A Simple and High-Throughput Analysis of Amatoxins and Phallotoxins in Human Plasma, Serum and Urine Using UPLC-MS/MS Combined with PRiME HLB μElution Platform

Toxicokinetics of α- and β-amanitin in mice following single and combined administrations: Simulating in vivo amatoxins processes in clinical cases

α-Amanitin and β-amanitin, two of the most toxic amatoxin compounds, typically coexist in the majority of Amanita mushrooms. The aim of this study was to use a newly developed ultra-performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS) method to determine the toxicokinetics and tissue distribution of α- and β-amanitin following single or combined oral (po) administration in mice. α-Amanitin and β-amanitin administered at 2 or 10 mg/kg doses showed similar toxicokinetic profiles, except for peak concentration (Cmax). The elimination half-life (t1/2) values of α-amanitin and β-amanitin in mice were 2.4-2.8 h and 2.5-2.7 h, respectively. Both α- and β-amanitin were rapidly absorbed into the body, with times to reach peak concentration (Tmax) between 1.0 and 1.5 h. Following single oral administration at 10 mg/kg, the Cmax was significantly lower for α-amanitin (91.1 μg/L) than for β-amanitin (143.1 μg/L) (p < 0.05). The toxicokinetic parameters of α-amanitin, such as t1/2, mean residence time (MRT), and volume of distribution (Vz/F) and of β-amanitin, such as Vz/F, were significantly different (p < 0.05) when combined administration was compared to single administration. Tissues collected at 24 h after po administration revealed decreasing tissue distributions for α- and β-amanitin of intestine > stomach > kidney > lung > spleen > liver > heart. The substantial distribution of toxins in the kidney corresponds to the known target organs of amatoxin poisoning. The content in the stomach, liver, and kidney was significantly higher for of β-amanitin than for α-amanitin at 24 h following oral administration of a 10 mg/kg dose. No significant difference was detected in the tissue distribution of either amatoxin following single or combined administration. After po administration, both amatoxins were primarily excreted through the feces. Our data suggest the possibility of differences in the toxicokinetics in patients poisoned by mushrooms containing both α- and β-amanitin than containing a single amatoxin. Continuous monitoring of toxin concentrations in patients' blood and urine samples is necessary in clinical practice.

Simple and rapid detection of three amatoxins and three phallotoxins in human body fluids by UPLC-MS-MS and its application in 15 poisoning cases

Amatoxins and phallotoxins are toxic cyclopeptides found in the genus Amanita and are among the predominant causes of foodborne sickness and poisoning-related fatalities in China. This study introduces and validates a simple, rapid and cost-effective ultra-performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry method for the simultaneous determination and quantification of α-amanitin, β-amanitin, γ-amanitin, phallisacin, phallacidin and phalloidin in human blood and urine. Quick therapeutic decision-making is supported by a 9 min chromatographic separation performed on a Waters Acquity UPLC HSS T3 column (100 mm × 2.1 mm, 1.8 µm) using a gradient of high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC)-grade water and methanol:0.005% formic acid. The analyte limit of quantification was 1-3 ng/mL in blood and 0.5-2 ng/mL in urine. Calibrations curves, prepared by spiking drug-free blood and urine, demonstrated acceptable linearity with mean correlation coefficients (r) greater than 0.99 for all phallotoxins and amatoxins. Acceptable intraday and interday precision (relative standard deviation <15%) and accuracy (bias, -4.8% to 13.0% for blood and-9.0% to 14.7% for urine) were achieved. The validated method was successfully applied to analyze 9 blood samples and 2 urine samples testing positive for amatoxins and/or phallotoxins. Amatoxins and/or phallotoxins were identified in each whole blood sample at a range of 1.12-5.63 ng/mL and in two urine samples from 1.01-9.27 ng/mL. The method has the benefits of simple sample preparation (protein precipitation) and wide analyte coverage, making it suitable for emergency quantitative surveillance toxicological analysis in clinics and forensic poisoning practice.

An integrated framework to develop an efficient valid green (EVG) HPLC method for the assessment of antimicrobial pollutants with potential threats to human health in aquatic systems

The persistence of antimicrobial drugs in aquatic environments has raised critical concerns about their possible impact on drinkable water quality and human health. The Nile River is experiencing water pollution owing to increasing discharges of highly contaminated home and industrial effluents and inadequate water management systems. Investigations of the presence of three antimicrobial agents, ciprofloxacin (CIP), sulfamethoxazole (SMZ), and albendazole (ALB), in the Egyptian aquatic system are recommended using a chromatographic method because of their reported existence in the African aquatic environment. In this study, an integrated framework, Efficient Valid Green (EVG), for analytical techniques is proposed and displayed via its radar chart. The EVG framework is achieved through three main pillars: efficiency, validation, and greenness. The proposed EVG-HPLC method was developed and optimized using the AQbD methodology via a face-centered composite (FCC) design by identifying the proper critical method parameters (CMPs) that influence critical quality attributes (CQAs). The method was fully validated according to ICH guidelines, including a factorial robustness study within concentration ranges of 1-100 μg mL-1, 2-100 μg mL-1, and 10-100 μg mL-1 for CIP, SMZ, and ALB, respectively. The proposed method was evaluated in terms of greenness using AGREE (score 0.55) and ComplexGAPI metrics. The optimized chromatographic conditions included a C18 column and a mobile phase of water : acetonitrile : methanol in a ratio of 60 : 19 : 21, v/v/v, respectively, with an aqueous solution of pH 3.5 adjusted with phosphoric acid at a flow rate of 1.57 mL min-1 at 285 nm. The raw water samples collected from Nile River freshwater at different locations were treated using Oasis® PRiME HLB cartridges with satisfactory recoveries for the three analytes (>90%), and the three drugs were detected using the proposed EVG-HPLC method.

