Co-Occurrence of Regulated, Masked and Emerging Mycotoxins and Secondary Metabolites in Finished Feed and Maize-An Extensive Survey

Co-occurrence of mycotoxins in stored maize from southern and southwestern Ethiopia

Maize grain samples collected from 129 small-scale farmers' stores in southern and southwestern Ethiopia were analysed by LC-MS/MS for a total of 218 mycotoxins and other fungal metabolites of which 15% were regulated mycotoxins. Mycotoxins produced by Penicillium, Aspergillus, and Fusarium accounted for 31%, 17%, and 12% of the metabolites, respectively. Most of the current samples were contaminated by masked and/or emerging mycotoxins with moniliformin being the most prevalent one, contaminating 93% of the samples. Each sample was co-contaminated by 3 to 114 mycotoxins/fungal metabolites. Zearalenone, fumonisin B1, and deoxynivalenol were the dominant mycotoxins, occurring in 78%, 61%, and 55% of the samples with mean concentrations of 243, 429, and 530 µg/kg, respectively. The widespread co-occurrence of several mycotoxins in the samples may pose serious health risks due to synergistic/additional effects.

Mycotoxins and coccidiosis in poultry - co-occurrence, interaction, and effects

Avian coccidiosis, a common disease caused by Eimeria species, results in significant losses in global poultry production. Mycotoxins are low-molecular-weight natural products (i.e., small molecules) produced as secondary metabolites by filamentous fungi and they have the potential to economically and significantly affect global poultry production. Little is known about the relationship between mycotoxins and avian coccidiosis, although they often co-occur in the field. This comprehensive review examines the intricate relationship between mycotoxins and avian coccidiosis, in particular how mycotoxins, including aflatoxins, ochratoxins, trichothecenes as well as Fusarium mycotoxins, compromise the health of the poultry flock and open the door to Eimeria parasites in the gut. In addition, this review sheds light on the immunosuppressive effects of mycotoxins, their disruption of cellular signaling pathways, and the consequent exacerbation of coccidiosis infections. The mechanisms of mycotoxin toxicity are also reviewed, emphasizing direct damage to intestinal epithelial cells, impaired nutrient absorption, inflammation, oxidative stress, and changes in the gut microbiota. Finally, the consequences for the prevention and treatment of coccidiosis when mycotoxins are present in the feed are discussed. This review emphasizes the need for effective management strategies to mitigate the combined risks of mycotoxins and coccidiosis and highlights the complexity of diagnosing and controlling these interrelated problems in poultry. The review advocates a holistic approach that includes strict feed management, disease prevention measures and regular monitoring to maintain the health and productivity of poultry against these significant challenges.

Deoxynivalenol triggers mitotic catastrophe and apoptosis in C2C12 myoblasts

Deoxynivalenol (DON), commonly known as vomitoxin, is a mycotoxin produced by fungi and is frequently found as a contaminant in various cereal-based food worldwide. While the harmful effects of DON have been extensively studied in different tissues, its specific impact on the proliferation of skeletal muscle cells remains unclear. In this study, we utilized murine C2C12 myoblasts as a model to explore the influence of DON on their proliferation. Our observations indicated that DON exhibits dose-dependent toxicity, significantly inhibiting the proliferation of C2C12 cells. Through the application of RNA-seq analysis combined with gene set enrichment analysis, we identified a noteworthy downregulation of genes linked to the extracellular matrix (ECM) and condensed chromosome. Concurrently with the reduced expression of ECM genes, immunostaining analysis revealed notable changes in the distribution of fibronectin, a vital ECM component, condensing into clusters and punctate formations. Remarkably, the exposure to DON induced the formation of multipolar spindles, leading to the disruption of the normal cell cycle. This, in turn, activated the p53-p21 signaling pathway and ultimately resulted in apoptosis. These findings contribute significant insights into the mechanisms through which DON induces toxicity within skeletal muscle cells.

The influence of different abiotic conditions on the concentrations of free and conjugated deoxynivalenol and zearalenone in stored wheat

Environmental factors influence fungal growth and mycotoxin production in stored grains. However, the concentrations of free mycotoxins and their conjugates and how they are impacted by different interacting environment conditions have not been previously examined. The objectives of this study were to examine the impact of storage conditions (0.93-0.98 aw) and temperature (20-25 °C) on (a) the concentrations of deoxynivalenol and zearalenone and their respective glucosides/conjugates and (b) the concentrations of emerging mycotoxins in both naturally contaminated and irradiated wheat grains inoculated with Fusarium graminearum. Contaminated samples were analysed for multiple mycotoxins using Liquid Chromatography Tandem Mass Spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). Method validation was performed according to the acceptable performance criteria set and updated by the European Commission regulations No. 2021/808/EC. As an important conjugate of deoxynivalenol, the concentrations of deoxynivalenol-3-glucoside were significantly different from its precursor deoxynivalenol at 0.93 aw (22% moisture content- MC) at 25 °C in the naturally contaminated wheat with a ratio proportion of 56:44% respectively. The high concentrations of deoxynivalenol-3-glucoside could be influenced by the wheat's variety and/or harvested season/fungal strain type/location. Zeralenone-14-sulfate concentrations were surprisingly three times higher than Zearalenone in the naturally contaminated wheat at 0.98 aw (26% MC) at both temperatures. Emerging mycotoxins such as moniliformin increased with temperature rise with the highest concentrations at 0.95 aw and 25 °C. These findings highlight the influence and importance of storage aw x temperature conditions on the relative presence of free vs conjugated mycotoxins which can have implications for food safety.

Natural Occurrence and Co-Occurrence of Beauvericin and Enniatins in Wheat Kernels from China

A total of 769 wheat kernels collected from six provinces in China were analyzed for beauvericin (BEA) and four enniatins (ENNs), namely, ENA, ENA1, ENB and ENB1, using a solid phase extraction (SPE) technique with ultra-high performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS). The results show that the predominant toxin was BEA, which had a maximum of 387.67 μg/kg and an average of 37.69 μg/kg. With regard to ENNs, the prevalence and average concentrations of ENB and ENB1 were higher than those of ENA and ENA1. The geographical distribution of BEA and ENNs varied. Hubei and Shandong exhibited the highest and lowest positive rates of BEA and ENNs (13.46% and 87.5%, respectively). However, no significant difference was observed among these six provinces. There was a co-occurrence of BEA and ENNs, and 42.26% of samples were simultaneously detected with two or more toxins. Moreover, a significant linear correlation in concentrations was observed between the four ENN analogs (r range: 0.75~0.96, p < 0.05). This survey reveals that the contamination and co-contamination of BEA and ENNs in Chinese wheat kernels were very common.

Comprehensive Review of Aflatoxin and Ochratoxin A Dynamics: Emergence, Toxicological Impact, and Advanced Control Strategies

Filamentous fungi exhibit remarkable adaptability to diverse substrates and can synthesize a plethora of secondary metabolites. These metabolites, produced in response to environmental stimuli, not only confer selective advantages but also encompass potentially deleterious mycotoxins. Mycotoxins, exemplified by those originating from Alternaria, Aspergillus, Penicillium, and Fusarium species, represent challenging hazards to both human and animal health, thus warranting stringent regulatory control. Despite regulatory frameworks, mycotoxin contamination remains a pressing global challenge, particularly within cereal-based matrices and their derived by-products, integral components of animal diets. Strategies aimed at mitigating mycotoxin contamination encompass multifaceted approaches, including biological control modalities, detoxification procedures, and innovative interventions like essential oils. However, hurdles persist, underscoring the imperative for innovative interventions. This review elucidated the prevalence, health ramifications, regulatory paradigms, and evolving preventive strategies about two prominent mycotoxins, aflatoxins and ochratoxin A. Furthermore, it explored the emergence of new fungal species, and biocontrol methods using lactic acid bacteria and essential mustard oil, emphasizing their efficacy in mitigating fungal spoilage and mycotoxin production. Through an integrative examination of these facets, this review endeavored to furnish a comprehensive understanding of the multifaceted challenges posed by mycotoxin contamination and the emergent strategies poised to ameliorate its impact on food and feed safety.

