Nano-Formulations for Pulmonary Delivery: Past, Present, and Future Perspectives

Impact of nebulizers on nanoparticles-based gene delivery efficiency: in vitro and in vivo comparison of jet and mesh nebulizers using branched-polyethyleneimine

Nanoparticles-based gene delivery has emerged as a promising approach for the treatment of genetic diseases based on efficient delivery systems for therapeutic nucleic acids (NAs) into the target cells. For pulmonary diseases such as cystic fibrosis (CF), chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases (COPD), infectious disease or lung cancer, aerosol delivery is the best choice to locally deliver NAs into the lungs. It is, therefore, important to investigate the effects of nebulization conditions on the efficiency of delivery. To this purpose, the non-viral vector branched polyethyleneimine (b-PEI, 25 kDa) was investigated for plasmid delivery by aerosol. Two types of nebulizers, jet nebulizer and mesh nebulizer, were compared regarding the properties of the nanoparticles (NPs) formed, the efficiency of NAs delivery in vitro and in vivo models and the pulmonary deposition. The results indicate that the mesh nebulizer has a better gene delivery performance than the jet nebulizer in this application. This superiority was demonstrated in terms of size, concentration, distribution of NPs and efficiency of NAs delivery. However, pulmonary deposition appears to be similar regardless of the nebulizer used, and the difference between the two systems lies in the inhalable dose. These results underline the crucial role of nebulization techniques in optimizing aerosol-mediated gene delivery by b-PEI and highlight the potential of mesh nebulizers as promising tools to improved gene therapy. Therefore, the comparison must be performed for each gene therapy formulation to determine the most suitable nebulizer.

Nano-formulations in disease therapy: designs, advances, challenges, and future directions

Nano-formulations, as an innovative drug delivery system, offer distinct advantages in enhancing drug administration methods, improving bioavailability, promoting biodegradability, and enabling targeted delivery. By exploiting the unique size advantages of nano-formulations, therapeutic agents, including drugs, genes, and proteins, can be precisely reorganized at the microscale level. This modification not only facilitates the precise release of these agents but also significantly enhances their efficacy while minimizing adverse effects, thereby creating novel opportunities for treatment of a wide range of diseases. In this review, we discuss recent advancements, challenges, and future perspectives in nano-formulations for therapeutic applications. For this aim, we firstly introduce the development, design, synthesis, and action mechanisms of nano-formulations. Then, we summarize their applications in disease diagnosis and treatment, especially in fields of oncology, pulmonology, cardiology, endocrinology, dermatology, and ophthalmology. Furthermore, we address the challenges associated with the medical applications of nanomaterials, and provide an outlook on future directions based on these considerations. This review offers a comprehensive examination of the current applications and potential significance of nano-formulations in disease diagnosis and treatment, thereby contributing to the advancement of modern medical therapies.

Exploring nanoparticles in lungs under COPD conditions for nanospray drug flow and deposition: CFD simulations and AI predictions

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) plays a heavy burden on individuals and the social health system, not only causing direct medical costs but also economic losses. Today, treatments for COPD include drugs, bronchodilators, and oxygen therapies. In these treatments, depositing drug particles within the bronchioles is quite critical. This study utilizes the Weibel five-generation lung model (G5-G9) and the out-of-plane modeling method to improve the three-dimensional characterization of the airways. COPD's impact on nanoparticle deposition at different stages is evaluated under the actual respiratory condition with a respiratory rate of about 30 L‧min-1. In addition, the deposition of medicine nanoparticles at three typical nanoparticle densities (i.e., 1000, 1100, and 1550 kg m-3) is also studied by considering the nanoparticle sizes ranging from 10 to 100 nm. The predictions illustrate the airflow patterns of streamlines. The characteristics of nanoparticle deposition and the correlations between Stokes number and total deposition are further explored. It is found that COPD significantly affects airflow patterns and causes disturbances at airway bifurcations, which leads to higher flow velocities, more collisions of nanoparticles on the walls, and subsequent nanoparticle deposition. Remarkable hot spots occur in some airway segments due to airflow deflection and secondary flow appearance. Furthermore, the impact of various nanoparticle sizes can be predicted at each stage by employing artificial neural networks based on computational fluid dynamics data of flow patterns and deposition of drug nanoparticles. The results benefit the reduction of drug waste, thereby lowering the escalating global public health burden associated with COPD.