Molecular Recognition Mechanism of an Anti-Amatoxins mAb and Its Application in Centrifugal Disk-Based Immunoassay

Amatoxins are polypeptides that cause 90% of fatalities from accidental ingestion of poisonous mushrooms. Unfortunately, there are no specific antidotes against amatoxins poisoning, hence preparation of high-affinity antibodies, understanding the receptor (amatoxins) and ligand (antibody) mechanism, and establishing a straightforward screening approach are of great significance for confirming poison agents and clinical diagnosis. Here, anti-amatoxins monoclonal antibody (mAb) 9B2 was prepared and the recognition mechanism was investigated. The approach is useful for designing desirable immunogens, developing new antibodies with improved performance, and constructing effective immunoassays. Based on the mAb, we designed a centrifugal disk-like microfluidics chip and developed a fully automated immunoassay capable of detecting amatoxins poisoning in various samples including serum, urine, and mushrooms. The whole detection process could be automatically accomplished within 30 min, with a limit of detection of 0.08 to 0.12 μg/L for real samples, ∼30-fold more sensitive than conventional enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Our platform not only provided a practical approach for performing poison agent confirmation and clinical diagnosis but also had important implications for improving the survival of patients with mushroom poisoning.

Toxicokinetics and tissue distribution of phalloidin in mice

Phalloidin, a bicyclic heptapeptide found in Amanita mushroom, specifically binds to F-actin in the liver causing cholestatic hepatotoxicity. However, the toxicokinetics and tissue distribution properties of phalloidin as well as their underlying mechanisms have to be studied further. The area under the plasma concentration curve (AUC) of phalloidin increased in proportion to the doses (0.2, 0.4, and 0.8 mg/kg for intravenous injection and 2, 5, and 10 mg/kg for oral administration). Phalloidin exhibited dose-independent low volume of distribution (395.6-456.9 mL/kg) and clearance (21.4-25.5 mL/min/kg) and low oral bioavailability (2.4%-3.3%). This could be supported with its low absorptive permeability (0.23 ± 0.05 × 10-6 cm/s) in Caco-2 cells. The tissue-to-plasma AUC ratios of intravenously injected and orally administered phalloidin were the highest in the liver and intestines, respectively, and also high in the kidneys, suggesting that the liver, kidneys, and intestines could be susceptible to phalloidin exposure and that active transport via the hepatic and renal organic anion transporters (OATP1B1, OATP1B3, and OAT3) may contribute to the higher distribution of phalloidin in the liver and kidneys.

Analytical methods for amatoxins: A comprehensive review

Amatoxins are toxic bicyclic octapeptides found in certain wild mushroom species, particularly Amanita phalloides. These mushrooms contain predominantly α- and β-amanitin, which can lead to severe health risks for humans and animals if ingested. Rapid and accurate identification of these toxins in mushroom and biological samples is crucial for diagnosing and treating mushroom poisoning. Analytical methods for the determination of amatoxins are critical to ensure food safety and prompt medical treatment. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the research literature on the determination of amatoxins in clinical specimens, biological and mushroom samples. We discuss the physicochemical properties of toxins, highlighting their influence on the choice of the analytical method and the importance of sample preparation, particularly solid-phase extraction with cartridges. Chromatographic methods are emphasised with a focus on liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry as one of the most relevant analytical method for the determination of amatoxins in complex matrices. Furthermore, current trends and future perspectives in amatoxin detection are also suggested.

Amanitins in Wild Mushrooms: The Development of HPLC-UV-EC and HPLC-DAD-MS Methods for Food Safety Purposes

Mushroom poisoning remains a serious food safety and health concern in some parts of the world due to its morbidity and mortality. Identification of mushroom toxins at an early stage of suspected intoxication is crucial for a rapid therapeutic decision. In this study, a new extraction method was developed to determine α- and β-amanitin in mushroom samples collected from central Portugal. High-performance liquid chromatography with in-line ultraviolet and electrochemical detection was implemented to improve the specificity of the method. The method was fully validated for linearity (0.5-20.0 µg·mL^-1), sensitivity, recovery, and precision based on a matrix-matched calibration method. The limit of detection was 55 µg mL^-1 (UV) and 62 µg mL^-1 (EC) for α-amanitin and 64 µg mL^-1 (UV) and 24 µg mL^-1 (EC) for β-amanitin. Intra- and inter-day precision differences were less than 13%, and the recovery ratios ranged from 89% to 117%. The developed method was successfully applied to fourteen Amanita species (A. sp.) and compared with five edible mushroom samples after extraction with Oasis^® PRIME HLB cartridges without the conditioning and equilibration step. The results revealed that the A. phalloides mushrooms present the highest content of α- and β-amanitin, which is in line with the HPLC-DAD-MS. In sum, the developed analytical method could benefit food safety assessment and contribute to food-health security, as it is rapid, simple, sensitive, accurate, and selectively detects α- and β-amanitin in any mushroom samples.