Effect of the mycotoxins enniatin B and deoxynivalenol on the wheat aphid Sitobion avenae and on the predatory lacewing Chrysoperla carnea

BACKGROUND

Fusarium species are responsible for Fusarium head blight (FHB) in wheat, resulting in yield losses and mycotoxin contamination. Deoxynivalenol (DON) and enniatins (ENNs) are common mycotoxins produced by Fusarium, affecting plant, animal and human health. Although DON's effects have been widely studied, limited research has explored the impact of ENNs on insects. This study examines the influence of DON and enniatin B (ENB), both singularly and in combination, on the wheat aphid Sitobion avenae and one of its predators, the lacewing Chrysoperla carnea.

RESULTS

When exposed to DON (100 mg L-1) or DON + ENB (100 mg L-1), S. avenae exhibited significantly increased mortality compared to the negative control. ENB (100 mg L-1) had no significant effect on aphid mortality. DON-treated aphids showed increasing mortality from 48 to 96 h. A dose-response relationship with DON revealed significant cumulative mortality starting at 25 mg L-1. By contrast, C. carnea larvae exposed to mycotoxins via cuticular application did not show significant differences in mortality when mycotoxins were dissolved in water but exhibited increased mortality with acetone-solubilized DON + ENB (100 mg L-1). Feeding C. carnea with aphids exposed to mycotoxins (indirect exposure) did not impact their survival or predatory activity. Additionally, the impact of mycotoxins on C. carnea was observed only with acetone-solubilized DON + ENB.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings shed light on the complex interactions involving mycotoxins, aphids and their predators, offering valuable insights for integrated pest management strategies. Further research should explore broader ecological consequences of mycotoxin contamination in agroecosystems. © 2024 Society of Chemical Industry.

First Synthesis of Ergotamine-13CD3 and Ergotaminine-13CD3 from Unlabeled Ergotamine

Ergot alkaloids (EAs) formed by Claviceps fungi are one of the most common food contaminants worldwide, affecting cereals such as rye, wheat, and barley. To accurately determine the level of contamination and to monitor EAs maximum levels set by the European Union, the six most common EAs (so-called priority EAs) and their corresponding epimers are quantified using high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS/MS). The quantification of EAs in complex food matrices without appropriate internal standards is challenging but currently carried out in the standard method EN 17425:2021 due to their commercial unavailability. To address the need for isotopically labeled EAs, we focus on two semi-synthetic approaches for the synthesis of these reference standards. Therefore, we investigate the feasibility of the N6-demethylation of native ergotamine to yield norergotamine, which can subsequently be remethylated with an isotopically labeled methylating reagent, such as iodomethane (13CD3-I), to yield isotopically labeled ergotamine and its C8-epimer ergotaminine. Testing the isotopically labeled ergotamine/-inine against native ergotamine/-inine with HPLC coupled to high-resolution HR-MS/MS proved the structure of ergotamine-13CD3 and ergotaminine-13CD3. Thus, for the first time, we can describe their synthesis from unlabeled, native ergotamine. Furthermore, this approach is promising as a universal way to synthesize other isotopically labeled EAs.

Fusariotoxin-Induced Toxicity in Mesenchymal Stem Cells and Fibroblasts: A Comparison Between Differentiated and Undifferentiated Cells

Objectives

Humans are unknowingly exposed to mycotoxins through the consumption of plant-derived foods and processed products contaminated with these toxic compounds. In addition to agricultural losses, Fusarium toxins pose a threat to human health. However, the effects of fusariotoxins on the viability and proliferation of stem cells have not been fully explored. We investigated the cytotoxic effects of deoxynivalenol (DON) and B-trichothecene mix (MIX) on mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) and the L929 fibroblast cell line.

Materials and Methods

MSCs were isolated from the dental pulp tissue. The doubling time and viability of dental pulp stem cells (DPSCs) and L929 cells were determined using the MTT assay. The following doses of B-trichothecenes (0.25-16 µg/mL; 24 hours and 48 hours) were used to evaluate cytotoxicity. In addition, changes in the confluency-dependent response of DPSCs to DON toxicity were determined. Moreover, we investigated the effect of DON on cell death via acridine orange/ethidium bromide (AO/EB) double staining.

Results

A DON and MIX showed a dose- and time-dependent inhibitory effect on the proliferation of both cells. DPSCs exposed to DON for 48 hours (IC50 = 0.5 μg/mL) were found to be 16-fold more sensitive than L929 cells (IC50 = 8 μg/mL). Compared with a culture with 80% confluency, DPSCs from a 50% confluent culture were more sensitive to varying doses of DON (0.25-4 µg/mL, 24-48 hours). Moreover, AO/EB staining showed that treatment of DPSCs with DON led to a significant increase in cell death (17% for 2.4 µg/mL; 50% for 4.8 µg/mL).

Conclusion

This study reveals that undifferentiated MSCs are significantly more sensitive to DON than differentiated somatic cells (L929). Given that humans are frequently exposed to these mycotoxins, our findings imply that prolonged exposure to them may also have harmful effects on cellular differentiation and embryonic development.

A comparative review on methods of detection and quantification of mycotoxins in solid food and feed: a focus on cereals and nuts

Many emerging factors and circumstances urge the need to develop and optimize the detection and quantification techniques of mycotoxins in solid food and feed. The diversity of mycotoxins, which have different properties and affinities, makes the standardization of the analytical procedures and the adoption of a single protocol that covers the attributes of all mycotoxins a tedious or even an impossible mission. Several modifications and improvements have been undergone in order to optimize the performance of these methods including the extraction solvents, the extraction methods, the clean-up procedures, and the analytical techniques. The techniques range from the rapid screening methods, which lack sensitivity and specificity such as TLC, to a spectrum of more advanced protocols, namely, ELISA, HPLC, and GC-MS and LC-MS/MS. This review aims at assessing the current studies related to these analytical techniques of mycotoxins in solid food and feed. It discusses and evaluates, through a critical approach, various sample treatment techniques, and provides an in-depth examination of different mycotoxin detection methods. Furthermore, it includes a comparison of their actual accuracy and a thorough analysis of the observed benefits and drawbacks.

A smartphone-assisted colorimetric aptasensor based on aptamer and gold nanoparticles for visual, fast and sensitive detection of ZEN in maize

A simple, fast, low cost, sensitive, intuitive, visual, label-free, and smartphone-assisted aptamer sensor based on colorimetric assay for the measurement of zearalenone was constructed. The nucleic acid aptamer of zearalenone was used as the recognition element and gold nanoparticles were used as the indicator. Several factors that could influence sensitivity, including the concentration of aptamer and NaCl, and incubation time, and specificity, have been investigated. The results showed that under the optimal conditions, the signal had a good linear relationship when zearalenone concentration is 5-300 ng/mL. A linear regression equation is Y = 0.0003X + 0.5128 (R2 = 0.9989) and a limit of detection is 5 ng/mL. The specificity of the sensor was good. Zearalenone in maize samples were successfully measured. The recoveries of Zearalenone are 81.3 %-96.4 %. The whole process takes only 15 min to complete. The smartphone assisted colorimetric aptamer sensor can be used for the detection of zearalenone in maize.

Regulated and Emerging Mycotoxins in Bulk Raw Milk: What Is the Human Risk?

