Comprehensive Evaluation of the Efficiency of Yeast Cell Wall Extract to Adsorb Ochratoxin A and Mitigate Accumulation of the Toxin in Broiler Chickens

Microbial Composition of Water Kefir Grains and Their Application for the Detoxification of Aflatoxin B1

Water kefir grains (WKGs), the starter used to develop a traditional beverage named water kefir, consist of a symbiotic mixture of probiotics with diverse bioactivities, but little is known about their abilities to remove mycotoxins that have serious adverse effects on humans and animals. This study investigated the ability of WKGs to remove aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), one of the most toxic mycotoxins, under different settings, and determined the mechanism of absorption mediated by WKGs and the effect of WKGs on the toxicity induced by AFB1 and the reduction in AFB1 in cow milk and tea soups. The results showed the WKGs used herein were dominated by Lactobacillus, Acetobacter, Phenylobacterium, Sediminibacterium, Saccharomyces, Issatchenkia, and Kodamaea. HPLC analysis demonstrated that the WKGs effectively removed AFB1 at concentrations ranging from 1 to 5 µg/mL, pH values ranging from 3 to 9, and temperatures ranging from 4 to 45 °C. Additionally, the removal of AFB1 mainly depended on absorption, which was consistent with the Freundlich and pseudo-second-order kinetic models. Moreover, only 49.63% of AFB1 was released from the AFB1-WKG complex after four washes when the release of AFB1 was non-detectable. Furthermore, WKG treatment caused a dramatic reduction in the mutagenicity induced by AFB1 according to an Ames test and reduced more than 54% of AFB1 in cow milk and three tea soups. These results suggested that WKGs can act as a potential bio-absorbent with a high binding ability to detoxify AFB1 in food and feed via a chemical action step and multi-binding sites of AFB1 absorption in a wide range of scenarios.

Molecularly Imprinted Polymers Using Yeast as a Supporting Substrate

Molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs) have gained significant attention as artificial receptors due to their low cost, mild operating conditions, and excellent selectivity. To optimize the synthesis process and enhance the recognition performance, various support materials for molecular imprinting have been explored as a crucial research direction. Yeast, a biological material, offers advantages such as being green and environmentally friendly, low cost, and easy availability, making it a promising supporting substrate in the molecular imprinting process. We focus on the preparation of different types of MIPs involving yeast and elaborate on the specific roles it plays in each case. Additionally, we discuss the advantages and limitations of yeast in the preparation of MIPs and conclude with the challenges and future development trends of yeast in molecular imprinting research.

Mycosorb A+® como adsorbente de micotoxinas en la dieta sobre la salud y la producción en cuyes

Los alimentos destinados a los animales están contaminados por hongos filamentosos que producen micotoxinas. El estudio tuvo como objetivo evaluar el efecto de Mycosorb A+® como adsorbente de micotoxinas en la dieta sobre la salud, producción y beneficio económico de cuyes en crianza comercial. Se utilizaron 80 cuyes en crecimiento de la raza Perú, entre machos y hembras, con un peso de 435,5 ± 35,5 gramos (g), distribuidos al azar en dos grupos de alimentación: dieta con Mycosorb A+® (experimental) y dieta sin Mycosorb A+® (control), realizado en el distrito de Ilabaya-Tacna, Perú, a 1.425 metros de altitud, durante 57 días. La dieta se elaboró con heno molido de alfalfa, maíz amarillo, afrecho de trigo, torta de soya, harina integral de soya y fuentes de minerales y vitaminas, ofrecida para consumo ad libitum, más 12,5 g·día-1 de alfalfa fresca (H° 78 %) por cuy. Los resultados indican que todas las variables evaluadas, excepto el consumo de materia seca, fueron significativas (P<0,05): morbilidad 2,5 vs. 35,0 %; consumo de materia seca, 59,8 ± 2,1 vs. 58,0 ± 2,4 g·día-1; ganancia de peso vivo, 9,7 ± 1,4 vs. 7,8 ± 0,9 g·día-1; conversión alimenticia, 6,3 ± 0,9 vs. 7,5 ± 0,6; y relación beneficio-costo, 1,52 vs. 1,35, respectivamente. Se concluye que la inclusión de Mycosorb A+® como adsorbente de micotoxinas en la dieta tiene efecto positivo en la salud, producción y beneficio económico en la crianza comercial de cuyes.