Characterization of the RAS/RAF/ERK Signal Cascade as a Novel Regulating Factor in Alpha-Amanitin-Induced Cytotoxicity in Huh-7 Cells

The well-known hepatotoxicity mechanism resulting from alpha-amanitin (α-AMA) exposure arises from RNA polymerase II (RNAP II) inhibition. RNAP Ⅱ inhibition occurs through the dysregulation of mRNA synthesis. However, the signaling pathways in hepatocytes that arise from α-AMA have not yet been fully elucidated. Here, we identified that the RAS/RAF/ERK signaling pathway was activated through quantitative phosphoproteomic and molecular biological analyses in Huh-7 cells. Bioinformatics analysis showed that α-AMA exposure increased protein phosphorylation in a time-dependent α-AMA exposure. In addition, phosphorylation increased not only the components of the ERK signaling pathway but also U2AF65 and SPF45, known splicing factors. Therefore, we propose a novel mechanism of α-AMA as follows. The RAS/RAF/ERK signaling pathway involved in aberrant splicing events is activated by α-AMA exposure followed by aberrant splicing events leading to cell death in Huh-7 cells.

Rapid identification of Amanita citrinoannulata poisoning using colorimetric and real-time fluorescence and loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) based on the nuclear ITS region

Health concerns and financial losses caused by mushroom poisoning have been reported worldwide. Amanita citrinoannulata, a poisonous mushroom commonly found in China, results in a toxic reaction in humans after mistaken ingestion. To reduce the mistaken ingestion of poisonous mushrooms and to improve clinical diagnosis of mushroom poisoning, a rapid mushroom species identification method is required. Such identification methods could be advantageous in the identification of other poisonous mushroom species. This study developed two rapid and sensitive methods for the detection of A. citrinoannulata utilizing colorimetric and real-time loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) technology and specifically designed primers for the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) genes of A. citrinoannulata. The methods demonstrated high sensitivity as 0.2 ng of A. citrinoannulata DNA could be detected, with no cross-reaction with 41 non-target mushroom species. The entire detection process could be completed within 40 min without requiring complex instruments and can be observed by the naked eye. Therefore, these novel methods can be used for the identification of fresh and cooked mushroom samples and vomit samples, which contain only 1% A. citrinoannulata. Furthermore, these methods facilitate the detection of mushroom poisoning, and thus, have potential to reduce the number of mushroom poisoning-related deaths worldwide.

Nanomaterials with Excellent Adsorption Characteristics for Sample Pretreatment: A Review

Sample pretreatment in analytical chemistry is critical, and the selection of materials for sample pretreatment is a key factor for high enrichment ability, good practicality, and satisfactory recoveries. In this review, the recent progress of the sample pretreatment methods based on various nanomaterials (i.e., carbon nanomaterials, porous nanomaterials, and magnetic nanomaterials) with excellent adsorption efficiency, selectivity, and reproducibility, as well as their applications, are presented. Due to the unique nanoscale physical–chemical properties, magnetic nanomaterials have been used for the extraction of target analytes by easy-to-handle magnetic separation under a magnetic field, which can avoid cumbersome centrifugation and filtration steps. This review also highlights the preparation process and reaction mechanism of nanomaterials used in the sample pretreatment methods, which have been applied for the extraction organophosphorus pesticides, fluoroquinolone antibiotics, phenoxy carboxylic acids, tetracycline antibiotics, hazardous metal ions, and rosmarinic acid. In addition, the remaining challenges and future directions for nanomaterials used as sorbents in the sample pretreatment are discussed.

[Highly sensitive determination of three kinds of amanitins in urine and plasma by ultra performance liquid chromatography-triple quadrupole mass spectrometry coupled with immunoaffinity column clean-up]

Cases of toxic mushroom poisoning occur frequently in China every year. In particular, mushrooms containing amanitins can cause acute liver damage, with high mortality rates. The symptoms of acute liver damage are experienced 9-72 h after consumption of the mushrooms. At this time, the concentration of amanitins in blood and urine is too low to be detected even by the highly sensitive ultra performance liquid chromatography-triple quadrupole mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS), thus rendering clinical diagnosis and treatment difficult. To this end, a method was developed for the determination of α-amanitin, β-amanitin and γ-amanitin in urine and plasma by UPLC-MS/MS. Urine and plasma samples were extracted and cleaned up by using an immunoaffinity column. A sample of 2.00 mL urine or 1.00 mL of plasma was diluted with 8.00 mL of phosphate buffer solution (PBS) and then loaded onto the immunoaffinity column at a flow rate of 0.5-1.0 mL/min. After washing the column with 10 mL of PBS and 13 mL of water successively, the bound amanitins were eluted with 3.00 mL of methanol-acetone (1∶1, v/v). The eluent was dried under nitrogen at 55 ℃. The residue was dissolved in 100 μL of 10% (v/v) methanol aqueous solution. The amanitins in urine were concentrated 20 times, while those in plasma were concentrated 10 times. Chromatographic separation was performed on a Kinetex Biphenyl column (100 mm × 2.1 mm, 1.7 μm) with gradient elution using methanol and 0.005% (v/v) formic acid aqueous solution as mobile phases. The three amanitins were detected by negative electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry in the multiple reaction monitoring (MRM) mode and quantified by the solvent standard curve external standard method. Method validation was performed as recommended by the European Drug Administration (EMEA). Four levels of quality control (QC) samples were prepared, which covered the calibration curve range, viz., the limit of quantification (LOQ), within three times the LOQ (low QC), medium QC, and at 85% of the upper calibration curve range (high QC), and used to test the accuracy, precision, matrix effect, extraction recovery, and stability. The calibration curves for the three amanitins showed good linear relationships in the range of 0.1-200 ng/mL, and the correlation coefficients (r) were greater than 0.999. The matrix effects and extraction efficiencies of the three amanitins in urine and plasma were 92%-108% and 90%-103%, respectively, and the coefficients of variation were less than 13%. The accuracies of the three amanitins in urine were within -9.4%-8.0%. The repeatability and intermediate accuracies were 3.0%-14% and 3.5%-18%, respectively. When the sampling volume was 2.00 mL, the limits of detection of the three amanitins in urine were 0.002 ng/mL. The accuracies of the three amanitins in plasma were within -13%-8.0%. The repeatability and intermediate accuracies were 3.9%-9.7% and 5.5%-12%, respectively. When the sampling volume was 1.00 mL, the limits of detection of the three amanitins in plasma were 0.004 ng/mL. The developed method is simple, sensitive, and accurate. During toxic mushroom poisoning detection, 0.0067 ng/mL of α-amanitin and 0.0059 ng/mL of β-amanitin were detected in the urine of poisoned patients 138 h after ingesting poisonous mushrooms. This method has successfully solved the problem of detecting ultra-trace levels of amanitins in the urine and plasma of poisoned patients. It has important practical significance for the early diagnosis, early treatment, and mortality reduction of suspected poisoning patients. This method can also provide reliable technical support for future research on the toxicological effects and in vivo metabolism of these toxins.