Mycotoxins are abiotic hazards whose contamination occurs at the pre- and post-harvest stages of the maize value chain, with animal exposure through contaminated feed leading to their excretion into milk. Currently, only aflatoxin M1 is regulated in milk products. Since feed materials and complete feed present a multi-mycotoxin composition and are the main mycotoxin source into milk, it is important to recognize the occurrence of multiple toxins and their co-occurrence in this highly consumed food product. The aim of this study was to determine the content of regulated and emerging mycotoxins in milk samples, which allowed for evaluating the occurrence and co-occurrence patterns of different mycotoxins known to contaminate feed materials and complete animal feed. Human exposure considering the occurrence patterns obtained was also estimated. Aflatoxins, fumonisins, zearalenone, and emerging mycotoxins were among the mycotoxins found to be present in the 100 samples analyzed. Concentrations ranged from 0.006 to 16.3 μg L-1, with no sample exceeding the AFM1 maximum level. Though several mycotoxins were detected, no exceeding values were observed considering the TDI or PMTDI. It can be concluded that the observed exposure does not pose a health risk to milk consumers, though it is important to recognize vulnerable age groups.

Modified Mycotoxins and Multitoxin Contamination of Food and Feed as Major Analytical Challenges

Mycotoxins, as natural products of molds, are often unavoidable contaminants of food and feed, to which the increasingly evident climate changes contribute a large part. The consequences are more or less severe and range from economic losses to worrying health problems to a fatal outcome. One of the best preventive approaches is regular monitoring of food and feed for the presence of mycotoxins. However, even under conditions of frequent, comprehensive, and conscientious controls, the desired protection goal may not be achieved. In fact, it often happens that, despite favorable analytical results that do not indicate high mycotoxin contamination, symptoms of their presence occur in practice. The most common reasons for this are the simultaneous presence of several different mycotoxins whose individual content does not exceed the detectable or prescribed values and/or the alteration of the form of the mycotoxin, which renders it impossible to be analytically determined using routine methods. When such contaminated foods enter a living organism, toxic effects occur. This article aims to shed light on the above problems in order to pay more attention to them, work to reduce their impact, and, eventually, overcome them.

Advances in aptamers, and application of mycotoxins detection: A review

Mycotoxin contamination in food products can easily cause serious health hazards and economic losses to human beings. How to accurately detect and effectively control mycotoxin contamination has become a global concern. Mycotoxins conventional detection techniques e.g; ELISA, HPLC, have limitations like, low sensitivity, high cost and time-consuming. Aptamer-based biosensing technology has the advantages of high sensitivity, high specificity, wide linear range, high feasibility, and non-destructiveness, which overcomes the shortcomings of conventional analysis techniques. This review summarizes the sequences of mycotoxin aptamers that have been reported so far. Based on the application of four classic POST-SELEX strategies, it also discusses the bioinformatics-assisted POST-SELEX technology in obtaining optimal aptamers. Furthermore, trends in the study of aptamer sequences and their binding mechanisms to targets is also discussed. The latest examples of aptasensor detection of mycotoxins are classified and summarized in detail. Newly developed dual-signal detection, dual-channel detection, multi-target detection and some types of single-signal detection combined with unique strategies or novel materials in recent years are focused. Finally, the challenges and prospects of aptamer sensors in the detection of mycotoxins are discussed. The development of aptamer biosensing technology provides a new approach with multiple advantages for on-site detection of mycotoxins. Although aptamer biosensing shows great development potential, still some challenges and difficulties are there in practical applications. Future research need high focus on the practical applications of aptasensors and the development of convenient and highly automated aptamers. This may lead to the transition of aptamer biosensing technology from laboratory to commercialization.

Mycotoxins in Cereal-Based Products and Their Impacts on the Health of Humans, Livestock Animals and Pets

Cereal grains are the most important food staples for human beings and livestock animals. They can be processed into various types of food and feed products such as bread, pasta, breakfast cereals, cake, snacks, beer, complete feed, and pet foods. However, cereal grains are vulnerable to the contamination of soil microorganisms, particularly molds. The toxigenic fungi/molds not only cause quality deterioration and grain loss, but also produce toxic secondary metabolites, mycotoxins, which can cause acute toxicity, death, and chronic diseases such as cancer, immunity suppression, growth impairment, and neural tube defects in humans, livestock animals and pets. To protect human beings and animals from these health risks, many countries have established/adopted regulations to limit exposure to mycotoxins. The purpose of this review is to update the evidence regarding the occurrence and co-occurrence of mycotoxins in cereal grains and cereal-derived food and feed products and their health impacts on human beings, livestock animals and pets. The effort for safe food and feed supplies including prevention technologies, detoxification technologies/methods and up-to-date regulation limits of frequently detected mycotoxins in cereal grains for food and feed in major cereal-producing countries are also provided. Some important areas worthy of further investigation are proposed.

Current Application of Advancing Spectroscopy Techniques in Food Analysis: Data Handling with Chemometric Approaches

In today's era of increased food consumption, consumers have become more demanding in terms of safety and the quality of products they consume. As a result, food authorities are closely monitoring the food industry to ensure that products meet the required standards of quality. The analysis of food properties encompasses various aspects, including chemical and physical descriptions, sensory assessments, authenticity, traceability, processing, crop production, storage conditions, and microbial and contaminant levels. Traditionally, the analysis of food properties has relied on conventional analytical techniques. However, these methods often involve destructive processes, which are laborious, time-consuming, expensive, and environmentally harmful. In contrast, advanced spectroscopic techniques offer a promising alternative. Spectroscopic methods such as hyperspectral and multispectral imaging, NMR, Raman, IR, UV, visible, fluorescence, and X-ray-based methods provide rapid, non-destructive, cost-effective, and environmentally friendly means of food analysis. Nevertheless, interpreting spectroscopy data, whether in the form of signals (fingerprints) or images, can be complex without the assistance of statistical and innovative chemometric approaches. These approaches involve various steps such as pre-processing, exploratory analysis, variable selection, regression, classification, and data integration. They are essential for extracting relevant information and effectively handling the complexity of spectroscopic data. This review aims to address, discuss, and examine recent studies on advanced spectroscopic techniques and chemometric tools in the context of food product applications and analysis trends. Furthermore, it focuses on the practical aspects of spectral data handling, model construction, data interpretation, and the general utilization of statistical and chemometric methods for both qualitative and quantitative analysis. By exploring the advancements in spectroscopic techniques and their integration with chemometric tools, this review provides valuable insights into the potential applications and future directions of these analytical approaches in the food industry. It emphasizes the importance of efficient data handling, model development, and practical implementation of statistical and chemometric methods in the field of food analysis.

Climate Change-A Global Threat Resulting in Increasing Mycotoxin Occurrence

During the last decade, scientists have given increasingly frequent warnings about global warming, linking it to mycotoxin-producing moulds in various geographical regions across the world. In the future, more pronounced climate change could alter host resilience and host-pathogen interaction and have a significant impact on the development of toxicogenic moulds and the production of their secondary metabolites, known as mycotoxins. The current climate attracts attention and calls for novel diagnostic tools and notions about the biological features of agricultural cultivars and toxicogenic moulds. Since European climate environments offer steadily rising opportunities for Aspergillus flavus growth, an increased risk of cereal contamination with highly toxic aflatoxins shall be witnessed in the future. On top of that, the profile (representation) of certain mycotoxigenic Fusarium species is changing ever more substantially, while the rise in frequency of Fusarium graminearum contamination, as a species which is able to produce several toxic mycotoxins, seen in northern and central Europe, is becoming a major concern. In the following paper, a high-quality approach to a preventative strategy is tailored to put a stop to the toxicogenic mould- and mycotoxin-induced contamination of foods and feeds in the foreseeable future.