Comparative Assessment of Different Yeast Cell Wall-Based Mycotoxin Adsorbents Using a Model- and Bioassay-Based In Vitro Approach

Frequently reported occurrences of deoxynivalenol (DON), beauvericin (BEA), and, to a lesser extent, ochratoxin A (OTA) and citrinin (CIT) in ruminant feed or feedstuff could represent a significant concern regarding feed safety, animal health, and productivity. Inclusion of yeast cell wall-based mycotoxin adsorbents in animal feeds has been a common strategy to mitigate adverse effects of mycotoxins. In the present study, an in vitro approach combining adsorption isotherm models and bioassays was designed to assess the efficacy of yeast cell wall (YCW), yeast cell wall extract (YCWE), and a postbiotic yeast cell wall-based blend (PYCW) products at the inclusion rate of 0.5% (w/v) (ratio of adsorbent mass to buffer solution volume). The Hill's adsorption isotherm model was found to best describe the adsorption processes of DON, BEA, and CIT. Calculated binding potential for YCW and YCWE using the Hill's model exhibited the same ranking for mycotoxin adsorption, indicating that BEA had the highest adsorption rate, followed by DON and CIT, which was the least adsorbed. PYCW had the highest binding potential for BEA compared with YCW and YCWE. In contrast, the Freundlich isotherm model presented a good fit for OTA adsorption by all adsorbents and CIT adsorption by PYCW. Results indicated that YCW was the most efficacious for sequestering OTA, whereas YCWE was the least efficacious. PYCW showed greater efficacy at adsorbing OTA than CIT. All adsorbents exhibited high adsorption efficacy for BEA, with an overall percentage average of bound mycotoxin exceeding 60%, whereas moderate efficacies for the other mycotoxins were observed (up to 37%). Differences in adsorbent efficacy of each adsorbent significantly varied according to experimental concentrations tested for each given mycotoxin (p < 0.05). The cell viability results from the bioassay using a bovine mammary epithelial cell line (MAC-T) indicated that all tested adsorbents could potentially mitigate mycotoxin-related damage to bovine mammary epithelium. Results from our studies suggested that all tested adsorbents had the capacity to adsorb selected mycotoxins in vitro, which could support their use to mitigate their effects in vivo.

Impact of a Natural Fusarial Multi-Mycotoxin Challenge on Broiler Chickens and Mitigation Properties Provided by a Yeast Cell Wall Extract and a Postbiotic Yeast Cell Wall-Based Blend

Yeast cell wall-based preparations have shown efficacy against Aspergillus-based toxins but have lower impact against type-B trichothecenes. Presently, we investigated a combination of deoxynivalenol (DON), T-2 toxin (T2) and zearalenone (ZEA), and the effect of a yeast cell wall extract (YCWE) and a post-biotic yeast cell wall-based blend (PYCW) with the objectives of preventing mycotoxins’ negative effects in commercial broilers. A total of 720 one-day-old male Cobb broilers were randomly allocated to: (1) control diet, (aflatoxins 6 µg/kg; cyclopiazonic acid 15 µg/kg; fusaric acid 25 µg/kg; fumonisin B1 310 µg/kg); (2) Diet1 + 0.2% YCWE; (3) Diet1 + 0.2% PYCW; (4) Contaminated diet (3.0 mg/kg DON; 2.17 mg/kg 3-acetyldeoxynivalenol; 104 g/kg T2; 79 g/kg ZEA); (5) Diet4 + 0.2% YCWE; and (6) Diet4 + 0.2% PYCW. Naturally contaminated diets adversely affected performance, serum biochemistry, liver function, immune response, altered cecal SCFA goblet cell count and architecture of intestinal villi. These adverse effects were reduced in birds fed PYCW and to a lesser extent YCWE, indicating protection against toxic assault. PYCW yielded better production performance and stimulated liver function, with higher response to NDV and IBV vaccination. Furthermore, mycotoxins were found to affect production outputs when evaluated with the European poultry production efficiency factor compared to control or YCWE and PYCW supplemented treatments. Taken together, YCWE, when complemented with nutritional add-ons (PYCW), could potentiate the remediation of the negative effects from a multi mycotoxins dietary challenge in broiler birds.