An Automated and Highly Sensitive Chemiluminescence Immunoassay for Diagnosing Mushroom Poisoning

Mushrooms containing Amanita peptide toxins are the major cause of mushroom poisoning, and lead to approximately 90% of deaths. Phallotoxins are the fastest toxin causing poisoning among Amanita peptide toxins. Thus, it is imperative to construct a highly sensitive quantification method for the rapid diagnosis of mushroom poisoning. In this study, we established a highly sensitive and automated magnetic bead (MB)-based chemiluminescence immunoassay (CLIA) for the early, rapid diagnosis of mushroom poisoning. The limits of detection (LODs) for phallotoxins were 0.010 ng/ml in human serum and 0.009 ng/ml in human urine. Recoveries ranged from 81.6 to 95.6% with a coefficient of variation <12.9%. Analysis of Amanita phalloides samples by the automated MB-based CLIA was in accordance with that of HPLC-MS/MS. The advantages the MB-based CLIA, high sensitivity, repeatability, and stability, were due to the use of MBs as immune carriers, chemiluminescence as a detection signal, and an integrated device to automate the whole process. Therefore, the proposed automated MB-based CLIA is a promising option for the early and rapid clinical diagnosis of mushroom poisoning.

Analysis of Five Mushroom Toxins in Blood by UPLC-HRMS

OBJECTIVES

To develop a method for the simultaneous and rapid detection of five mushroom toxins (α-amanitin, phallacidin, muscimol, muscarine and psilocin) in blood by ultra-high performance liquid chromatography-high resolution mass spectrometry (UPLC-HRMS).

METHODS

The blood samples were precipitated with acetonitrile-water solution(V_acetonitril∶V_water=3∶1) and PAX powder, then separated on ACQUITY Premier C₁₈ column, eluted gradient. Five kinds of mushroom toxins were monitored by FullMS-ddMS²/positive ion scanning mode, and qualitative and quantitative analysis was conducted according to the accurate mass numbers of primary and secondary fragment ions.

RESULTS

All the five mushroom toxins had good linearity in their linear range, with a determination coefficient (R²)≥0.99. The detection limit was 0.2-20 ng/mL. The ration limit was 0.5-50 ng/mL. The recoveries of low, medium and high additive levels were 89.6%-101.4%, the relative standard deviation was 1.7%-6.7%, the accuracy was 90.4%-101.3%, the intra-day precision was 0.6%-9.0%, the daytime precision was 1.7%-6.3%, and the matrix effect was 42.2%-129.8%.

CONCLUSIONS

The method is simple, rapid, high recovery rate, and could be used for rapid and accurate qualitative screening and quantitative analysis of various mushroom toxins in biological samples at the same time, so as to provide basis for the identification of mushroom poisoning events.

[Determination of amanita peptide toxins in human urine by TurboFlow online clean-up-liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry]

鹅膏肽类毒素是一类环状多肽类蘑菇毒素,中毒后会造成急性肝损伤,病死率非常高。我国因误食野生毒蘑菇导致的中毒事件常有发生,测定人尿中鹅膏肽类毒素的浓度,可为临床早期诊断和救治提供有价值的信息。该研究建立了TurboFlow (TF)在线净化-液相色谱-三重四极杆质谱快速定量检测尿液中5种鹅膏肽类毒素(α-鹅膏毒肽、β-鹅膏毒肽、γ-鹅膏毒肽、羧基二羟鬼笔毒肽和二羟鬼笔毒肽)的新方法。尿液样品经高速离心后,直接注入TurboFlow在线净化-液相色谱-串联质谱进行分析。对影响TF在线净化的参数如TF净化柱、上样溶剂、洗脱溶剂、转移流速、转移时间等进行了优化。在优化后的实验条件下,以TurboFlow^TMCyclone柱(50 mm×0.5 mm)为净化柱,Hypersil GOLD C₁₈柱(100 mm×2.1 mm)为分析柱,甲醇和4 mmol/L乙酸铵为流动相进行梯度洗脱,电喷雾正离子选择反应监测(SRM)模式下进行检测,基质匹配外标法定量。结果表明,鹅膏肽类毒素在1.0~50.0 μg/L范围内呈现良好的线性关系,相关系数均可达到0.997以上。方法的检出限为0.15~0.3 μg/L,定量限为0.5~1.0 μg/L。在2.0、5.0和10.0 μg/L的加标水平下,5种鹅膏肽类毒素的日内和日间回收率分别为87.0%~108.6%和86.8%~112.7%,日内、日间相对标准偏差(RSD)均小于14.5%。该检测方法准确、快速、灵敏度高、易操作,适用于公共卫生应急检测或临床中毒病因识别检测。