Effect of Fungicide Treatment on Multi-Mycotoxin Occurrence in French Wheat during a 4-Year Period

Wheat represents one of the most widely consumed cereals worldwide. Cultivated in winter and spring, it is vulnerable to an array of different pathogens, including fungi, which are managed largely through the in-field application of fungicides. During this study, a 4-year field investigation (2018-2021) was performed in France, aiming to assess the efficacy of fungicide treatment to reduce mycotoxin contamination in common and durum wheat. Several different commercially available fungicides were applied via sprayers. Concentrations of mycotoxins and fungal metabolites in wheat were determined using a multi-analyte liquid-chromatography-tandem-mass-spectrometry-based method. The highest contamination levels and strongest effects of fungicides were observed in 2018, followed by 2021. A significant fungicide-mediated reduction was observed for the trichothecenes deoxynivalenol, deoxynivalenol-3-glucoside, nivalenol, and nivalenol-3-glucoside. Furthermore, fungicide treatment also reduced levels of culmorin and its hydroxy metabolites 5- and 15-hydroxy-culmorin, as well as aurofusarin. Interestingly, the Alternaria metabolite infectopyron was increased following fungicide treatment. In conclusion, fungicide treatment was effective in reducing mycotoxin levels in wheat. However, as complete prevention of mycotoxin contamination was not achieved, fungicide treatment should always be combined with other pre- and post-harvest mycotoxin mitigation strategies to improve food and feed safety.

Enniatin B1: Emerging Mycotoxin and Emerging Issues

Although over the last 10 years several studies have focused on the emerging mycotoxins known as enniatins (ENNs), there is still a lack of knowledge regarding their toxicological effects and the development of a correct risk assessment. This is especially true for enniatin B1 (ENN B1), considered the younger sister of the widely studied enniatin B (ENN B). ENN B1 has been found in several food commodities and, as with other mycotoxins, presents antibacterial and antifungal properties. On the other hand, ENN B1 has shown cytotoxic activity, impairment of the cell cycle, the induction of oxidative stress, and changes in mitochondrial membrane permeabilization, as well as negative genotoxic and estrogenic effects. Overall, considering the paucity of information available regarding ENN B1, further studies are necessary to perform a risk assessment. This review summarizes information on the biological characteristics and toxicological effects of ENN B1 as well as the future challenges that this mycotoxin could present.

Detection and quantification of zearalenone and its modified forms in enzymatically treated oat and wheat flour

An analytical method for the analysis of the mycotoxin zearalenone (ZEN) and its modified forms was developed. Sample preparation was performed based on a modified QuEChERS method combined with liquid chromatography coupled to a triple quadrupole mass spectrometry detection. The method was tested for linearity, precision, limits of detection and quantification and recoveries. The evaluation of the above-mentioned parameters was performed on oat flour. The method was applied to oat and wheat flours that were submitted to an amylolytic treatment (α-amylase and amyloglucosidase), similar to the one used in the cereal-based baby food production process. A decrease in β-zearalenol (β-ZEL) and β-ZEL-14-sulfate of approximately 40% after 90 min incubation was observed, the other analytes did not show any significant changes. To our knowledge, this is the first method that approaches the identification and assessment of ZEN-sulfate derivates in a cereal matrix.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s13197-023-05683-6.

Fusarium Head Blight on Wheat: Biology, Modern Detection and Diagnosis and Integrated Disease Management

Fusarium head blight (FHB) is a major threat for wheat production worldwide. Most reviews focus on Fusarium graminearum as a main causal agent of FHB. However, different Fusarium species are involved in this disease complex. These species differ in their geographic adaptation and mycotoxin profile. The incidence of FHB epidemics is highly correlated with weather conditions, especially rainy days with warm temperatures at anthesis and an abundance of primary inoculum. Yield losses due to the disease can reach up to 80% of the crop. This review summarizes the Fusarium species involved in the FHB disease complex with the corresponding mycotoxin profiles, disease cycle, diagnostic methods, the history of FHB epidemics, and the management strategy of the disease. In addition, it discusses the role of remote sensing technology in the integrated management of the disease. This technology can accelerate the phenotyping process in the breeding programs aiming at FHB-resistant varieties. Moreover, it can support the decision-making strategies to apply fungicides via monitoring and early detection of the diseases under field conditions. It can also be used for selective harvest to avoid mycotoxin-contaminated plots in the field.

Inter-laboratory study on simultaneous quantification of ten trichothecenes in feed

An inter-laboratory study was performed in eight laboratories to evaluate the simultaneous quantification method for HT-2 toxin (HT-2), T-2 toxin (T-2), diacetoxyscirpenol (DAS), neosolaniol (NES), 3-acetyldeoxynivalenol (3-AcDON), 15-acetyldeoxynivalenol (15-AcDON), deoxynivalenol (DON), deoxynivalenol-3-glucoside (D3G), nivalenol (NIV), and fusarenon-X (FUS-X) in feed. The mycotoxins in the samples were extracted with hydrous acetonitrile, purified using a multifunctional column (InertSep^® VRA-3) and a phospholipid removal column (Hybrid SPE^®-Phospholipid), and then quantified using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) with atmospheric pressure chemical ionisation mode. The mean recovery, repeatability, reproducibility, and Horwitz ratio from the inter-laboratory validation study were 99.8-109%, 3.1-9.8%, 4.3-9.8%, and 0.19-0.45, respectively, for type A trichothecenes (HT-2, T-2, DAS, and NES). Those values for type B trichothecenes (3-AcDON, 15-AcDON, DON, NIV, and FUS-X) were 89.9-116%, 3.4-9.1%, 5.6-14%, and 0.25-0.70, and the values for modified mycotoxin (D3G) were 78.2-96.7%, 3.5-6.4%, and 13-22%, respectively.

E-Nose Technology for Mycotoxin Detection in Feed: Ready for a Real Context in Field Application or Still an Emerging Technology?

Mycotoxin risk in the feed supply chain poses a concern to animal and human health, economy, and international trade of agri-food commodities. Mycotoxin contamination in feed and food is unavoidable and unpredictable. Therefore, monitoring and control are the critical points. Effective and rapid methods for mycotoxin detection, at the levels set by the regulations, are needed for an efficient mycotoxin management. This review provides an overview of the use of the electronic nose (e-nose) as an effective tool for rapid mycotoxin detection and management of the mycotoxin risk at feed business level. E-nose has a high discrimination accuracy between non-contaminated and single-mycotoxin-contaminated grain. However, the predictive accuracy of e-nose is still limited and unsuitable for in-field application, where mycotoxin co-contamination occurs. Further research needs to be focused on the sensor materials, data analysis, pattern recognition systems, and a better understanding of the needs of the feed industry for a safety and quality management of the feed supply chain. A universal e-nose for mycotoxin detection is not realistic; a unique e-nose must be designed for each specific application. Robust and suitable e-nose method and advancements in signal processing algorithms must be validated for specific needs.

Environment, Grain Development, and Harvesting Strategy Effects on Zearalenone Contamination of Grain from Fusarium Head Blight-Affected Wheat Spikes

Fusarium head blight (FHB), caused by the fungus Fusarium graminearum, is associated with grain contamination with mycotoxins such as deoxynivalenol (DON) and zearalenone (ZEA). Unlike DON, less is known about factors affecting ZEA production during FHB epidemics. The objective of this study was to quantify ZEA contamination of wheat grain as influenced by temperature, relative humidity, FHB index (IND), grain maturation, simulated late-season rainfall, and harvest timing. Mean ZEA concentrations were low (<1.1 ppm) during the early stages of grain development (25 to 31 days after anthesis [DAA]) but rapidly increased 35 to 51 DAA in field experiments, particularly under rainy conditions. Five or ten consecutive days with simulated rainfall shortly before harvest greatly increased ZEA contamination. Similarly, extremely high levels of ZEA (51.8 to 468.6 ppm) were observed in grain from spikes exposed to 100% relative humidity (RH) at all tested temperatures and mean IND levels under controlled conditions. Interestingly, at RH ≤ 90%, ZEA concentrations were very low (0.1 to 3.6 ppm) at all tested temperatures, even at IND above 90%. At 100% RH, mean ZEA contamination was significantly higher at 20 and 25°C (235.1 and 278.2 ppm) than at 30°C (104.7 ppm). Grain harvested early and not exposed to rainfall had lower mean ZEA than grain harvested late and/or subjected to preharvest rainfall. This study was the first to associate ZEA contamination of grain from FHB-affected wheat spikes with temperature and moisture and show through designed experiments that early harvest could be a useful strategy for reducing ZEA contamination.

