica. We believe that the traditional Mexican diet has relevant ingredients with these functionalities and their association will allow us to develop functional food suitable for each population and their current needs. In this review, the functional properties of maize, agave, nopal, and frijol are detailed, and the functional food innovation and development opportunities for these food matrices are analyzed, which may be an important precedent for future basic and applied research.

Investigating Nutrient Supply Effects on Plant Growth and Seed Nutrient Content in Common Bean

Low soil fertility commonly limits growth and yield production of common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) in tropical regions. Impacts of nutrient limitations on production volume are well studied and are a major factor in reducing crop yields. This study characterised the impact of reduced nutrient supply on carbon assimilation and nutrient content of leaf, phloem sap and reproductive tissues of common bean grown in a controlled environment in order to detect chemical markers for changes in nutritional content. Leaf gas exchange measurements were undertaken over plant development to characterise changes to carbon assimilation under reduced nutrient supply. Samples of leaf, phloem sap and pod tissue of common bean were analysed for carbon isotope discrimination, mineral nutrient content, and amino acid concentration. Despite declines in nutrient availability leading to decreased carbon assimilation and reductions in yield, amino acid concentration was maintained in the pod tissue. Common bean can maintain the nutritional content of individual pods under varying nutrient availabilities demonstrating the resilience of processes determining the viability of reproductive tissues.

Genetic mapping reveals complex architecture and candidate genes involved in common bean response to Meloidogyne incognita infection

Root-knot nematodes (RKNs), particularly Meloidogyne incognita, are among the most damaging and prevalent agricultural pathogens due to their ability to infect roots of almost all crops. The best strategy for their control is through the use of resistant cultivars. However, laborious phenotyping procedures make it difficult to assess nematode resistance in breeding programs. For common bean, this task is especially challenging because little has been done to discover resistance genes or markers to assist selection. We performed genome-wide association studies and quantitative trait loci mapping to explore the genetic architecture and genomic regions underlying the resistance to M. incognita and to identify candidate resistance genes. Phenotypic data were collected by a high-throughput assay, and the number of egg masses and the root-galling index were evaluated. Complex genetic architecture and independent genomic regions were associated with each trait. Single nucleotide polymorphisms on chromosomes Pv06, Pv07, Pv08, and Pv11 were associated with the number of egg masses, and SNPs on Pv01, Pv02, Pv05, and Pv10 were associated with root-galling. A total of 216 candidate genes were identified, including 14 resistance gene analogs and five differentially expressed in a previous RNA sequencing analysis. Histochemical analysis indicated that reactive oxygen species might play a role in the resistance response. Our findings open new perspectives to improve selection efficiency for RKN resistance, and the candidate genes are valuable targets for functional investigation and gene editing approaches.

Effect of hermetic Purdue Improved Crop Storage (PICS) bag on chemical and anti-nutritional properties of common Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) varieties during storage

Storage conditions influence the nutritive value and quality of many legumes. The aim of this study was to evaluate the quality of beans stored under hermetic conditions as a strategy for preserving the quality of beans post-harvest. Three bean varieties [Rosecoco, small red (Wairimu)], and red mottled (Nyayo)] were adjusted to three moisture levels (12%, 15% and 18%) and stored in hermetic bags and ordinary polypropylene bags and sampled after 0, 45, 90, 135,180, 225 and 270 days for chemical and anti-nutritional analysis. Total soluble sugars, in-vitro starch and protein digestibility, free amino nitrogen, tannin content and phytic acid content of the beans were determined using standard methods. Results showed that the beans in hermetic bags had 22%, 23% and 18% higher total soluble sugars, in-vitro starch and protein digestibility, respectively, than those in polypropylene bag during storage. On day 225 of storage, beans in hermetic bags had the optimal in-vitro starch and protein digestibility, and tannin content. Principal component analysis indicated that nutrient and anti-nutrient retention of the beans was achieved with lower storage moisture and duration in hermetic bags. The results of this study can be used to explain the superiority of the hermetic storage technology over ordinary methods of beans storage, and by extension other legumes, in nutrient retention during storage.

Genetic Correlation Between Fe and Zn Biofortification and Yield Components in a Common Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.)