Industrial-Scale Production of Mycotoxin Binder from the Red Yeast Sporidiobolus pararoseus KM281507

Red yeast Sporidiobolus pararoseus KM281507 has been recognized as a potential feed additive. Beyond their nutritional value (carotenoids and lipids), red yeast cells (RYCs) containing high levels of β-glucan can bind mycotoxins. This study investigated the industrial feasibility of the large-scale production of RYCs, along with their ability to act as a mycotoxin binder. Under a semi-controlled pH condition in a 300 L bioreactor, 28.70-g/L biomass, 8.67-g/L lipids, and 96.10-mg/L total carotenoids were obtained, and the RYCs were found to contain 5.73% (w/w) β-glucan. The encapsulated RYC was in vitro tested for its mycotoxin adsorption capacity, including for aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), zearalenone (ZEA), ochratoxin A (OTA), T-2 toxin (T-2) and deoxynivalenol (DON). The RYCs had the highest binding capacity for OTA and T-2 at concentrations of 0.31–1.25 and 0.31–2.5 µg/mL, respectively. The mycotoxin adsorption capacity was further tested using a gastrointestinal poultry model. The adsorption capacities of the RYCs and a commercial mycotoxin binder (CMB) were comparable. The RYCs not only are rich in lipids and carotenoids but also play an important role in mycotoxin binding. Since the industrial-scale production and downstream processing of RYCs were successfully demonstrated, RYCs could be applied as possible feed additives.

Bio-control on the contamination of Ochratoxin A in food: Current research and future prospects

Ochratoxin A (OTA) is a secondary metabolite of several fungi and widely exists in various species of foods. The establishment of effective methods for OTA reduction is a key measure to ensure food processing and human health. This article reviews the current research of OTA reduction by biological approaches, summarizes the characteristics and efficiency of them, and evaluates the transformation pathways and metabolites safety of each degradation technology. The shortcomings of various methods are pointed out and future prospects are also proposed. Biological methods are the most promising approaches for OTA control. The defect of them is the long processing time and the growth of microbial cells may affect the product quality. Therefore, the control of OTA contamination should be conducted according to the food processing and their product types. Besides, it is significant for the exploitation of new strains, enzyme and novel adsorbents.

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The application of physical and chemical methods has been restricted.

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Existing biological methods can effectively detoxify OTA.

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OTA reduction systems should be established for different food.

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The exploitation of novel equipment, enzyme and adsorbents is essential.

Microbiological Decontamination of Mycotoxins: Opportunities and Limitations

The contamination of food and feeds with mycotoxins poses a global health risk to humans and animals, with major economic consequences. Good agricultural and manufacturing practices can help control mycotoxin contamination. Since these actions are not always effective, several methods of decontamination have also been developed, including physical, chemical, and biological methods. Biological decontamination using microorganisms has revealed new opportunities. However, these biological methods require legal regulations and more research before they can be used in food production. Currently, only selected biological methods are acceptable for the decontamination of feed. This review discusses the literature on the use of microorganisms to remove mycotoxins and presents their possible mechanisms of action. Special attention is given to Saccharomyces cerevisiae yeast and lactic acid bacteria, and the use of yeast cell wall derivatives.