Optimization of aerosolizable and bioactive essential oils-based nanoemulsions: Physico-chemical and biological characterization

Antibiotic resistance is one of the major threats to public health, with an increasing number of deaths annually and respiratory tract infections are considered a leading cause of global death, particularly in vulnerable populations. It is therefore extremely urgent to find new therapeutic strategies to overcome this problem and one of these is represented by the design of aerosolizable nanoformulations (NEs). In this work we designed NEs composed by a mixture of Rosmarinus officinalis and Thymus vulgaris essential oils aiming to obtain an active nanocarrier capable and useful to entrap different active compounds. The formulation, NEs-1, was deeply characterized in terms of dynamic light scattering, ζ-potential measurements, stability studies, antimicrobial activity and cytotoxicity. Our results showed that NEs-1 exhibited useful physico-chemical properties for nose-to lung applications, as well as significant biological activity. However, at the selected oil concentration, it induced cytotoxic effects on eukaryotic cells. We subsequently identified the optimum oil concentration, and the formulation was then optimized to obtain NEs-2, nanoemulsions with similar physico-chemical properties to NEs-1. NEs-2 was furthermore characterized by morphological analysis, in terms of resistance to nebulization process and stability in simulated biological fluid such as nasal and artificial sputum. Moreover, NEs-2 demonstrated the ability to slow down the growth of E. coli and K. pneumoniae, confirming its potential as a bioactive carrier with the aim of encapsulating antimicrobial molecules and increasing their effectiveness and reducing their adverse effects.

Formulation and clinical translation of inhalable nanomedicines for the treatment and prevention of pulmonary infectious diseases

Pulmonary infections caused by bacteria, viruses and fungi are a significant global health issue. Inhalation therapies are gaining interest as an effective approach to directly target infected lung sites and nanoparticle-based pulmonary delivery systems are increasingly investigated for this purpose. In this review, we provide an overview of common pulmonary infectious diseases and review recent work on the application of inhalable nanoparticle-based formulations for pulmonary infectious diseases, the formulation strategies, and the current research for delivering inhalable nanomedicines. We also evaluate the current clinical development status, market landscape, and discuss challenges that impede clinical translation and propose solutions to overcome these obstacles, highlighting promising opportunities for future advancements in the field. Despite advancements made and products reaching the market, notable gap persists in translational research, with challenges in achieving the target product profile, availability of appropriate in vivo disease models, scale-up, and market related questions, likely hindering research translation to the clinic.

Comprehensive Aerodynamic and Physicochemical Stability Evaluations of Nanocrystal-Based Dry Powder Inhalers: The Role of Mannitol and Leucine in Enhancing Performance

Background: Nanocrystals, a carrier-free nanotechnology, offer significant advantages for pulmonary drug delivery by enhancing the dissolution and solubility of poorly soluble drugs while maintaining favorable biological properties and low toxicity. This study aims to investigate the aerodynamic performance and stability of nanocrystal-based dry powders (NC-DPs). Methods: Nanocrystalline suspensions were produced via wet media milling and subjected to stability studies before undergoing nano spray drying. A factorial design was employed to optimize the process parameters. The influence of mannitol and leucine, individually and in combination, was evaluated in terms of aerodynamic properties (Aerodynamic Particle Sizer (APS), in silico modeling) and the physicochemical stability at room temperature (in a desiccator) and accelerated conditions (40 ± 2 °C, 75 ± 5% relative humidity). Results: APS analysis revealed that leucine-containing powders (K-NC-Ls) exhibited the smallest median (1.357 µm) and geometric mean (1.335 µm) particle sizes, enhancing dispersibility. However, in silico results indicated the highest exhaled fraction for K-NC-L, highlighting the need for optimized excipient selection. Although mannitol showed the lowest exhaled fraction, it was mainly deposited in the extra-thoracic region in silico. The mannitol/leucine combination (K-NC-ML) revealed a low exhaled fraction and high lung deposition in silico. Also, K-NC-ML demonstrated superior stability, with a 6% reduction in D[0.5] and a 5% decrease in span overtime. Furthermore, no significant changes in crystallinity, thermal behavior, drug release, or mass median aerodynamic diameter were observed under stress conditions. Conclusions: These findings confirm that combined incorporation of mannitol and leucine in NC-DP formulations enhances stability and aerodynamic performance, making it a promising approach for pulmonary drug delivery.