Environmental Conditions After Fusarium Head Blight Visual Symptom Development Affect Contamination of Wheat Grain with Deoxynivalenol and Deoxynivalenol-3-Glucoside

Fusarium head blight (FHB) of wheat, caused by the fungus Fusarium graminearum, is associated with grain contamination with mycotoxins such as deoxynivalenol (DON). Although FHB is often positively correlated with DON, this relationship can break down under certain conditions. One possible explanation for this could be the conversion of DON to DON-3-glucoside (D3G), which is typically missed by common DON testing methods. The objective of this study was to quantify the effects of temperature, relative humidity (RH), and preharvest rainfall on DON, D3G, and the D3D/DON relationship. D3G levels were higher in grain from spikes exposed to 100% RH than to 70, 80, or 90% RH at 20 and 25°C across all tested levels of mean FHB index (percentage of diseased spikelets per spike). Mean D3G contamination was higher at 20°C than at 25 or 30°C. There were significantly positive linear relationships between DON and D3G. Rainfall treatments resulted in significantly higher mean D3G than the rain-free check and induced preharvest sprouting, as indicated by low falling numbers (FNs). There were significant positive relationships between the rate of increase in D3G per unit increase in DON (a measure of conversion) and sprouting. As FN decreased, the rate of D3G conversion increased, and this rate of conversion per unit decrease in FN was greater at relatively low than at high mean DON levels. These results provide strong evidence that moisture after FHB visual symptom development was associated with DON-to-D3G conversion and constitute valuable new information for understanding this complex disease-mycotoxin system.

Mycotoxin Occurrence in Feeds and Raw Materials in China: A Five-Year Investigation

Mycotoxins are ubiquitously present in feeds and raw materials and can exert toxicity on animals and humans. Therefore, mycotoxin occurrence should be monitored. We report here a multi-mycotoxin survey of feed samples in China from 2017 to 2021. Concentrations of aflatoxins, trichothecenes type B, fumonisins, and zearalenone were determined in a total of 9392 samples collected throughout China. Regional differences and year-to-year variation of mycotoxin occurrence were also assessed in new-season corn. Generally, Fusarium mycotoxins were prevalent, while mycotoxin contamination in each feed commodity showed a distinct pattern, e.g., wheat and bran were typically affected by trichothecenes type B, peanut meals were highly susceptible to aflatoxins, and finished feeds exhibited a comparatively high prevalence of all mycotoxins. In new-season corn, trichothecenes type B and fumonisins were most prevalent, with positive rates of 84.04% and 87.16%, respectively. Regions exhibited different patterns of mycotoxin occurrence. The Anhui and Jiangsu provinces of East China exhibited a high prevalence and concentrations of aflatoxins with a positive rate and a positive average of 82.61% and 103.08 μg/kg, respectively. Central China obtained high fumonisins levels of 4707.84 μg/kg. Trichothecenes type B and zearalenone occurred more frequently in temperate regions of Northeast China, and their positive rates reached 94.99% and 55.67%, respectively. In these regions, mycotoxin concentrations in new-season corn exhibited pronounced year-to-year variations and this could be due to the unusual changes of rainfall or temperature during sensitive periods of corn growing. A large fraction of new-season corn samples contained multiple mycotoxins with two to three classes (75.42%), and the most frequently observed co-contaminants were the combination of trichothecenes type B and fumonisins (73.52%). Trichothecenes type B and zearalenone concentrations were highly positively correlated with a coefficient of 0.775. In conclusion, mycotoxins contamination and co-contamination of feeds are common. Mycotoxin contamination in new-season corn exhibited regional patterns and year-to-year variations, with climate and weather conditions as determinant factors.

Modified Mycotoxins, a Still Unresolved Issue

Mycotoxins are toxic secondary metabolites produced by filamentous microfungi on almost every agricultural commodity worldwide. After the infection of crop plants, mycotoxins are modified by plant enzymes or other fungi and often conjugated to more polar substances, like sugars. The formed—often less toxic—metabolites are stored in the vacuole in soluble form or bound to macromolecules. As these substances are usually not detected during routine analysis and no maximum limits are in force, they are called modified mycotoxins. While, in most cases, modified mycotoxins have lower intrinsic toxicity, they might be reactivated during mammalian metabolism. In particular, the polar group might be cleaved off (e.g., by intestinal bacteria), releasing the native mycotoxin. This review aims to provide an overview of the critical issues related to modified mycotoxins. The main conclusion is that analytical aspects, toxicological evaluation, and exposure assessment merit more investigation.

Recent Research on Fusarium Mycotoxins in Maize—A Review

Maize (Zea mays L.) is one of the most susceptible crops to pathogenic fungal infections, and in particular to the Fusarium species. Secondary metabolites of Fusarium spp.—mycotoxins are not only phytotoxic, but also harmful to humans and animals. They can cause acute or chronic diseases with various toxic effects. The European Union member states apply standards and legal regulations on the permissible levels of mycotoxins in food and feed. This review summarises the most recent knowledge on the occurrence of toxic secondary metabolites of Fusarium in maize, taking into account modified forms of mycotoxins, the progress in research related to the health effects of consuming food or feed contaminated with mycotoxins, and also the development of biological methods for limiting and/or eliminating the presence of the same in the food chain and in compound feed.

The efficacy of mycotoxin binders to control mycotoxins in feeds and the potential risk of interactions with nutrient: a review

Mycotoxicosis are a common problem in livestock, where a group of six major mycotoxins represents a high risk for animal health and production profits. Mycotoxin binders (MTB) can reduce the mycotoxin burden in the gastrointestinal tract of the animal. Mycotoxin binders are classified in inorganic, as clays and activated carbon (AC), and organic, as yeast cell wall (YCW) and micro-ionized fibers. The adsorption of mycotoxins into MTB is due to: 1) chemical interactions where the cation exchange capacity involves different types of bounds like ion-dipole, Van der Walls forces, or hydrogen bonds; and 2) to physical characteristics of MTB like pore size, or mycotoxin structure and shape. The adsorption capacity of MTB is determined using different in vitro tests that mimic the gastrointestinal tract of the animals. A literature search was conducted to identify in vitro research where the efficacy of adsorption of MTB was determined. The search was based on 8 MTB [AC, bentonite, clinoptilolite, hydrated sodium calcium aluminosilicate (HSCAS), montmorillonite (MMT), sepiolite, YCW and zeolite] and 6 mycotoxins [aflatoxin (AF), deoxynivalenol (DON), fumonisin (FUM), ochratoxin (OTA), T-2 toxin and zearalenone (ZEA)]. Sixty-eight papers with 1842 data were selected and analyzed with the PROC MIXED of SAS. The response variable was the percentage mycotoxins adsorption by MTB, and the model included the fixed effects of MTB, mycotoxins, incubation media, pH and their interactions, and the random effect of the study. Differences were considered significant when P < 0.05 and with tendency when 0.05 < P < 0.10. The mycotoxins adsorption capacity was 83% ± 1.0 for AC, 76% ± 3.1 for MMT, 62% ± 1.0 for bentonite, 55% ± 1.9 for HSCAS, 52% ± 9.1 for sepiolite, 52% ± 4.3 for clinoptilolite and 44% ± 0.4 for YCW. For mycotoxins, the adsorption of AF was 76% ± 0.6, for FUM was 50% ± 1.8, for OTA was 42% ± 1.0, for ZEA was 48% ± 1.1, for DON was 35% ± 1.6, and for T-2 was 27% ± 2.8. The pH affected the adsorption capacity of YCW with higher adsorption at low pH, and the adsorption of OTA and ZEA, where OTA adsorption tended to be lower at intermediate pH, and adsorption of ZEA tended to be higher at the two-steps pH. The potential adsorption of some essential nutrients, including amino acids and vitamins, should also be considered. Results should be used as a guide in the selection of the appropriate mycotoxin binder based on the predominant mycotoxin in feeds.