Common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) is the most important legume for direct human consumption worldwide. It is a rich and relatively inexpensive source of proteins and micronutrients, especially iron and zinc. Bean is a target for biofortification to develop new cultivars with high Fe/Zn levels that help to ameliorate malnutrition mainly in developing countries. A strong negative phenotypic correlation between Fe/Zn concentration and yield is usually reported, posing a significant challenge for breeders. The objective of this study was to investigate the genetic relationship between Fe/Zn. We used Quantitative Trait Loci (QTLs) mapping and Genome-Wide Association Studies (GWAS) analysis in three bi-parental populations that included biofortified parents, identifying genomic regions associated with yield and micromineral accumulation. Significant negative correlations were observed between agronomic traits (pod harvest index, PHI; pod number, PdN; seed number, SdN; 100 seed weight, 100SdW; and seed per pod, Sd/Pd) and micronutrient concentration traits (SdFe and SdZn), especially between pod harvest index (PHI) and SdFe and SdZn. PHI presented a higher correlation with SdN than PdN. Seventy-nine QTLs were identified for the three populations: 14 for SdFe, 12 for SdZn, 13 for PHI, 11 for SdN, 14 for PdN, 6 for 100SdW, and 9 for Sd/Pd. Twenty-three hotspot regions were identified in which several QTLs were co-located, of which 13 hotpots displayed QTL of opposite effect for yield components and Fe/Zn accumulation. In contrast, eight QTLs for SdFe and six QTLs for SdZn were observed that segregated independently of QTL of yield components. The selection of these QTLs will enable enhanced levels of Fe/Zn and will not affect the yield performance of new cultivars focused on biofortification.

Delineating meta-quantitative trait loci for anthracnose resistance in common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.)

Anthracnose, caused by the fungus Colletotrichum lindemuthianum, is one of the devastating disease affecting common bean production and productivity worldwide. Several quantitative trait loci (QTLs) for anthracnose resistance have been identified. In order to make use of these QTLs in common bean breeding programs, a detailed meta-QTL (MQTL) analysis has been conducted. For the MQTL analysis, 92 QTLs related to anthracnose disease reported in 18 different earlier studies involving 16 mapping populations were compiled and projected on to the consensus map. This meta-analysis led to the identification of 11 MQTLs (each involving QTLs from at least two different studies) on 06 bean chromosomes and 10 QTL hotspots each involving multiple QTLs from an individual study on 07 chromosomes. The confidence interval (CI) of the identified MQTLs was found 3.51 times lower than the CI of initial QTLs. Marker-trait associations (MTAs) reported in published genome-wide association studies (GWAS) were used to validate nine of the 11 identified MQTLs, with MQTL4.1 overlapping with as many as 40 MTAs. Functional annotation of the 11 MQTL regions revealed 1,251 genes including several R genes (such as those encoding for NBS-LRR domain-containing proteins, protein kinases, etc.) and other defense related genes. The MQTLs, QTL hotspots and the potential candidate genes identified during the present study will prove useful in common bean marker-assisted breeding programs and in basic studies involving fine mapping and cloning of genomic regions associated with anthracnose resistance in common beans.

Portuguese Common Bean Natural Variation Helps to Clarify the Genetic Architecture of the Legume's Nutritional Composition and Protein Quality

Common bean is a nutritious food legume widely appreciated by consumers worldwide. It is a staple food in Latin America, and a component of the Mediterranean diet, being an affordable source of protein with high potential as a gourmet food. Breeding for nutritional quality, including both macro and micronutrients, and meeting organoleptic consumers' preferences is a difficult task which is facilitated by uncovering the genetic basis of related traits. This study explored the diversity of 106 Portuguese common bean accessions, under two contrasting environments, to gain insight into the genetic basis of nutritional composition (ash, carbohydrates, fat, fiber, moisture, protein, and resistant starch contents) and protein quality (amino acid contents and trypsin inhibitor activity) traits through a genome-wide association study. Single-nucleotide polymorphism-trait associations were tested using linear mixed models accounting for the accessions' genetic relatedness. Mapping resolution to the gene level was achieved in 56% of the cases, with 102 candidate genes proposed for 136 genomic regions associated with trait variation. Only one marker-trait association was stable across environments, highlighting the associations' environment-specific nature and the importance of genotype × environment interaction for crops' local adaptation and quality. This study provides novel information to better understand the molecular mechanisms regulating the nutritional quality in common bean and promising molecular tools to aid future breeding efforts to answer consumers' concerns.