In silico screening and validation of natural compounds with fabrication and characterization of a lead compound-loaded chitosome for targeting lung fibrosis

Lung fibrosis (LF) is a serious complication with very limited therapeutic options. This study aimed to find a potential compound for targeting LF and develop a chitosome formulation to minimize any inherent drawbacks of the compound and achieve effective drug delivery. In total, 79 natural compounds were screened using an in silico approach against five targeted proteins (3HMG, 6B8Y, 2FAP, 3CQU, and 3DK9). Amongst these, quercetin (QER) exhibited the best efficacy (-14.725 kcal mol-1) and ΔG average (-86.45 ± 6.24) kcal mol-1 against the TGF-β receptor (PDB ID: 6B8Y). In vitro studies revealed that bleomycin-challenged A549 cells showed a fibrosis-like behaviour. Upon treatment with QER, the cell viability decreased owing to a reduction in the mitochondrial membrane potential and increased apoptosis. Furthermore, cell migration was inhibited with an improvement in cellular morphology. A QER-loaded chitosome formulation (QCF) was prepared through modified thin-film hydration. Variables were optimized using a response surface methodology Box-Behnken design. The QCF was further characterized on the basis of microscopic observation, zeta potential, entrapment efficiency, drug release and kinetics and by evaluating the effect of temperature on the QCF. Its zeta potential was +24.83 ± 0.32 mV, while microscopic observation showed that it had a spherical morphology with slightly rough surfaces after chitosan coating. Furthermore, the EE% was determined to be 81.75 ± 0.46%. The QCF also demonstrated a 74.23 ± 1.01% release of QER till 24 h, following Higuchi model kinetics. In conclusion, the in silico and in vitro cell line studies provided evidence for QER as a lead molecule for targeting LF. Moreover, the prepared QCF demonstrated sustained release with prospective QER targeted delivery. However, further extensive research is required to provide a promising strategy for the management of LF in the future.

The (re)emergence of aerosol delivery: Treatment of pulmonary diseases and its clinical challenges

Aerosol delivery represents a rapid and non-invasive way to directly reach the lungs while escaping the hepatic first-pass effect. The development of pulmonary drugs for respiratory diseases such as cystic fibrosis, lung infections, pulmonary fibrosis or lung cancer requires an enhanced understanding of the relationships between the natural physiology of the respiratory system and the pathophysiology of these conditions. This knowledge is crucial to better predict and thereby control drug deposition. Moreover, aerosol administration faces several challenges, including the pulmonary tract, immune system, mucociliary clearance, the presence of fluid on the airway surfaces, and, in some cases, bacterial colonisation. Each of them directly influences on the bioavailability of the active molecule. In addition to these challenges, particle size and the device used to administer the treatment are critical factors that can significantly impact the biodistribution of the drugs. Nanoparticles are very promising in the development of new formulations for aerosol drug delivery, as they can be fine-tuned to reach the entire pulmonary tract and overcome the difficulties encountered along the way. However, to properly assess drug delivery, preclinical studies need to be more thorough to efficiently enhance drug delivery.