Production of highly sensitive monoclonal antibody and development of lateral flow assays for phallotoxin detection in urine

Phallotoxins, toxic cyclopeptides found in wild poisonous mushrooms, are predominant causes of fatal food poisoning. For the early and rapid diagnosis mushroom toxin poisoning, a highly sensitive and robust monoclonal antibody (mAb) against phallotoxins was produced for the first time. The half-maximum inhibition concentration (IC₅₀) values of the mAb-based indirect competitive ELISAs for phallacidin (PCD) and phalloidin (PHD) detection were 0.31 ng mL^-1 and 0.35 ng mL^-1, respectively. In response to the demand for rapid screening of the type of poisoning and accurate determination of the severity of poisoning, colloidal gold nanoparticle (GNP) and time-resolved fluorescent nanosphere (TRFN) based lateral flow assays (LFA) were developed. The GNP-LFA has a visual cut-off value of 3.0 ng mL^-1 for phallotoxins in human urine sample. The TRFN-LFA provides a quantitative readout signal with detection limit of 0.1 ng mL^-1 in human urine sample. In this study, urine samples without pretreatment were used directly for the LFA strip tests, and both two LFAs were able to accomplish analysis within 10 min. The results demonstrated that LFAs based on the newly produced, highly sensitive, and robust mAb were able to be used for both rapid qualitative screening of the type of poisoning and accurate quantitative determination of the severity of poisoning after accidental ingestion by patients of toxic mushrooms.

Further development of a liquid chromatography-high-resolution mass spectrometry/mass spectrometry-based strategy for analyzing eight biomarkers in human urine indicating toxic mushroom or Ricinus communis ingestions

Recently, we presented a strategy for analysis of eight biomarkers in human urine to verify toxic mushroom or Ricinus communis ingestions. However, screening for the full panel is not always necessary. Thus, we aimed to develop a strategy to reduce analysis time and by focusing on two sets of analytes. One set (A) for biomarkers of late-onset syndromes, such as phalloides syndrome or the syndrome after castor bean intake. Another set (B) for biomarkers of early-onset syndromes, such as pantherine-muscaria syndrome and muscarine syndrome. Both analyses should be based on hydrophilic-interaction liquid chromatography coupled with high-resolution mass spectrometry (MS)/MS (HILIC-HRMS/MS). For A, urine samples were prepared by liquid-liquid extraction using dichloromethane and subsequent solid-phase extraction of the aqueous supernatant. For B urine was precipitated using acetonitrile. Method A was validated for ricinine and α- and β-amanitin and method B for muscarine, muscimol, and ibotenic acid according to the specifications for qualitative analytical methods. In addition, robustness of recovery and normalized matrix factors to matrix variability measured by urinary creatinine was tested. Moreover, applicability was tested using 10 urine samples from patients after suspected mushroom intoxication. The analytes α- and β-amanitin, muscarine, muscimol, and ibotenic acid could be successfully identified. Finally, psilocin-O-glucuronide could be identified in two samples and unambiguously distinguished from bufotenine-O-glucuronide via their MS² patterns. In summary, the current workflow offers several advantages towards the previous method, particularly being more labor-, time-, and cost-efficient, more robust, and more sensitive.

Selected Instrumental Techniques Applied in Food and Feed: Quality, Safety and Adulteration Analysis

This review presents an overall glance at selected instrumental analytical techniques and methods used in food analysis, focusing on their primary food science research applications. The methods described represent approaches that have already been developed or are currently being implemented in our laboratories. Some techniques are widespread and well known and hence we will focus only in very specific examples, whilst the relatively less common techniques applied in food science are covered in a wider fashion. We made a particular emphasis on the works published on this topic in the last five years. When appropriate, we referred the reader to specialized reports highlighting each technique's principle and focused on said technologies' applications in the food analysis field. Each example forwarded will consider the advantages and limitations of the application. Certain study cases will typify that several of the techniques mentioned are used simultaneously to resolve an issue, support novel data, or gather further information from the food sample.

Human Poisoning from Poisonous Higher Fungi: Focus on Analytical Toxicology and Case Reports in Forensic Toxicology

Several families of higher fungi contain mycotoxins that cause serious or even fatal poisoning when consumed by humans. The aim of this review is to inventory, from an analytical point of view, poisoning cases linked with certain significantly toxic mycotoxins: orellanine, α- and β-amanitin, muscarine, ibotenic acid and muscimol, and gyromitrin. Clinicians are calling for the cases to be documented by toxicological analysis. This document is therefore a review of poisoning cases involving these mycotoxins reported in the literature and carries out an inventory of the analytical techniques available for their identification and quantification. It seems indeed that these poisonings are only rarely documented by toxicological analysis, due mainly to a lack of analytical methods in biological matrices. There are many reasons for this issue: the numerous varieties of mushroom involved, mycotoxins with different chemical structures, a lack of knowledge about distribution and metabolism. To sum up, we are faced with (i) obstacles to the documentation and interpretation of fatal (or non-fatal) poisoning cases and (ii) a real need for analytical methods of identifying and quantifying these mycotoxins (and their metabolites) in biological matrices.