Mycotoxin contamination in feeds and feed materials in China in year 2020

A survey of mycotoxin contamination in feed commodities in China was performed and the regional differences of mycotoxin contamination in new season corn was assessed during January 2020-November 2020 in this research. 1,610 samples were analyzed for the major mycotoxins, namely aflatoxins, zearalenone (ZEN), trichothecenes type B, fumonisins (FUM), fusariotoxin T-2 (T-2) and ochratoxin A (OTA) using methods of liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry and enzyme linked immunosorbent assay. Generally, aflatoxins occurred in 16% of all samples, and ZEN, trichothecenes type B and FUM were more prevalent with positive rates of 47, 72, and 63%, respectively. T2 and OTA were rarely detected. In new season corn, samples were also seriously contaminated with ZEN, trichothecenes type B, and FUM at positive rates of 47, 76, and 79%, respectively, and their averages of positives were 112, 735, and 3,811 μg/kg, respectively. The patterns of mycotoxin occurrence showed distinct regional trends in new season corn samples. Samples from Shandong province were highly contaminated with FUM, while special attention should be paid to aflatoxins in Anhui and Jiangsu provinces of East China. The contents of trichothecenes type B and ZEN from northern to southern provinces showed downward trends. In new season corm, co-occurrence of mycotoxins was widespread, and combinations of ZEN, trichothecenes type B, and FUM were frequently observed in this study. Trichothecenes type B and ZEN concentrations showed a positive correlation coefficient of 0.294, suggesting that toxicological interactions of these toxins deserve attention.

Chemical Contamination in Bread from Food Processing and Its Environmental Origin

Acrylamide (AA), furan and furan derivatives, polycyclic aromatic amines (PAHs), monochloropropanediols (MCPDs), glycidol, and their esters are carcinogens that are being formed in starchy and high-protein foodstuffs, including bread, through baking, roasting, steaming, and frying due to the Maillard reaction. The Maillard reaction mechanism has also been described as the source of food processing contaminants. The above-mentioned carcinogens, especially AA and furan compounds, are crucial substances responsible for the aroma of bread. The other groups of bread contaminants are mycotoxins (MTs), toxic metals (TMs), and pesticides. All these contaminants can be differentiated depending on many factors such as source, the concentration of toxicant in the different wheat types, formation mechanism, metabolism in the human body, and hazardous exposure effects to humans. The following paper characterizes the most often occurring contaminants in the bread from each group. The human exposure to bread contaminants and their safe ranges, along with the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) classification (if available), also have been analyzed.

The Occurrence and Co-Occurrence of Regulated, Emerging, and Masked Mycotoxins in Rice Bran and Maize from Southeast Asia

Raw feed materials are often contaminated with mycotoxins, and co-occurrence of mycotoxins occurs frequently. A total of 250 samples i.e., rice bran and maize from Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, and Thailand were analysed using state-of-the-art liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) for monitoring the occurrence of regulated, emerging, and masked mycotoxins. Seven regulated mycotoxins – aflatoxins, ochratoxin A, fumonisin B₁, deoxynivalenol, zearalenone, HT-2, and T-2 toxin were detected as well as some emerging mycotoxins, such as beauvericin, enniatin type B, stachybotrylactam, sterigmatocystin, and masked mycotoxins, specifically zearalenone-14-glucoside, and zearalenone-16-glucoside. Aspergillus and Fusarium mycotoxins were the most prevalent compounds identified, especially aflatoxins and fumonisin B₁ in 100% and 95% of samples, respectively. Of the emerging toxins, beauvericin and enniatin type B showed high occurrences, with more than 90% of rice bran and maize contaminated, whereas zearalenone-14-glucoside and zearalenone-16-glucoside were found in rice bran in the range of 56–60%. Regulated mycotoxins (DON and ZEN) were the most frequent mycotoxin combination with emerging mycotoxins (BEA and ENN type B) in rice bran and maize. This study indicates that mycotoxin occurrence and co-occurrence are common in raw feed materials, and it is critical to monitor mycotoxin levels in ASEAN’s feedstuffs so that mitigation strategies can be developed and implemented.

Mycotoxins in Cattle Feed and Feed Ingredients in Brazil: A Five-Year Survey

Mycotoxins are toxic secondary metabolites produced by a variety of fungi, which when ingested can cause several deleterious effects to the health of humans and animals. In this work, the detection and quantification of six major mycotoxins (aflatoxins-AFLA, deoxynivalenol-DON, fumonisins-FUMO, ochratoxin A-OTA, T-2 toxin-T-2 and zearalenone-ZON) in 1749 samples of feed and feed ingredients for cattle, collected in Brazil between 2017 and 2021, was carried out using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). In total, 97% of samples were contaminated with at least one mycotoxin, yet, very few samples exceeded the lowest European Union guidance values for cattle, and the estimated daily intake also showed a low risk for the animals. However, co-occurrences were widely observed, as 87% of samples contained two or more mycotoxins at the same time, and the presence of more than one mycotoxin at the same time in feed can lead to interactions. In conclusion, the contamination of feed and feed ingredients for cattle with mycotoxins in Brazil is very common. Hence, the monitoring of these mycotoxins is of significant importance for food safety.

Mycotoxin Contamination of Feeds and Raw Materials in China in Year 2021

In this research, we performed a large-scale survey of mycotoxin contamination in several feed commodities and assessed regional differences in mycotoxin occurrence in maize across China in 2021. Concentrations of aflatoxins, zearalenone (ZEN), fumonisins, and trichothecenes type B were analyzed in 2,643 raw material and compound feed samples collected from eight provinces. Generally, trichothecenes type B, fumonisins, and ZEN were most prevalent and detected in averages of positive concentrations at 1,167, 1,623, and 204 μg/kg, respectively. In the new season maize, samples were also seriously infested with trichothecenes type B, fumonisins, and ZEN, and their averages of positive concentrations were 1,302, 2,518, and 225 μg/kg, respectively. Wheat was commonly contaminated with trichothecenes type B and ZEN, and the highest concentration levels of trichothecenes type B, fumonisins, and ZEN were all detected in the samples from maize by-products. Among the different geographical regions, distinct trends were observed in new season maize. Samples from Shandong province were highly contaminated with trichothecenes type B, fumonisins, and ZEN, while special attention should be paid to aflatoxins and fumonisins in Anhui and Jiangsu provinces in East China. In addition, the present survey showed that compound feeds and raw materials are commonly contaminated by multiple mycotoxins. Trichothecenes type B and ZEN concentrations were correlated significantly in this survey.