Sensory Characteristics and Nutritional Quality of Food Products Made with a Biofortified and Lectin Free Common Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) Flour

Common beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) are an important source of nutrients with beneficial effects on human health. However, they contain lectins, that limit the direct use of flour in food preparations without thermal treatment, and phytic acid, that reduces mineral cation bioavailability. The objectives of this research were: to obtain biofortified snacks and a cream using an untreated common bean flour devoid of active lectins (lec^-) and with reduced content of phytic acid (lpa) and to evaluate the sensorial appreciation for these products. The main results of the present work were: the products with the lpa lec^- flour did not retain residual hemagglutinating activity due to lectins; they showed higher residual α-amylase inhibitor activity (from 2.2 to 135 times), reduced in vitro predicted glycemic index (about 5 units reduction) and increased iron bioavailability compared to the products with wild type flour; products with common bean flour were less appreciated than the reference ones without this flour, but the presence of an intense umami taste can be a positive attribute. Results confirmed that the use of the lpa lec^- flour has important advantages in the preparation of safe and nutritionally improved products, and provide useful information to identify target consumers, such as children and elderly people.

Understanding G × E Interaction for Nutritional and Antinutritional Factors in a Diverse Panel of Vigna stipulacea (Lam.) Kuntz Germplasm Tested Over the Locations

Micronutrient malnutrition or hidden hunger is a serious challenge toward societal well-being. Vigna stipulacea (Lam.) Kuntz (known locally as Minni payaru), is an underutilized legume that has the potential to be a global food legume due to its rich nutrient profile. In the present study, 99 accessions of V. stipulacea were tested for iron (Fe), zinc (Zn), calcium (Ca), protein, and phytate concentrations over two locations for appraisal of stable nutrient-rich sources. Analysis of variance revealed significant effects of genotype for all the traits over both locations. Fe concentration ranged from 29.35-130.96 mg kg-1 whereas Zn concentration ranged from 19.44 to 74.20 mg kg-1 across both locations. The highest grain Ca concentration was 251.50 mg kg-1 whereas the highest grain protein concentration was recorded as 25.73%. In the case of grain phytate concentration, a genotype with the lowest value is desirable. IC622867 (G-99) was the lowest phytate containing accession at both locations. All the studied traits revealed highly significant genotypic variances and highly significant genotype × location interaction though less in magnitude than the genotypic variance. GGE Biplot analysis detected that, for grain Fe, Zn, and Ca concentration the 'ideal' genotypes were IC331457 (G-75), IC331610 (G-76), and IC553564 (G-60), respectively, whereas for grain protein concentration IC553521 (G-27) was the most "ideal type." For phytate concentration, IC351407 (G-95) and IC550523 (G-99) were considered as 'ideal' and 'desirable,' respectively. Based on the desirability index, Location 1 (Kanpur) was identified as ideal for Fe, Zn, Ca, and phytate, and for grain protein concentration, Location 2 (New Delhi) was the ideal type. A significant positive correlation was detected between grain Fe as well as grain Zn and protein concentration considering the pooled analysis over both the locations where as a significant negative association was observed between phytate and protein concentration over the locations. This study has identified useful donors and enhanced our knowledge toward the development of biofortified Vigna cultivars. Promoting domestication of this nutrient-rich semi-domesticated, underutilized species will boost sustainable agriculture and will contribute toward alleviating hidden hunger.

Nutritional Properties of Larval Epidermis and Meat of the Edible Insect Clanis bilineata tsingtauica (Lepidoptera: Sphingidae)

Insects represent a sustainable, protein-rich food source widely consumed in Asia, Africa, and South America. Eating Clanis bilineata tsingtauica Mell is common in the eastern part of China. A comparative characterization of nutrients in the meat and epidermis of C. bilineata tsingtauica was performed in this study. The results showed this insect to be high in nutrients, particularly in the epidermis where protein total was 71.82%. Sixteen different amino acids were quantified in C. bilineata tsingtauica, and the ratio of essential to nonessential amino acids in the epidermis and meat was 68.14% and 59.27%, respectively. The amino acid composition of C. bilineata tsingtauica is balanced, representing a high-quality protein source. Eight minerals were quantified in C. bilineata tsingtauica, including four macro and four trace elements. Fe in the epidermis and Zn in the meat were abundant at 163.82 and 299.31 μg/g DW, respectively. The presence of phytic acid impacted the absorption of mineral elements in food. We also detected phytic acid in C. bilineata tsingtauica. The molar ratio of phytic acid to zinc (PA/Zn) in C. bilineata tsingtauica was very low (3.28) compared to Glycine max and Cryptotympana atrata, which indicated that mineral utilization was high. In conclusion, this study confirms that C. bilineata tsingtauica is a highly nutritious food source for human consumption, and the results provide a basis for further consumption and industrialization of this edible insect.