Reverse-phase/phenylboronic-acid-type magnetic microspheres to eliminate the matrix effects in amatoxin and phallotoxin determination via ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry

In this study, we present the preparation of a new reverse-phase/phenylboronic-acid (RP/PBA)-type mixed-mode magnetic solid-phase extraction (MSPE) adsorbent for use in the cleanup of amatoxin- and phallotoxin-containing samples intended for ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS) analysis. Further, the RP/PBA magnetic microspheres have phenyl and phenylboronic acid groups on their surfaces that selectively adsorb amatoxins and phallotoxins through hydrophobic, π-π, and boronate affinity, significantly reducing matrix effects in UPLC-MS/MS analysis. After systematic optimization, all the standard calibration curves expressed satisfactory linearity (r > 0.9930), limits of detection (0.3 μg/kg), and recovery (97.6%-114.2%). Compared with other reported methods, this method also has the advantages of simple, fast, and efficient operation using relatively small amounts of the MSPE adsorbent. Furthermore, the method was successfully applied in a poisoning incident caused by Lepiota brunneoincarnata Chodat & C. Martín ingestion.

Analysis of α- and β-amanitin in Human Plasma at Subnanogram per Milliliter Levels by Reversed Phase Ultra-High Performance Liquid Chromatography Coupled to Orbitrap Mass Spectrometry

Amatoxins are known to be one of the main causes of serious to fatal mushroom intoxication. Thorough treatment, analytical confirmation, or exclusion of amatoxin intake is crucial in the case of any suspected mushroom poisoning. Urine is often the preferred matrix due to its higher concentrations compared to other body fluids. If urine is not available, analysis of human blood plasma is a valuable alternative for assessing the severity of intoxications. The aim of this study was to develop and validate a liquid chromatography (LC)-high resolution tandem mass spectrometry (HRMS/MS) method for confirmation and quantitation of α- and β-amanitin in human plasma at subnanogram per milliliter levels. Plasma samples of humans after suspected intake of amatoxin-containing mushrooms should be analyzed and amounts of toxins compared with already published data as well as with matched urine samples. Sample preparation consisted of protein precipitation, aqueous liquid-liquid extraction, and solid-phase extraction. Full chromatographical separation of analytes was achieved using reversed-phase chromatography. Orbitrap-based MS allowed for sufficiently sensitive identification and quantification. Validation was successfully carried out, including analytical selectivity, carry-over, matrix effects, accuracy, precision, and dilution integrity. Limits of identification were 20 pg/mL and calibration ranged from 20 pg/mL to 2000 pg/mL. The method was applied to analyze nine human plasma samples that were submitted along with urine samples tested positive for amatoxins. α-Amanitin could be identified in each plasma sample at a range from 37–2890 pg/mL, and β-amanitin was found in seven plasma samples ranging from <20–7520 pg/mL. A LC-HRMS/MS method for the quantitation of amatoxins in human blood plasma at subnanogram per milliliter levels was developed, validated, and used for the analysis of plasma samples. The method provides a valuable alternative to urine analysis, allowing thorough patient treatment but also further study the toxicokinetics of amatoxins.

Quantitative analysis of the Tricholoma ustale-derived toxin, ustalic acid, in mushroom and food samples by LC-MS/MS

Tricholoma ustale, a poisonous member of the Tricholomataceae family, causes gastrointestinal symptoms such as diarrhea and vomiting. In Japan, 86 cases (affecting a total of 347 patients) of poisoning with Tricholoma ustale have been reported between 1989 and 2010. Ustalic acid is one of the primary toxic components in Tricholoma ustale. In the present study, the quantitative analysis of the ustalic acid content in mushroom and food samples was conducted by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). Mushroom and food samples were extracted using methanol containing 0.5% formic acid and 50% aqueous methanol, respectively. Purification using SAX solid-phase extraction (SPE) was conducted prior to LC-MS/MS analysis, which was performed in the ESI negative mode using a C18 column. The method developed for the LC-MS/MS analysis of ustalic acid was extremely sensitive. The limits of quantitation calculated at a signal-to-noise ratio of 10 were 10ng/g (shiitake mushroom) and 0.40ng/g (miso soup). The accuracies of quantitation in the shiitake mushroom and miso soup samples ranged from 99.8%-105% and 98.8%-102%, respectively. This method was applied to leftover mushroom samples from a food poisoning case; here, ustalic acid was detected at 0.57, 3.7μg/g. This analytical method using LC-MS/MS could be useful in food poisoning cases involving mushrooms. This is the first report in which the ustalic acid content was determined using the leftovers of a food poisoning case.

A coupled method of on-line solid phase extraction with the UHPLC‒MS/MS for detection of sulfonamides antibiotics residues in aquaculture

The use of a variety of antibiotics in fish farming raises serious concern about the development of antibiotic resistance. Sulfonamides antibiotics (SAs), which are widely used in aquaculture and generate large eco‒toxicological effects with significant mutagenicity and teratogenic consequences, are still difficult to determine in aquatic organisms. In this study, an automatic technology was developed by coupling on‒line solid phase extraction system (on‒line SPE) with ultra‒high‒performance liquid chromatography spectrometry‒mass spectrometry (UHPLC‒MS/MS). Particularly, using a single on‒line column in the process of sample pretreatment, e.g., HLB or C18, phospholipids that potentially caused the matrix effect cannot be removed form biological sample. We applied a mixed cation exchange column (Oasis® MCX) connected with a hydrophilic lipophilic balance column (Oasis® HLB) in series in on‒line SPE clean‒up to remove interferences and finally obtained a clear and stable eluant. The on‒line SPE working conditions and UHPLC‒MS/MS parameters were optimized for their sensitivity, accuracy, decision limit, and detection capability, which were further calibrated for fish, shrimp and crab. The results showed that the limits of detection and limits of quantification ranged from 1.46 to 15.5 ng/kg, and 4.90-51.6 ng/kg, respectively. Accuracy values covered 71.5%-102% at the three concentration levels (0.1, 0.5, 1.0 μg/kg) for all compounds and average repeatability (relative standard deviation, RSD%) ranged from 3.47% to 14.2%. This on‒line SPE coupled with UHPLC‒MS/MS method is a way forward for an automatic, powerful detection technology for determination of antibiotics from complex matrix.