Development and Validation of an UHPLC-MS/MS Method for the Simultaneous Determination of 11 EU-Regulated Mycotoxins in Selected Cereals

The availability of reliable sensitive multi-analyte methods for unambiguous determination of mycotoxins is crucial for ensuring food and feed safety, considering their adverse health effects and (co-)occurrence in various foods. Accordingly, a multi-mycotoxin confirmatory method for simultaneous determination of 11 mycotoxins regulated in cereals within the European Union (EU) using ultra-high performance liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS) was developed and in-house validated to fit the EU legislation requirements for analytical methods. A simple sample preparation was based on a solid−liquid extraction using a solvent mixture acetonitrile/water/formic acid (79/20/1, v/v/v) and a dilution of raw extract using water/acetonitrile/formic acid (79/20/1, v/v/v) before instrumental analysis. Average recoveries in all three validated cereal crop types (maize, wheat, and barley), spiked at multiple levels, were found acceptable for all analytes when matrix-matched calibration was used, ranging from 63.2% to 111.2% and also showing very good repeatability, with relative standard deviations below 20%. Matrix effect (SSE) evaluation revealed maize as the most complex of the three analyzed cereal matrices, with strong SSE (<50% and >150%) recorded for all 11 analyzed mycotoxins. An additional method verification was performed through successful participation in proficiency testing schemes, with the achieved z-scores generally in the acceptable range of −2 ≤ z ≤ 2. The obtained validation results demonstrated the suitability of the developed confirmatory multi-mycotoxin UHPLC-MS/MS method based on a dilute-and-shoot principle for the simultaneous determination of low concentrations of 11 EU-regulated mycotoxins in cereals, including aflatoxins B1, B2, G1 and G2, deoxynivalenol, fumonisins B1 and B2, zearalenone, T-2 and HT-2 toxins, and ochratoxin A.

Mycotoxin Co-Occurrence in Michigan Harvested Maize Grain

Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites produced by fungi that, depending on the type and exposure levels, can be a threat to human and animal health. When multiple mycotoxins occur together, their risk effects on human and animal health can be additive or synergistic. Little information is known about the specific types of mycotoxins or their co-occurrence in the state of Michigan and the Great Lakes region of the United States. To understand the types, incidences, severities, and frequency of co-occurrence of mycotoxins in maize grain (Zea mays L.), samples were collected from across Michigan over two years and analyzed for 20 different mycotoxins. Every sample was contaminated with at least four and six mycotoxins in 2017 and 2018, respectively. Incidence and severity of each mycotoxin varied by year and across locations. Correlations were found between mycotoxins, particularly mycotoxins produced by Fusarium spp. Environmental differences at each location played a role in which mycotoxins were present and at what levels. Overall, data from this study demonstrated that mycotoxin co-occurrence occurs at high levels in Michigan, especially with mycotoxins produced by Fusarium spp., such as deoxynivalenol.

An Interlaboratory Comparison Study of Regulated and Emerging Mycotoxins Using Liquid Chromatography Mass Spectrometry: Challenges and Future Directions of Routine Multi-Mycotoxin Analysis including Emerging Mycotoxins

The present interlaboratory comparison study involved nine laboratories located throughout the world that tested for 24 regulated and non-regulated mycotoxins by applying their in-house LC-MS/MS multi-toxin method to 10 individual lots of 4 matrix commodities, including complex chicken and swine feed, soy and corn gluten. In total, more than 6000 data points were collected and analyzed statistically by calculating a consensus value in combination with a target standard deviation following a modified Horwitz equation. The performance of each participant was evaluated by a z-score assessment with a satisfying range of ±2, leading to an overall success rate of 70% for all tested compounds. Equal performance for both regulated and emerging mycotoxins indicates that participating routine laboratories have successfully expanded their analytical portfolio in view of potentially new regulations. In addition, the study design proved to be fit for the purpose of providing future certified reference materials, which surpass current analyte matrix combinations and exceed the typical scope of the regulatory framework.

LC-MS/MS based appraisal of multi-mycotoxin co-occurrence in poultry feeds from different regions of Punjab, Pakistan

Mycotoxins, being a threat to animal and human health, contribute significantly towards economic losses in the poultry sector. A liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry-based study was conducted on poultry feed samples collected from Punjab, Pakistan to evaluate the prevalence, contamination levels, and co-occurrence of multi-mycotoxins across different processed forms of the feed, types of utilities and sampling regions. All samples were found to be contaminated with aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) and fumonisin B1 (FB1). The European Commission (EC) maximum level for AFB1 in complete feedingstuffs in poultry and guidance values for FB1 and zearalenone (ZEN) were exceeded in 73%, 2%, and 14% of the contaminated samples, respectively. The corresponding median values were 39.9 µg/kg, 205 µg/kg, and 34.5 µg/kg. In addition to exceeding contamination levels, a varying co-occurrence of three to fourteen mycotoxins was observed in each of the feed samples that calls for mitigation measures to safeguard the feed and its ingredients.

Overview of Recent Liquid Chromatography Mass Spectrometry-Based Methods for Natural Toxins Detection in Food Products

Natural toxins include a wide range of toxic metabolites also occurring in food and products, thus representing a risk for consumer health. In the last few decades, several robust and sensitive analytical methods able to determine their occurrence in food have been developed. Liquid chromatography mass spectrometry is the most powerful tool for the simultaneous detection of these toxins due to its advantages in terms of sensitivity and selectivity. A comprehensive review on the most relevant papers on methods based on liquid chromatography mass spectrometry for the analysis of mycotoxins, alkaloids, marine toxins, glycoalkaloids, cyanogenic glycosides and furocoumarins in food is reported herein. Specifically, a literature search from 2011 to 2021 was carried out, selecting a total of 96 papers. Different approaches to sample preparation, chromatographic separation and detection mode are discussed. Particular attention is given to the analytical performance characteristics obtained in the validation process and the relevant application to real samples.

A Preliminary Study to Classify Corn Silage for High or Low Mycotoxin Contamination by Using near Infrared Spectroscopy

Mycotoxins should be monitored in order to properly evaluate corn silage safety quality. In the present study, corn silage samples (n = 115) were collected in a survey, characterized for concentrations of mycotoxins, and scanned by a NIR spectrometer. Random Forest classification models for NIR calibration were developed by applying different cut-offs to classify samples for concentration (i.e., μg/kg dry matter) or count (i.e., n) of (i) total detectable mycotoxins; (ii) regulated and emerging Fusarium toxins; (iii) emerging Fusarium toxins; (iv) Fumonisins and their metabolites; and (v) Penicillium toxins. An over- and under-sampling re-balancing technique was applied and performed 100 times. The best predictive model for total sum and count (i.e., accuracy mean ± standard deviation) was obtained by applying cut-offs of 10,000 µg/kg DM (i.e., 96.0 ± 2.7%) or 34 (i.e., 97.1 ± 1.8%), respectively. Regulated and emerging Fusarium mycotoxins achieved accuracies slightly less than 90%. For the Penicillium mycotoxin contamination category, an accuracy of 95.1 ± 2.8% was obtained by using a cut-off limit of 350 µg/kg DM as a total sum or 98.6 ± 1.3% for a cut-off limit of five as mycotoxin count. In conclusion, this work was a preliminary study to discriminate corn silage for high or low mycotoxin contamination by using NIR spectroscopy.

Fungal diversity and mycotoxins detected in maize stored in silo-bags: a review

Silo-bags are hermetic storage systems that inhibit fungal growth because of their atmosphere with low humidity, as well as low pH and O₂ concentrations, and a high CO₂ concentration. If a silo-bag with stored maize loses its hermetic nature, it favors the development of fungi and the production of mycotoxins. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first review on the diversity of fungal species and mycotoxins that were reported in maize stored under the environmental conditions provided by silo-bags. The genera Penicillium, Aspergillus and Fusarium were found more frequently, whereas Acremonium spp., Alternaria sp., Candida sp., Cladosporium sp., Debaryomyces spp., Epiconum sp., Eupenicillium spp., Eurotium sp., Eurotium amstelodami, Hyphopichia spp., Hyphopichia burtonii, Moniliella sp., Wallemia sp. and genera within the orden Mucorales were reported less recurrently. Despite finding a great fungal diversity, all of the studies focused their investigations on a small group of toxins: fumonisins (FBs), aflatoxins (AFs), deoxynivalenol (DON), zearalenone (ZEA), patulin (PAT), toxin T2 (T2) and ochratoxin (OT). Of the FBs, fumonisin B₁ and fumonisin B₂ presented higher incidence percentages, followed by fumonisin B₃ . Of the AFs, the only one reported was aflatoxin B_1. The mycotoxins DON, ZEA and OT were found with lower incidences, whereas PAT and T2 were not detected. Good management practices of the silo-bags are necessary to achieve a hermetically sealed environment, without exchange of gases and water with the external environment during the storage period. © 2022 Society of Chemical Industry.