Effects of Surface Charge of Inhaled Liposomes on Drug Efficacy and Biocompatibility

Objectives: Liposomes are a promising drug carrier for inhaled delivery systems and their physical parameters could influence therapeutic efficacy significantly. This study was designed to answer the specific question of the proper surface charge of liposomes in pulmonary inhalation, as well as to study the synergistic anti-inflammation efficacy between drugs. Methods: In this work, a series of drug-loaded liposomes with different surface charges (from negative to positive) were prepared, and several in vitro and in vivo assays, including cytotoxicity, hemolysis assay, mucus penetration and lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced pneumonia model test, were adopted to evaluate the anti-inflammation efficacy and biocompatibility of the above liposomes. Results: Compared with cationic liposomes, anionic liposomes are capable of better mucus penetration and good biocompatibility (low cytotoxicity, better blood compatibility and mild tissue inflammation), but with poor cellular uptake by immune cells. In specific, even when the liposome surface charge was only +2.6 mV, its cytotoxicity and blood hemolysis reached around 20% and 15%, respectively. Furthermore, there was no significant difference in biocompatibility between anionic liposomes (-25.9 vs. -2.5 mV), but a slightly negative-charged liposome exhibited better cellular uptake. Conclusions: Thus, slightly negative-charged liposomes (-1~-3 mV) could be a well inhaled drug carrier considering both efficacy and biocompatibility. In an LPS-induced pneumonia mouse model, the drug-loaded liposomes achieved better anti-inflammatory efficacy compared with free drugs.

Nanotechnology-Based Therapeutics for Airway Inflammatory Diseases

Under the concept of "one airway, one disease", upper and lower airway inflammatory diseases share similar pathogenic mechanisms and are collectively referred to as airway inflammatory diseases. With industrial development and environmental changes, the incidence of these diseases has gradually increased. Traditional treatments, including glucocorticoids, antihistamines, and bronchodilators, have alleviated much of the discomfort experienced by patients. However, conventional drug delivery routes have inherent flaws, such as significant side effects, irritation of the respiratory mucosa, and issues related to drug deactivation. In recent years, nanomaterials have emerged as excellent carriers for drug delivery and are being increasingly utilized in the treatment of airway inflammatory diseases. These materials not only optimize the delivery of traditional medications but also facilitate the administration of various new drugs that target novel pathways, thereby enhancing the treatment outcomes of inflammatory diseases. This study reviews the latest research on nano-drug delivery systems used in the treatment of airway inflammatory diseases, covering traditional drugs, immunotherapy drugs, antimicrobial drugs, plant-derived drugs, and RNA drugs. The challenges involved in developing nano-delivery systems for these diseases are discussed, along with a future outlook. This review offers new insights that researchers can utilize to advance further research into the clinical application of nano-drug delivery systems for treating airway inflammatory diseases.

Extracellular vesicles-based vaccines: Emerging immunotherapies against cancer

Cancer vaccines are promising therapeutic approaches to enhance specific T-cell immunity against most solid tumors. By stimulating anti-tumor immunity, clearing minimal residual disease, and minimizing adverse effects, these vaccines target tumor cells and are effective when combined with immune checkpoint blockade or other immunotherapies. However, the development of tumor cell-based vaccines faces quality issues due to poor immunogenicity, tumor heterogeneity, a suppressive tumor immune microenvironment, and ineffective delivery methods. In contrast, extracellular vesicles (EVs), naturally released by cells, are considered the ideal drug carriers and vaccine platforms. EVs offer highly organ-specific targeting, induce broader and more effective immune responses, and demonstrate superior tissue delivery ability. The development of EV vaccines is crucial for advancing cancer immunotherapy. Compared to cell-based vaccines, EV vaccines produced under Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP) offer advantages such as high safety, ease of preservation and transport, and a wide range of sources. This review summarizes the latest research findings on EV vaccine and potential applications in this field. It also highlights novel neoantigens for the development of EV vaccines against cancer.

Development and Evaluation of Aloperine-Loaded Nanostructured Lipid Carriers for the Treatment of Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension

Objective

This study focuses on the development and evaluation of nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs) loaded with aloperine as a potential therapeutic approach for the treatment of pulmonary arterial hypertension.