Highly sensitive determination of amanita toxins in biological samples using β-cyclodextrin collaborated molecularly imprinted polymers coupled with ultra-high performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry

In this work, a β-cyclodextrin functional vinyl monomer was synthesized and the common moiety of five amanita toxins was used as the template for preparing molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs). Chemical calculation was used to evaluate and describe the binding interactions between the template and the functional monomer. The preparation conditions were optimized and the resultant MIPs were characterized and employed as solid-phase extraction (SPE) sorbents. The SPE conditions including the amount of sorbent, extraction solution, and eluting solution were also optimized for the enrichment of the five toxins. Using an ultra-high performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS), detection limits ranging from 0.34-0.42 µg/L, 0.16-0.33 µg/L, and 0.035-0.056 µg/kg were achieved for the five toxins in serum, urine and liver samples, respectively. The proposed method was further applied to the determination of the amanita toxins in suspected samples and showed great potential in the diagnosis of mushroom poisoning.

Application of petal-shaped ionic liquids modified covalent organic frameworks for one step cleanup and extraction of general anesthetics in human plasma samples

Here, the novel petal-shaped ionic liquids modified covalent organic frameworks (PS-IL-COFs) particles have been synthesized by using ionic liquids as modifying agent, which could be beneficial to avoid the aggregation of COFs during the preparation and improve its dispersing performance. The novel PS-IL-COFs particles have been used and evaluated in the one step cleanup and extraction (OSCE) procedure for human plasma prior to the analysis of 3 general anesthetics by liquid chromatography-tandem quadrupole mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). In the OSCE procedure, human plasma samples are directly mixed with extraction solvent and PS-IL-COFs particles, and the extraction and cleanup procedure have been carried out simultaneously. Compared with the Oasis PRiME HLB cartridge method, the OSCE procedure using PS-IL-COFs particles as sorbents is much more effective for the minimization of ion suppression resulted from blood phospholipids. Under optimal conditions, the PS-IL-COFs particles show higher cleanup efficiency of 3 general anesthetics with recoveries in the range of 82.5%-115%. The limits of quantification (LOQs) for propofol, ketamine and etomidate are 0.18 μg/L, 0.15 μg/L and 0.016 μg/L, respectively. Validation results on linearity, specificity, precision and trueness, as well as on the application to analysis of general anesthetics in a case of a 54-year-old female suffered gallstone demonstrate the applicability to clinical studies.

Rapid, Sensitive, and Accurate Point-of-Care Detection of Lethal Amatoxins in Urine

Globally, mushroom poisonings cause about 100 human deaths each year, with thousands of people requiring medical assistance. Dogs are also susceptible to mushroom poisonings and require medical assistance. Cyclopeptides, and more specifically amanitins (or amatoxins, here), are the mushroom poison that causes the majority of these deaths. Current methods (predominantly chromatographic, as well as antibody-based) of detecting amatoxins are time-consuming and require expensive equipment. In this work, we demonstrate the utility of the lateral flow immunoassay (LFIA) for the rapid detection of amatoxins in urine samples. The LFIA detects as little as 10 ng/mL of α-amanitin (α-AMA) or γ-AMA, and 100 ng/mL of β-AMA in urine matrices. To demonstrate application of this LFIA for urine analysis, this study examined fortified human urine samples and urine collected from exposed dogs. Urine is sampled directly without the need for any pretreatment, detection from urine is completed in 10 min, and the results are read by eye, without the need for specialized equipment. Analysis of both fortified human urine samples and urine samples collected from intoxicated dogs using the LFIA correlated well with liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) methods.

Development and applications of solid-phase extraction and liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry methods for quantification of microcystins in urine, plasma, and serum

The protocols for solid-phase extraction (SPE) of six microcystins (MCs; MC-LR, MC-RR, MC-LA, MC-LF, MC-LW, and MC-YR) from mouse urine, mouse plasma, and human serum are reported. The quantification of those MCs in biofluids was achieved using HPLC-orbitrap-MS in selected-ion monitoring (SIM) mode, and MCs in urine samples were also quantified by ultra-HPLC-triple quadrupole-tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-QqQ-MS/MS) in multiple reaction monitoring (MRM) mode. Under optimal conditions, the extraction recoveries of MCs from samples spiked at two different concentrations (1 μg/L and 10 μg/L) ranged from 90.4% to 104.3% with relative standard deviations (RSDs) ≤ 4.7% for mouse urine, 90.4-106.9% with RSDs ≤ 6.3% for mouse plasma, and 90.0-104.8% with RSDs ≤ 5.0% for human serum. Matrix-matched internal standard calibration curves were linear with R2 ≥ 0.9950 for MC-LR, MC-RR and MC-YR, and R2 ≥ 0.9883 for MC-LA, MC-LF, and MC-LW. The limits of quantification (LOQs) in spiked urine samples were ∼0.13 μg/L for MC-LR, MC-RR, and MC-YR, and ∼0.50 μg/L for MC-LA, MC-LF, and MC-LW, while the LOQs in spiked plasma and serum were ∼0.25 μg/L for MC-LR, MC-RR, and MC-YR, and ∼1.00 μg/L for MC-LA, MC-LF, and MC-LW. The developed methods were applied in a proof-of-concept study to quantify urinary and blood concentrations of MC-LR after oral administration to mice. The urine of mice administered 50 μg of MC-LR per kg bodyweight contained on average 1.30 μg/L of MC-LR (n = 8), while mice administered 100 μg of MC-LR per kg bodyweight had average MC-LR concentration of 2.82 μg/L (n = 8). MC-LR was also quantified in the plasma of the same mice. The results showed that increased MC-LR dosage led to larger urinary and plasma MC-LR concentrations and the developed methods were effective for the quantification of MCs in mouse biofluids.