Raman spectral analysis for rapid determination of zearalenone and alpha-zearalanol

Mycotoxins, including zearalenone, are important natural products produced by fungi that occasionally contaminate agricultural commodities and pose serious health risks to consumers of food and feed. Zearalenone and its metabolite, α-zearalanol, are of significant concern due to their estrogenic and anabolic steroid activity. Several governments have regulatory standards and advisory guidelines for zearalenone and α-zearalanol. Raman and ultraviolet spectroscopy were employed with density functional theory methods to evaluate spectroscopic properties to distinguish between zearalenone and α-zearalanol systematically. Raman bands were assigned based on vibrational frequency calculations. A portable Raman spectroscopy instrument (785 nm laser) distinguished between zearalenone and α-zearalanol in a label-free manner. Many vibrational bands of zearalenone and α-zearalanol are similar, including high-intensity peaks at 1315 cm^-1 and 1650 cm^-1. However, the intensities in the Raman spectra at 1465 cm^-1, 1495 cm^-1, and 1620 cm^-1 enabled the identification of zearalenone. The Raman peak at 1450 cm^-1 is associated with α-zearalanol. These vibrational bands serve as spectral indicators to differentiate between the structurally similar zearalenone and α-zearalanol.

Assessment of multi-mycotoxin contamination throughout the supply chain of maize-based poultry feed from selected regions of Malaysia by LC-MS/MS

The objective of this study was to examine the occurrence of multi-mycotoxin contamination throughout the supply chain of maize-based poultry feed. Different sampling points throughout the feed supply chain were selected from two companies that manufactured the poultry feed. A total of 51 samples, consisting of grain maize and maize-based poultry feeds, were collected. The samples were analysed by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) to determine the occurrence of multi-mycotoxin. The results revealed that 100% of samples throughout the maize-based poultry feed supply chain were spoiled with more than one mycotoxin. Fumonisin B1 (8.02-1,220 µg/kg) and fumonisin B2 (11.1-1,109 µg/kg) were the main mycotoxins detected at all sampling points throughout the feed supply chain. Zearalenone (ZEA) (6.63-7.50 µg/kg) was also detected in 11.7% (n = 6) (out of a total of 51) samples. As the supply chain progresses, a reduction in mycotoxin contamination was observed. Aflatoxins, ochratoxin A (OTA), deoxynivalenol (DON), HT-2, and T-2 toxin were not detected. The levels of mycotoxins detected throughout the supply chain were below the international regulatory limits, thus indicating the low risk of exposure to mycotoxins in maize-based poultry feed in Malaysia. Nevertheless, due to the presence of multiple ingredients in most food and feed, efforts to understand and address challenges associated with mycotoxins throughout the entire supply chain need to be more holistic to protect public health.

Mycotoxins in soil and environment

Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites produced by specific fungi that have harmful effects on animals and humans. Worldwide more than 300 different mycotoxins are already known, frequently with concentrations in harvest products exceeding acceptable limits. Nevertheless, although these compounds have extensively been studied in food and feed, only little is known about their occurrence and fate in soil and agro-environmental matrices, such as manure, sewage sludge, drainage water and sediments. Therefore, the aim of this review was to (i) resume available methods for quantifying mycotoxins in soil, (ii) describe the occurrence and quantities of mycotoxins in soil and related agro-environmental matrices, and (iii) discuss the environmental fate of these target compounds with specific focus on their leaching potential into groundwater. The safest and most reliable method for mycotoxin quantification relies on mass spectrometry, while the extraction method and solvent composition differ depending on the compound under investigation. Mycotoxin levels detected in soils to date were in the μg range, reaching maximum amounts of 72.1 μg kg^-1 for zearalenone, 32.1 μg kg^-1 for deoxynivalenol, 23.7 μg kg^-1 for ochratoxin A, 6.7 μg kg^-1 for nivalenol, and 5.5 μg kg^-1 for aflatoxin. Different compartments in the agroecosystem (cereals, corn, rice, water, manure, sewage sludge) each contained at least one mycotoxin. Mycotoxin retention in soils is controlled by texture, with significant adsorption of the compounds to clays but leaching potentials in sandy soils. We did not find any reports detecting mycotoxins in sediments, although there are increasing reports of mycotoxins in freshwater samples. Overall, it appears that soils and sediments are still underrepresented in research on potential environmental contamination with mycotoxins.

Chitosan-based nanoencapsulation of Toddalia asiatica (L.) Lam. essential oil to enhance antifungal and aflatoxin B1 inhibitory activities for safe storage of maize

The present study reports the enhanced antifungal, aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁) inhibitory activities and mode of action of chitosan-based nanoencapsulated Toddalia asiatica essential oil (neTAEO). Twenty-seven different chemical components were recognized from T. asiatica essential oil (TAEO) using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). The caryophyllene oxide (CO) (25.4%), and 1,3-hexadiene, 3-ethyl-2,5-dimethyl- (HED) (24.08%) were documented as significant compounds. The Z-average particles diameter (Z-APD) of the neTAEO ranged between 18.41 and 131.8 nm. The neTAEO showed enhanced and most promising antifungal and AFB₁ inhibitory activity than TAEO. In viable maize model assay, neTAEO effectively preserved the maize from fungal invade and AFB₁ biosynthesis. The neTAEO significantly disturbs membrane integrities of Aspergillus flavus by inhibiting ergosterol biosynthesis followed by the extreme release of ions (Mg²⁺ and K⁺) and UV-absorbing (260 and 280 nm) cellular constituents. The in-silico molecular docking showed that the major active components of TAEO viz., CO and HED were active against AFB₁ synthesizing leading genes Ver-1 and Omt-A with docking scores ranging from -4.8 to -7.7. The obtained results confirm that neTAEO showed promising antifungal and AFB₁ inhibitory activities; hence, it could be used as an alternative green strategy to protect food grains from fungal invade and AFB₁ production during storage.

Structure-toxicity relationships, toxicity mechanisms and health risk assessment of food-borne modified deoxynivalenol and zearalenone: A comprehensive review

Mycotoxin, as one of the most common pollutants in foodstuffs, poses great threat to food security and human health. Specifically, deoxynivalenol (DON) and zearalenone (ZEN)-two mycotoxin contaminants with considerable toxicity widely existing in food products-have aroused broad public concerns. Adding to this picture, modified forms of DON and ZEN, have emerged as another potential environmental and health threat, owing to their higher re-transformation rate into parent mycotoxins inducing accumulation of mycotoxin in humans and animals. Given this, a better understanding of the toxicity of modified mycotoxins is urgently needed. Moreover, the lack of toxicity data means a proper risk assessment of modified mycotoxins remains challenging. To better evaluate the toxicity of modified DON and ZEN, we have reviewed the relationship between their structures and toxicities. The toxicity mechanisms behind modified DON and ZEN have also been discussed; briefly, these involve acute, subacute, chronic, and combined toxicities. In addition, this review also addresses the global occurrence of modified DON and ZEN, and summarizes novel methods-including in silico analysis and implementation of relative potency factors-for risk assessment of modified DON and ZEN. Finally, the health risk assessment of modified DON and ZEN has also been discussed comprehensively.