Effect of a Mycotoxin Binder (MMDA) on the Growth Performance, Blood and Carcass Characteristics of Broilers Fed Ochratoxin A and T-2 Mycotoxin Contaminated Diets

Simple Summary

The contamination of feed with mycotoxins is a global concern, resulting in adverse effects on productivity and animal health and, therefore, a great economic loss. Ochratoxin A and T-2 mycotoxins are among the mycotoxins that contaminate animal feed. These mycotoxins could adversely affect the health of broilers, and the most effective method to mitigate the toxic effects of mycotoxins is the use of detoxifying agents. In the present experiment, broiler chickens were allotted into five groups. Group 1 received a non-contaminated diet; group 2 received a non-contaminated diet + 3 g/kg of a mycotoxin binder (MMDA); group 3 received a non-contaminated diet + 0.5 mg/kg OTA + 1 mg/kg T-2 toxin; group 4 received a non-contaminated diet + 0.5 mg/kg OTA + 1 mg/kg T-2 toxin + 1 g/kg MMDA; and group 5 received a non-contaminated diet + 0.5 mg/kg OTA + 1 mg/kg T-2 toxin + 3 g/kg MMDA for 35 days. The results revealed that OTA and T-2 toxin negatively affected the productive parameters and some blood and carcass characteristics of broiler chickens. The addition of the detoxifying agent (MMDA at 1 or 3 g/kg feed) to contaminated diets alleviated the adverse effects observed on productivity and the broilers heath related parameters.

Abstract

The present study was conducted to evaluate the efficacy of the feed additive, a novel multicomponent mycotoxin detoxifying agent (MMDA) containing modified zeolite (clinoptilolite), Bacillus subtilis, B. licheniformis, Saccharomyces cerevisiae cell walls, and silymarin, as detoxifiers of 0.5 mg/kg (0.5 ppm) ochratoxin A (OTA) and 1 mg/kg (1 ppm) T-2 toxin on broiler chickens. A total of 240 1-old broiler chickens (Ross 308) were randomly distributed into five different dietary treatments: (1) control (non-contaminated diet); (2) non contaminated diet + 3 g/kg of MMDA; (3) non-contaminated diet + 0.5 mg/kg OTA + 1 mg/kg T-2 toxin; (4) non-contaminated diet + 0.5 mg/kg OTA + 1 mg/kg T-2 toxin + 1 g/kg MMDA; and (5) non-contaminated diet + 0.5 mg/kg OTA + 1 g/kg T-2 toxin + 3 g/kg MMDA. The results showed that, in the starter period, from 1 to 10 days, the presence of OTA and T-2 mycotoxins reduced the consumption of feed and the growth of the broilers, and no effects of the detoxifying product were observed in the productivity of the chickens, at any of the doses tested, compared to the contaminated control (treatment 3). However, in the growing period, the same negative effect of mycotoxins was registered, but a recovery was observed in the consumption of feed and in the weight of the broilers that consumed 3 g/kg of the MMDA mycotoxin binder, reaching similar values to those of chickens fed uncontaminated control diets. The presence of mycotoxins in feed led to a reduction in the concentration of total proteins and albumin in blood compared to controls, and the presence of the detoxifying product partially reversed this effect. The breast yield of the chickens fed with mycotoxins was lower than that of the animals fed with the control feed and was not affected by the presence of the product tested, at 1 or 3 g/kg. The weight of the different organs (liver, gizzard, kidneys, or spleen), the intestinal pH, the histology of the small intestine, and oral lesions were not affected by the experimental treatments. In summary, the productive parameters and some blood and carcass characteristics of broiler chickens were impaired by the dietary presence of OTA and T-2 toxin. The tested product included at 1 or 3 g/kg feed in contaminated diets improved performance and seems to be effective in partly counteracting the deleterious effects of the tested mycotoxins.