Simultaneous identification and characterization of amanita toxins using liquid chromatography-photodiode array detection-ion trap and time-of-flight mass spectrometry and its applications

Rapid and accurate identification of multiple toxins for clinical diagnosis and treatment of mushroom poisoning cases is still a challenge, especially with the lack of authentic references. In this study, we developed an effective method for simultaneous identification of amanita peptide toxins by liquid chromatography coupled with photodiode array detection and ion trap time-of-flight mass spectrometry. The accuracy and selectivity of the methodology were validated through similar multiple fragmentation patterns and characteristic ions of standard α- and β-amanitin. The developed method could successfully separate and identify major toxic constituents in Amanita mushrooms. Two amatoxins and three phallotoxins were confirmed in a single run through their fragmentation patterns and characteristic ions, which can be used as diagnostic fragment ions to identify mushroom toxins in complex samples. Furthermore, the performance of the developed method was verified by using real biological samples, including plasma and urine samples collected from rats after intraperitoneal administration of toxins. Thus, the development methodology could be crucial for the accurate detection of mushroom toxins without standard references.

Detection of α-, β-, and γ-amanitin in urine by LC-MS/MS using 15N10-α-amanitin as the internal standard

The majority of fatalities from poisonous mushroom ingestion are caused by amatoxins. To prevent liver failure or death, it is critical to accurately and rapidly diagnose amatoxin exposure. We have developed a liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry method to detect α-, β-, and γ-amanitin in urine to meet this need. Two internal standard candidates were evaluated, including an isotopically labeled ¹⁵N₁₀-α-amanitin and a modified amanitin methionine sulfoxide synthetic peptide. Using the ¹⁵N₁₀-α-amanitin internal standard, precision and accuracy of α-amanitin in pooled urine was ≤5.49% and between 100 and 106%, respectively, with a reportable range from 1-200 ng/mL. β- and γ-Amanitin were most accurately quantitated in pooled urine using external calibration, resulting in precision ≤17.2% and accuracy between 99 and 105% with calibration ranges from 2.5-200 ng/mL and 1.0-200 ng/mL, respectively. The presented urinary diagnostic test is the first method to use an isotopically labeled α-amanitin with the ability to detect and confirm human exposures to α-, β-, and γ-amanitin.

Biotoxin Tropolone Contamination Associated with Nationwide Occurrence of Pathogen Burkholderia plantarii in Agricultural Environments in China

Tropolone, a biotoxin produced by the agricultural pathogen Burkholderia plantarii, exerts cytotoxicity toward a wide array of biota. However, due to the lack of quantitative and qualitative approach, both B. plantarii occurrence and tropolone contamination in agricultural environments remain poorly understood. Here, we presented a sensitive and reliable method for detection of B. plantarii in artificial, plant, and environmental matrices by tropolone-targeted gas chromatography-triple-quadrupole tandem mass spectrometry analysis. Limits of detection for B. plantarii and tropolone were 10 colony-forming units (CFU)/mL and 0.017 μg/kg, respectively. In a series of simulation trials, we found that B. plantarii from 10 to 10⁸ CFU/mL produced tropolone between 0.006 and 107.8 mg/kg in a cell-population-dependent manner, regardless of habitat. Correlation analysis clarified a reliable reflection of B. plantarii density by tropolone level with R² values from 0.9201 to 0.9756 ( p < 0.01). Through a nationwide pilot study conducted in China, tropolone contamination was observed at 0.014-0.157 mg/kg in paddy soil and rice grains, and subsequent redundancy analysis revealed soil organic matter to be a dominant environmental factor, having a positive correlation with tropolone contamination. In this context, our results imply that potential ecological and dietary risks posed by long-term exposure to trace levels of tropolone contamination are of concern.

Epidemiology and clinics of mushroom poisoning in Northern Italy: A 21-year retrospective analysis

Background:

Limited information exists about epidemiology and management of mushroom poisoning. We analyzed and described epidemiology, clinical presentation, and clinical course of mushroom-poisoned patients admitted to emergency departments (EDs) of the Province of Parma, Italy.

Methods:

Data from the database of mycological service were matched with clinical information retrieved from hospitals’ database, from January 1, 1996 to December 31, 2016.

Results:

Mycologist consultation was obtained in 379/443 identified mushroom poisonings. A remarkable seasonality was found, with significant peak in autumn. Thanks to the collaboration, the implicated species could be identified in 397 cases (89.6%); 108 cases (24.4%) were due to edible mushrooms, Boletus edulis being the most represented (63 cases). Overall, 408 (92%) cases presented with gastrointestinal toxicity. Twenty cases of amatoxin poisoning were recorded (11 Amanita phalloides and 9 Lepiota brunneoincarnata). One liver transplantation was needed. We observed 13 cases of cholinergic toxicity and 2 cases of hallucinogenic toxicity. Finally, 46 cases were due to “mixed” toxicities, and a total of 69 needed hospitalization.

Conclusions:

Early identification and management of potentially life-threatening cases is challenging in the ED, so that a mycologist service on call is highly advisable, especially during periods characterized by the highest incidence of poisoning.