Methods

The NLCs were designed to enhance the solubility, stability, and bioavailability of aloperine, a compound with vasodilatory and anti-inflammatory properties. Through a series of experiments including single-factor experimentation, transmission electron microscopy, high-performance liquid chromatography, in vivo pharmacokinetics, and tissue distribution studies, we assessed the physicochemical properties, drug release profiles, and in vitro and in vivo performance of this novel nanocarrier.

Results

The prepared aloperine-loaded NLCs exhibited a milky white and translucent suspension appearance, presenting a quasi-spherical shape under a transmission electron microscope, with an average particle size of (509.48±30.04) nm and an entrapment efficiency of (64.18±1.14)%. The drug release profile demonstrated good sustained-release characteristics in vitro, and the formulation remained stable for up to 15 days when stored at 4°C. Compared to the aloperine solution group, the t1/2, AUC(0→t), AUC(0→∞), MRT(0→t), and clearance rate of the aloperine-loaded NLCs were 2.3, 2.96, 3.06, 3.03, and 0.22 times higher, respectively. This indicates that formulating aloperine into NLCs can prolong its circulation time in the body. Furthermore, the concentrations of aloperine in the lungs of the NLCs group were 1.79, 3.78, and 2.30 times higher than those in the solution group at three time points (0.25 h, 1.5 h, 4 h), suggesting that NLCs can increase the accumulation of aloperine in the lungs.

Conclusion

Our findings suggest that NLCs loaded with aloperine could offer a promising strategy for the treatment of pulmonary arterial hypertension.

Biopolymeric Inhalable Dry Powders for Pulmonary Drug Delivery

Natural and synthetic biopolymers are gaining popularity in the development of inhaled drug formulations. Their highly tunable properties and ability to sustain drug release allow for the incorporation of attributes not achieved in dry powder inhaler formulations composed only of micronized drugs, standard excipients, and/or carriers. There are multiple physiological barriers to the penetration of inhaled drugs to the epithelial surface, such as the periciliary layer mucus mesh, pulmonary macrophages, and inflammation and mucus compositional changes resulting from respiratory diseases. Biopolymers may facilitate transport to the epithelial surface despite such barriers. A variety of categories of biopolymers have been assessed for their potential in inhaled drug formulations throughout the research literature, ranging from natural biopolymers (e.g., chitosan, alginate, hyaluronic acid) to those synthesized in a laboratory setting (e.g., polycaprolactone, poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid)) with varying structures and compositions. To date, no biopolymers have been approved as a commercial dry powder inhaler product. However, advances may be possible in the treatment of respiratory diseases and infections upon further investigation and evaluation. Herein, this review will provide a thorough foundation of reported research utilizing biopolymers in dry powder inhaler formulations. Furthermore, insight and considerations for the future development of dry powder formulations will be proposed.

Challenges and Opportunities in COPD Management in Latin America: A Review of Inhalation Therapies and Advanced Drug Delivery Systems

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is a leading cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide, particularly in low- and middle-income countries, where it poses a significant burden. In Latin America, the estimated prevalence of COPD is notably high, but the management and treatment of the disease have progressed slowly. This review examines the current status of inhalation therapy for COPD in Latin America, focusing on pharmacological therapies, inhalation devices, and the potential of advanced drug delivery systems. Pharmacological management predominantly relies on inhaled bronchodilators and corticosteroids, though access to these therapies varies considerably across the region. Inhalation devices, such as metered-dose inhalers (MDIs) and dry powder inhalers (DPIs), play a critical role in effective treatment delivery. However, their usage is often compromised by incorrect technique, low adherence, and limited availability, especially for DPIs. Emerging technologies, including nanoformulations, represent a promising frontier for the treatment of COPD by improving drug delivery and reducing side effects. However, significant barriers, such as high development costs and inadequate infrastructure, hinder their widespread adoption in the region. This review highlights the need for a multifaceted approach to enhance COPD management in Latin America, including optimizing access to existing inhalation therapies, strengthening healthcare infrastructure, improving provider training, and engaging patients in treatment decisions. Overcoming these challenges is crucial to improving COPD outcomes across the region.