Complementary Feeding Indicators in Relation to Micronutrient Status of Ghanaian Children Aged 6-23 Months: Results from a National Survey

BACKGROUND

Optimal complementary feeding is critical for adequate growth and development in infants and young children. The associations between complementary feeding and growth have been studied well, but less is known about the relationship between complementary feeding and micronutrient status.

METHODS

Using data from a national cross-sectional survey conducted in Ghana in 2017, we examined how multiple WHO-recommended complementary feeding indicators relate to anemia and the micronutrient status of children aged 6-23 months.

RESULTS

In total, 42%, 38%, and 14% of the children met the criteria for minimum dietary diversity (MDD), minimum meal frequency (MMF), and minimum acceptable diet (MAD), respectively. In addition, 71% and 52% of the children consumed iron-rich foods and vitamin A-rich foods, respectively. The prevalence of anemia, iron deficiency (ID), iron deficiency anemia (IDA) and vitamin A deficiency (VAD) was 46%, 45%, 27%, and 10%, respectively. Inverse associations between MMF and socio-economic status were found, and MMF was associated with an increased risk of ID (55%; p < 0.013) and IDA (38%; p < 0.002).

CONCLUSION

The pathways connecting complementary feeding and micronutrient status are complex. Findings related to MMF should be further investigated to ensure that complementary feeding programs account for the potential practice of frequent feeding with nutrient-poor foods.

Genome-wide association study for grain mineral content in a Brazilian common bean diversity panel

QTNs significantly associated to nine mineral content in grains of common bean were identified. The accumulation of favorable alleles was associated with a gradually increasing nutrient content in the grain. Biofortification is one of the strategies developed to address malnutrition in developing countries, the aim of which is to improve the nutritional content of crops. The common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.), a staple food in several African and Latin American countries, has excellent nutritional attributes and is considered a strong candidate for biofortification. The objective of this study was to identify genomic regions associated with nutritional content in common bean grains using 178 Mesoamerican accessions belonging to a Brazilian Diversity Panel (BDP) and 25,011 good-quality single nucleotide polymorphisms. The BDP was phenotyped in three environments for nine nutrients (phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, copper, manganese, sulfur, zinc, and iron) using four genome-wide association multi-locus methods. To obtain more accurate results, only quantitative trait nucleotides (QTNs) that showed repeatability (i.e., those detected at least twice using different methods or environments) were considered. Forty-eight QTNs detected for the nine minerals showed repeatability and were considered reliable. Pleiotropic QTNs and overlapping genomic regions surrounding the QTNs were identified, demonstrating the possible association between the deposition mechanisms of different nutrients in grains. The accumulation of favorable alleles in the same accession was associated with a gradually increasing nutrient content in the grain. The BDP proved to be a valuable source for association studies. The investigation of different methods and environments showed the reliability of markers associated with minerals. The loci identified in this study will potentially contribute to the improvement of Mesoamerican common beans, particularly carioca and black beans, the main groups consumed in Brazil.

Antinutrient to mineral molar ratios of raw common beans and their rapid prediction using near-infrared spectroscopy

The presence of antinutrients in common beans negatively affects mineral bioavailability. Therefore, this study aimed to predict the antinutrient to mineral molar ratios (proxy-indicators of in vitro mineral bioavailability) of a wide range of raw bean types, using near-infrared (NIR) spectroscopy. Iron, zinc, phytate and tannin concentrations and, antinutrient to mineral molar ratios were determined. Next, model calibration using NIR spectra from milled beans was performed. This entailed wavelength selection, pre-processing and partial least squares regression. Bean type had a significant effect on tannin content. The average values of phytate to iron (Phy:Fe), phytate to zinc (Phy:Zn), tannins to iron (Tan:Fe) and phytate and tannins to iron (Phy + Tan:Fe) MRs were 27.6, 61.7, 16.0 and 43.6, respectively. With determination coefficients for test set prediction above 75%, the PLS-R models for Phy:Zn, Tan:Fe and Phy + Tan:Fe molar ratios are useful for screening purposes.