Mycotoxins in Poultry Feed and Feed Ingredients from Sub-Saharan Africa and Their Impact on the Production of Broiler and Layer Chickens: A Review

The poultry industry in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) is faced with feed insecurity, associated with high cost of feeds, and feed safety, associated with locally produced feeds often contaminated with mycotoxins. Mycotoxins, including aflatoxins (AFs), fumonisins (FBs), trichothecenes, and zearalenone (ZEN), are common contaminants of poultry feeds and feed ingredients from SSA. These mycotoxins cause deleterious effects on the health and productivity of chickens and can also be present in poultry food products, thereby posing a health hazard to human consumers of these products. This review summarizes studies of major mycotoxins in poultry feeds, feed ingredients, and poultry food products from SSA as well as aflatoxicosis outbreaks. Additionally reviewed are the worldwide regulation of mycotoxins in poultry feeds, the impact of major mycotoxins in the production of chickens, and the postharvest use of mycotoxin detoxifiers. In most studies, AFs are most commonly quantified, and levels above the European Union regulatory limits of 20 μg/kg are reported. Trichothecenes, FBs, ZEN, and OTA are also reported but are less frequently analyzed. Co-occurrences of mycotoxins, especially AFs and FBs, are reported in some studies. The effects of AFs on chickens’ health and productivity, carryover to their products, as well as use of mycotoxin binders are reported in few studies conducted in SSA. More research should therefore be conducted in SSA to evaluate occurrences, toxicological effects, and mitigation strategies to prevent the toxic effects of mycotoxins.

Toxicological evaluation of a glycan preparation from an enzymatic hydrolysis of Saccharomyces cerevisiae

The aim of this paper was to provide a comprehensive toxicological and safety evaluation of a yeast cell wall preparation (YCWP) for use as an animal feed ingredient. The following toxicological assessments were carried out: the mutagenic activity was tested using the Ames' Test in five Salmonella typhimurium strains; clastogenic activity was investigated using the mammalian micronucleus test in Swiss ICO OF1 (IOPS Caw) mice; genotoxic activity was assessed using the in vitro mammalian chromosomal aberration test in human lymphocytes; acute oral toxicity was tested by administration of a single dose of 2000 mg/kg BW. Eye and skin irritation were assessed in rabbits according to OECD guidelines; skin sensitivity was established in guinea pigs by means of the Buehler test, while acute dermal and inhalation studies in rats were further completed, also according to OECD guidelines. All conducted tests were considered valid under the experimental conditions. No significant mutagenic activity or genotoxic activity was observed, and it was concluded that the test article did not induce any clastogenic effect. YCWP was found to be mildly irritating to the eye, slightly irritating to the skin but was found to be non-sensitizing in the guinea pig. The acute oral, dermal and inhalation studies did not yield any evidence of gross toxicity or pharmacological effects.

Saccharomyces cerevisiae Cell Wall-Based Adsorbent Reduces Aflatoxin B1 Absorption in Rats

Mycotoxins are naturally occurring toxins that can affect livestock health and performance upon consumption of contaminated feedstuffs. To mitigate the negative effects of mycotoxins, sequestering agents, adsorbents, or binders can be included to feed to interact with toxins, aiding their passage through the gastrointestinal tract (GI) and reducing their bioavailability. The parietal cell wall components of Saccharomyces cerevisiae have been found to interact in vitro with mycotoxins, such as, but not limited to, aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), and to improve animal performance when added to contaminated diets in vivo. The present study aimed to examine the pharmacokinetics of the absorption of radiolabeled AFB1 in rats in the presence of a yeast cell wall-based adsorbent (YCW) compared with that in the presence of the clay-based binder hydrated sodium calcium aluminosilicate (HSCAS). The results of the initial pharmacokinetic analysis showed that the absorption process across the GI tract was relatively slow, occurring over a matter of hours rather than minutes. The inclusion of mycotoxin binders increased the recovery of radiolabeled AFB1 in the small intestine, cecum, and colon at 5 and 10 h, revealing that they prevented AFB1 absorption compared with a control diet. Additionally, the accumulation of radiolabeled AFB1 was more significant in the blood plasma, kidney, and liver of animals fed the control diet, again showing the ability of the binders to reduce the assimilation of AFB1 into the body. The results showed the potential of YCW in reducing the absorption of AFB1 in vivo, and in protecting against the damaging effects of AFB1 contamination.