Inhalational Drug Devices: Revisiting the Linchpin of Asthma Management

Asthma remains a prevalent condition among all age groups globally. First-line treatment requires the delivery of medications into the distal respiratory tract via inhalers. Using appropriate inhaler techniques is a significant challenge in achieving disease control. A variety of inhalers are available for treating asthma, and selecting the appropriate inhaler type for any given patient is crucial to achieving and maintaining symptomatic control. This review will discuss the anatomy and physiology behind drug delivery via inhalers, the types of inhalers currently available for use, nebulizers, and future directions in the delivery of inhaled medications for asthma.

Nanoparticle-Based Drug Delivery Systems in Inhaled Therapy: Improving Respiratory Medicine

Inhaled nanoparticle (NP) therapy poses intricate challenges in clinical and pharmacodynamic realms. Recent strides have revolutionized NP technology by enabling the incorporation of diverse molecules, thus circumventing systemic clearance mechanisms and enhancing drug effectiveness while mitigating systemic side effects. Despite the established success of systemic NP delivery in oncology and other disciplines, the exploration of inhaled NP therapies remains relatively nascent. NPs loaded with bronchodilators or anti-inflammatory agents exhibit promising potential for precise distribution throughout the bronchial tree, offering targeted treatment for respiratory diseases. This article conducts a comprehensive review of NP applications in respiratory medicine, highlighting their merits, ranging from heightened stability to exacting lung-specific delivery. It also explores cutting-edge technologies optimizing NP-loaded aerosol systems, complemented by insights gleaned from clinical trials. Furthermore, the review examines the current challenges and future prospects in NP-based therapies. By synthesizing current data and perspectives, the article underscores the transformative promise of NP-mediated drug delivery in addressing chronic conditions such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, a pressing global health concern ranked third in mortality rates. This overview illuminates the evolving landscape of NP inhalation therapies, presenting optimistic avenues for advancing respiratory medicine and improving patient outcomes.

Ferulic Acid: A Comprehensive Review

Ferulic acid (FA), a phenolic compound abundant in the cell walls of seeds, leaves, and roots of various fruits, vegetables, cereals, and grains, is renowned for its wide range of biological activities, including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and anticancer properties. Despite its therapeutic potential, the clinical application of FA is hindered by challenges such as poor water solubility, limited bioavailability, rapid metabolism, and instability under physiological conditions. To address these issues, nanotechnology has emerged as a transformative approach, enhancing FA's pharmacokinetic profile. Various nanoparticle-based systems, including polymer-based and lipid-based nanoparticles, have been developed to encapsulate FA. These systems have demonstrated significant improvements in FA's solubility, stability, and bioavailability, with studies showing enhanced antioxidant activity and controlled release profiles. Further, the surface engineering of these nanoparticles provides targeted drug/phytochemical delivery potential. The targeted delivery of drugs/phytochemicals significantly enhances the therapeutic efficacy and minimizes systemic side effects. This review explores the therapeutic potential of FA, the limitations in its clinical application, and the advancements in nanoparticle-based delivery systems that are paving the way for its effective therapeutic use.

Investigation of Factors Influencing the Effectiveness of Deformable Nanovesicles for Insulin Nebulization Inhalation

Nebulized inhalation offers a noninvasive method for delivering drugs to treat both local respiratory and systemic diseases. In this study, insulin was used as a model drug to design a series of deformable nanovesicles (DNVs) with key quality attributes, including particle size, deformability, and drug load capacity. We investigated the effects of these properties on aerosol generation, macrophage phagocytosis, and bloodstream penetration. The results showed that deformability improved nebulization performance and reduced macrophage phagocytosis, benefiting local and systemic delivery. However, the advantage of DNVs for transmembrane penetration was not evident in the alveolar epithelium. Within the size range of 80-490 nm, the smaller the particle size of IPC-DNVs, the easier it is to evade clearance by macrophages and the more effective the in vivo hypoglycemic efficacy will be. In the drug load range of 3-5 mg/mL, a lower drug load resulted in better hypoglycemic efficacy. The area above the blood glucose decline curve with time (AAC) of nebulized DNVs was 2.32 times higher than that of the insulin solution, demonstrating the feasibility and advantages of DNVs in the pulmonary delivery of biomacromolecule drugs. This study provides insights into the construction and formulation optimization of pulmonary delivery carriers.