Genome-Environment Association Analysis for Bio-Climatic Variables in Common Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) from Brazil

Abiotic stress is a limiting factor for common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) production globally. The study of the genotypic, phenotypic, and bio-climatic variables in a broad set of accessions may assist the identification of genomic regions involved in the climatic adaptation of the common bean. We conducted a genotyping-by-sequencing analysis using 28,823 SNPs on 110 georeferenced common bean accessions from Brazil to discover associations between SNPs and bio-climatic indexes. The population structure analysis clustered the accessions into two groups corresponding to the Andean and Mesoamerican gene pools. Of the 19 bioclimatic variables, 17 exhibited a significant association with SNPs on chromosomes Pv01, Pv02, Pv03, Pv04, Pv06, Pv09, Pv10, and Pv11 of common bean. Ten candidate genes were associated with specific bio-climatic variables related to temperature and precipitation. The candidate genes associated with this significant Pv09 region encode a Platz transcription factor family protein previously reported to be an essential regulator of drought stress. The SNP markers and candidate genes associated with the bio-climatic variables should be validated in segregating populations for water stress, which could further be used for marker-assisted selection. As a result, bean breeding programs may be able to provide advances in obtaining drought-tolerant cultivars.

Genetic dissection of days to flowering via genome-wide association studies in Turkish common bean germplasm

Common bean is a nutrient-dense legume crop serving as a source of food for millions of people. Characterization of unexplored common bean germplasm to unlock the phenotypic and genetic variations is still needed to explore the breeding potential of this crop. The current study aimed to dissect the genetic basis having association for days to flowering (DF). A total of 188 common bean accessions collected from 19 provinces of Turkey were used as plant material under five environments and two locations. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) revealed that genotypes and genotype by environment interaction have significant effects on DF. A total of 10 most stable accessions were evaluated from stability analysis. Overall maximum (75) and minimum (54) DF were observed for Hakkari-51 and Mus-46 accessions, respectively. The implemented constellation plot divided studied germplasm according to their DF and growth habit. A total of 7900 DArTseq markers were used for association analysis. Mixed linear model using the Q + K Model resulted a total of 18 DArTseq markers from five environments. DArT-8668385 marker identified in Bolu during 2016 was also associated with DF in Sivas during 2017. Combined data of five years resulted a total of four markers (DArT-22346534, DArT-3369768, DArT-3374613, and DArT-3370801) having significant association ( p  <  0.01 ) for DF. DArT-22346534 present on Pv 08 accounted a maximum of 9.89% variation to the studied trait. A total of four putative candidate genes were predicted from sequences reflecting homology to identified four DArTseq markers. We envisage that exploitation of identified DArTseq markers will hopefully beneficial for the development of new common bean varieties having better adaptation ability to changing climatic conditions.

SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s12298-021-01029-8.

Genetic Variability of Mineral Content in Different Grain Structures of Bean Cultivars from Mesoamerican and Andean Gene Pools

Beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) are an important source of proteins, carbohydrates, and micronutrients in the diets of millions of people in Latin America and Africa. Studies related to genetic variability in the accumulation and distribution of nutrients are valuable for biofortification programs, as there is evidence that the seed coat and embryo differ in the bioavailability of essential nutrients. In this study, we sought to evaluate the genetic variability of total mineral content in the grain and its constituent parts (seed coat, cotyledon, and embryonic axis) of bean genotypes from Mesoamerican and Andean centers of origin. Grain samples of 10 bean cultivars were analyzed for the content of proteins and minerals (Mg, Ca, K, P, Mn, S, Cu, B, Fe, and Zn) in the whole grains and seed coat, cotyledons, and embryonic axis tissues. Genetic variability was observed among the cultivars for protein content and all evaluated minerals. Moreover, differential accumulation of minerals was observed in the seed coat, cotyledons, and embryonic axis. Except for Ca, which accumulated predominantly in the seed coat, higher percentages of minerals were detected in the cotyledons. Furthermore, 100-grain mass values showed negative correlations with the contents of Ca, Mg, P, Zn, Fe, and Mn in whole grains or in the different grain tissues. In general, the Mesoamerican cultivars showed a higher concentration of minerals in the grains, whereas Andean cultivars showed higher concentrations of protein.