Efficient Aflatoxin B1 Sequestration by Yeast Cell Wall Extract and Hydrated Sodium Calcium Aluminosilicate Evaluated Using a Multimodal In-Vitro and Ex-Vivo Methodology

In this work, adsorption of the carcinogenic mycotoxin aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) by two sequestrants-a yeast cell wall-based adsorbent (YCW) and a hydrated sodium calcium aluminosilicate (HSCAS)-was studied across four laboratory models: (1) an in vitro model from a reference method was employed to quantify the sorption capabilities of both sequestrants under buffer conditions at two pH values using liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection (LC-FLD); (2) in a second in vitro model, the influence of the upper gastrointestinal environment on the mycotoxin sorption capacity of the same two sequestrants was studied using a chronic AFB1 level commonly encountered in the field (10 µg/L and in the presence of feed); (3) the third model used a novel ex vivo approach to measure the absorption of 3H-labelled AFB1 in the intestinal tissue and the ability of the sequestrants to offset this process; and (4) a second previously developed ex vivo model readapted to AFB1 was used to measure the transfer of 3H-labelled AFB1 through live intestinal tissue, and the influence of sequestrants on its bioavailability by means of an Ussing chamber system. Despite some sorption effects caused by the feed itself studied in the second model, both in vitro models established that the adsorption capacity of both YCW and HSCAS is promoted at a low acidic pH. Ex vivo Models 3 and 4 showed that the same tested material formed a protective barrier on the epithelial mucosa and that they significantly reduced the transfer of AFB1 through live intestinal tissue. The results indicate that, by reducing the transmembrane transfer rate and reducing over 60% of the concentration of free AFB1, both products are able to significantly limit the bioavailability of AFB1. Moreover, there were limited differences between YCW and HSCAS in their sorption capacities. The inclusion of YCW in the dietary ration could have a positive influence in reducing AFB1's physiological bioavailability.

Impact of Chronic Levels of Naturally Multi-Contaminated Feed with Fusarium Mycotoxins on Broiler Chickens and Evaluation of the Mitigation Properties of Different Titers of Yeast Cell Wall Extract

The chronic intake of naturally multi-mycotoxin contaminated feed by broilers with or without titers of Yeast Cell Wall Extract (YCWE, a.k.a Mycosorb A+®), was investigated. Day-old male Cobb chicks (1600 birds, 64 pens, 25 birds/pen) were randomly allocated to diets of control (CON); diet containing mycotoxins (MT); CON + 0.2% YCWE; MT + 0.025% YCWE; MT + 0.05% YCWE; MT + 0.1% YCWE; MT + 0.2% YCWE; and MT + 0.4% YCWE. Growth performance, blood biochemical parameters and gut health were recorded over 42 days. Compared with CON, MT had reduced body weight (BW) and increased feed conversion ratio (FCR) on days 35 and 42 with increased duodenal crypt depth and fewer goblet cells. Furthermore, European Poultry Production Efficiency (EPEF) was reduced for MT versus CON. Feeding MT + 0.2% YCWE improved BW, lowered FCR, reduced crypt depth, increased goblet cell count and improved EPEF. Considering titration of YCWE (0 to 0.4%) during mycotoxin challenge, a cubic effect was observed for FCR with NC + 0.2% YCWE having the lowest FCR. These findings suggest that chronic consumption of multiple Fusarium mycotoxins present in common field concentrations can negatively impact broiler performance and gut health while inclusion of YCWE, particularly 0.2%, could be effective in counteracting mycotoxins.