Nanostructure-Mediated Transport of Therapeutics through Epithelial Barriers

The ability to precisely treat human disease is facilitated by the sophisticated design of pharmacologic agents. Nanotechnology has emerged as a valuable approach to creating vehicles that can specifically target organ systems, effectively traverse epithelial barriers, and protect agents from premature degradation. In this review, we discuss the molecular basis for epithelial barrier function, focusing on tight junctions, and describe different pathways that drugs can use to cross barrier-forming tissue, including the paracellular route and transcytosis. Unique features of drug delivery applied to different organ systems are addressed: transdermal, ocular, pulmonary, and oral delivery. We also discuss how design elements of different nanoscale systems, such as composition and nanostructured architecture, can be used to specifically enhance transepithelial delivery. The ability to tailor nanoscale drug delivery vehicles to leverage epithelial barrier biology is an emerging theme in the pursuit of facilitating the efficacious delivery of pharmacologic agents.

Pulmonary drug delivery devices and nanosystems as potential treatment strategies for acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS)

Despite advances in drug delivery technologies, treating acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) is challenging due to pathophysiological barriers such as lung injury, oedema fluid build-up, and lung inflammation. Active pharmaceutical ingredients (API) can be delivered directly to the lung site of action with the use of aerosol-based drug delivery devices, and this circumvents the hepatic first-pass effect and improves the bioavailability of drugs. This review discusses the various challenges and barriers for pulmonary drug delivery, current interventions for delivery, considerations for effective drug delivery, and the use of nanoparticle drug delivery carriers as potential strategies for delivering therapeutics in ARDS. Nanosystems have the added benefit of entrapping drugs, increase pulmonary drug bioavailability, and using biocompatible and biodegradable excipients that can facilitate targeted and/or controlled delivery. These systems provide an alternative to existing conventional systems. An effective way to deliver drugs for the treatment of ARDS can be by using colloidal systems that are aerosolized or inhaled. Drug distribution to the deeper pulmonary tissues is necessary due to the significant endothelial cell destruction that is prevalent in ARDS. The particle size of nanoparticles (<0.5 μm) makes them ideal candidates for treating ARDS as they can reach the alveoli. A look into the various potential benefits and limitations of nanosystems used for other lung disorders is also considered to indicate how they may be useful for the potential treatment of ARDS.

Preclinical evaluation of novel synthesised nanoparticles based on tyrosine poly(ester amide) for improved targeted pulmonary delivery

Fixed dose combinations (FDCs) incorporating two or three medicines in a single inhaler have been created to enhance patient compliance and hence clinical outcomes. However, the development of dry powder inhalers (DPIs), particularly for FDCs, faces challenges pertinent to formulation uniformity and reproducibility. Therefore, this project aimed to employ nanotechnology to develop a FDC of DPIs for market-leading medicines-fluticasone propionate (FP) and salmeterol xinafoate (SAL)-for asthma management. Nanoaggregates were prepared using a novel biocompatible and biodegradable poly(ester amide) based on the amino acid tyrosine, utilising a one-step interfacial polymerisation process. The produced tyrosine poly (ester amide) drug-loaded nanoparticles were evaluated for content uniformity, PSA, FTIR, TEM, DSC, XRD and aerodynamic performance (in vitro and in vivo). The optimised formulation demonstrated high entrapment efficiency- > 90%. The aerodynamic performance in terms of the emitted dose, fine particle fraction and respirable dose was superior to the carrier-based marketed product. In-vivo studies showed that FP (above the marketed formulation) and SAL reached the lungs of mice in a reproducible manner. These results highlight the superiority of novel FDC FP/SAL nanoparticles prepared via a one-step process, which can be used as a cost-effective and efficient method to alleviate the burden of asthma.