Prevalence and approaches to manage iron deficiency anemia (IDA)

Iron is a vital micronutrient required for growth and development at all stages of human life. Its deficiency is the primary cause of anemia that poses a significant global health problem and challenge for developing countries. Various risks are involved during iron deficiency anemia (IDA), such as premature delivery, low birth weight, etc. Further, it affects children's cognitive functioning, delays motor development, hampers physical performance and quality of life. It also speeds up the morbidity and mortality rate among women. The major reasons accountable are elevated iron demand in diet, socio-economic status, and disease condition. Various strategies have been adopted to reduce the IDA occurrence, such as iron supplementation, iron fortificants salts, agronomic practices, dietary diversification, biofortification, disease control measures, and nutritional education. Usually, the staple food groups for fortification are considered, but the selection of food fortificants and their combination must be safe for the consumers and not alter the finished product's stability and acceptability. Genetically modified breeding practices also increase the micronutrient levels of cereal crops. Therefore, multiple strategies could be relied on to combat IDA.

Thermal treatment of common beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.): Factors determining cooking time and its consequences for sensory and nutritional quality

Over the past years, the shift toward plant-based foods has largely increased the global awareness of the nutritional importance of legumes (common beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) in particular) and their potential role in sustainable food systems. Nevertheless, the many benefits of bean consumption may not be realized in large parts of the world, since long cooking time (lack of convenience) limits their utilization. This review focuses on the current insights in the cooking behavior (cookability) of common beans and the variables that have a direct and/or indirect impact on cooking time. The review includes the various methods to evaluate textural changes and the effect of cooking on sensory attributes and nutritional quality of beans. In this review, it is revealed that the factors involved in cooking time of beans are diverse and complex and thus necessitate a careful consideration of the choice of (pre)processing conditions to conveniently achieve palatability while ensuring maximum nutrient retention in beans. In order to harness the full potential of beans, there is a need for a multisectoral collaboration between breeders, processors, and nutritionists.

Investigation of Genotype by Environment Interactions for Seed Zinc and Iron Concentration and Iron Bioavailability in Common Bean

Iron and zinc malnutrition are global public health concerns afflicting mostly infants, children, and women in low- and middle-income countries with widespread consumption of plant-based diets. Common bean is a widely consumed staple crop around the world and is an excellent source of protein, fiber, and minerals including iron and zinc. The development of nutrient-dense common bean varieties that deliver more bioavailable iron and zinc with a high level of trait stability requires a measurement of the contributions from genotype, environment, and genotype by environment interactions. In this research, we investigated the magnitude of genotype by environment interaction for seed zinc and iron concentration and seed iron bioavailability (FeBIO) using a set of nine test genotypes and three farmers' local check varieties. The research germplasm was evaluated for two field seasons across nine on-farm locations in three agro-ecological zones in Uganda. Seed zinc concentration ranged from 18.0 to 42.0 μg g^-1 and was largely controlled by genotype, location, and the interaction between location and season [28.0, 26.2, and 14.7% of phenotypic variability explained (PVE), respectively]. Within a genotype, zinc concentration ranged on average 12 μg g^-1 across environments. Seed iron concentration varied from 40.7 to 96.7 μg g^-1 and was largely controlled by genotype, location, and the interaction between genotype, location, and season (25.7, 17.4, and 13.7% of PVE, respectively). Within a genotype, iron concentration ranged on average 28 μg g^-1 across environments. Seed FeBIO ranged from 8 to 116% of Merlin navy control and was largely controlled by genotype (68.3% of PVE). The red mottled genotypes (Rozi Koko and Chijar) accumulated the most seed zinc and iron concentration, while the yellow (Ervilha and Cebo Cela) and white (Blanco Fanesquero) genotypes had the highest seed FeBIO and performed better than the three farmers' local check genotypes (NABE-4, NABE-15, and Masindi yellow). The genotypes with superior and stable trait performance, especially the Manteca seed class which combine high iron and zinc concentrations with high FeBIO, would serve as valuable parental materials for crop improvement breeding programs aimed at enhancing the nutritional value of the common bean.

Increased accumulation of isoflavonoids in common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) tissues treated with 1-oxo-indane-4-carboxylic acid derivatives

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Eleven indanoyl derivatives as potential elicitors were synthesized and characterized.

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Accumulation of nine isoflavonoid phytoalexins in two common bean (P. vulgaris L.) cultivars grown in Colombia was analyzed.

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Dose-response and time-course experiments were performed on cotyledons and hypocotyls-roots of common bean treated with the potential elicitors.

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Application of indanoyl-type elicitors increased the concentration of isoflavonoids in tissues of common bean.

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Accumulation of isoflavonoid phytoalexins was dependent on the cultivar, the tissue type, the elicitor structure and the post-induction time.

Isoflavonoid phytoalexins (isoflavones: genistein, 2′-hydroxygenistein, and daidzein; isoflavanones: dalbergioidin and kievitone; coumestrol; pterocarpans: phaseollidin and phaseollin; and the isoflavan: phaseollinisoflavan) production in response to the application of eleven 1-oxo-indane-4-carboxylic acid derivatives (indanoyl esters and indanoyl amino acids conjugates), in cotyledons and hypocotyl/root of two common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) cultivars was evaluated. The content of isoflavonoids depended on the cultivar, the treated tissue, the time after induction, the structure and concentration of the elicitor. The highest isoflavonoid contents were found when 1-oxo-indanoyl-amino acids conjugates were used as elicitors. Cotyledons and hypocotyl/root of the anthracnose-resistant cultivar produced significantly higher isoflavonoid contents as compared to the susceptible one. Maximum levels of phaseollin were obtained using 0.66 mM 1-oxo-indanoyl-l-isoleucyl methyl ester and between 72 and 96 h post-induction. So, 1-oxo-indane-4-carboxylic acid derivatives, may be used to enhance the amount of isoflavonoid phytoalexins in common bean and protect crops from phytopathogenic microorganisms.

Population structure and genetic diversity analyses of common bean germplasm collections of East and Southern Africa using morphological traits and high-density SNP markers

Knowledge of genetic diversity in plant germplasm and the relationship between genetic factors and phenotypic expression is vital for crop improvement. This study's objectives were to understand the extent of genetic diversity and population structure in 60 common bean genotypes from East and Southern Africa. The common bean genotypes exhibited significant (p<0.05) levels of variability for traits such as days to flowering (DTF), days to maturity (DTM), number of pods per plant (NPP), number of seeds per pod (NSP), and grain yield per hectare in kilograms (GYD). About 47.82 per cent of the variation among the genotypes was explained by seven principal components (PC) associated with the following agronomic traits: NPP, NFF (nodes to first flower), DTF, GH (growth habit) and GYD. The SNP markers revealed mean gene diversity and polymorphic information content values of 0.38 and 0.25, respectively, which suggested the presence of considerable genetic variation among the assessed genotypes. Analysis of molecular variance showed that 51% of the genetic variation were between the gene pools, while 49% of the variation were within the gene pools. The genotypes were delineated into two distinct groups through the population structure, cluster and phylogenetic analyses. Genetically divergent genotypes such as DRK57, MW3915, NUA59, and VTTT924/4-4 with high yield and agronomic potential were identified, which may be useful for common bean improvement.

Pectin and phytic acid reduce mineral bioaccessibility in cooked common bean cotyledons regardless of cell wall integrity

Common bean cotyledons are rich in minerals (Mg, Ca, Fe and Zn), but they also contain natural barriers that can potentially prevent mineral absorption during digestion. In this study, both the cell wall integrity and mineral chelators/antinutrients (phytic acid and pectin) were investigated as natural barriers in common bean cotyledons. To examine the cell wall integrity as a physical barrier for mineral diffusion, soluble mineral content was determined in a cooked cotyledon sample before and after disruption of intact cell walls. While this study showed that the cell wall in cooked common bean cotyledons does not hinder mineral diffusion, it also demonstrated that the presence of antinutrients decreases mineral bioaccessibility. It was shown that a certain mineral fraction is naturally bound to phytic acid and/or pectin and, by enzymatically degrading these antinutrients, the antinutrient-chelated mineral fraction decreased. Moreover, although pH changes are occurring during simulated digestion experiments, which might affect charge of the antinutrients and thus their chelating capacity for minerals, no difference in mineral distribution over antinutrients was observed due to digestion. In addition, this study showed that mineral bioaccessibility in common bean cotyledons could be potentially increased by degrading antinutrients during digestion in the small intestinal phase.