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Grace D, Knight-Jones TJD, Melaku A, Alders R, Jemberu WT. The Public Health Importance and Management of Infectious Poultry Diseases in Smallholder Systems in Africa. Foods 2024; 13:411. [PMID: 38338547 PMCID: PMC10855203 DOI: 10.3390/foods13030411] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2023] [Revised: 11/29/2023] [Accepted: 12/20/2023] [Indexed: 02/12/2024] Open
Abstract
Poultry diseases pose major constraints on smallholder production in Africa, causing high flock mortality and economic hardship. Infectious diseases, especially viral diseases like Newcastle disease and highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) and bacterial diseases, especially colibacillosis and salmonellosis, are responsible for most chicken losses, with downstream effects on human nutrition and health. Beyond production impacts, poultry diseases directly harm public health if zoonotic, can give rise to epidemics and pandemics, and facilitate antimicrobial resistance through treatment attempts. HPAI, campylobacteriosis, and salmonellosis are the priority zoonoses. Sustainable solutions for poultry health remain elusive despite recognition of the problem. This review summarises current knowledge on major poultry diseases in smallholder systems, their impacts, and options for prevention and control. We find biosecurity, vaccination, good husbandry, and disease-resistant breeds can reduce disease burden, but practical limitations exist in implementing these measures across smallholder systems. Treatment is often inefficient for viral diseases, and treatment for bacterial diseases risks antimicrobial resistance. Ethnoveterinary practices offer accessible alternatives but require more rigorous evaluation. Multisectoral collaboration and policies that reach smallholder poultry keepers are essential to alleviate disease constraints. Successful control will improve livelihoods, nutrition, and gender equity for millions of rural families. This review concludes that sustainable, scalable solutions for smallholder poultry disease control remain a critical unmet need in Africa.
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Affiliation(s)
- Delia Grace
- Natural Resources Institute (NRI), Chatham ME4 4TB, UK
- International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), Nairobi P.O. Box 30709, Kenya
| | | | - Achenef Melaku
- Department of Veterinary Pharmacy, University of Gondar, Gondar P.O. Box 196, Ethiopia;
| | - Robyn Alders
- Development Policy Centre, Australian National University, Acton, Canberra 2601, Australia;
| | - Wudu T. Jemberu
- International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), Addis Ababa P.O. Box 5689, Ethiopia or (W.T.J.)
- Department of Veterinary Epidemiology and Public Health, University of Gondar, Gondar P.O. Box 196, Ethiopia
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2
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Harat SG, Ansari F. A Quick Review of the Prevalence of Important Infectious Poultry Diseases all Around the World. RECENT ADVANCES IN FOOD, NUTRITION & AGRICULTURE 2024; 15:46-58. [PMID: 37990426 DOI: 10.2174/012772574x273102231020111604] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2023] [Revised: 09/04/2023] [Accepted: 09/15/2023] [Indexed: 11/23/2023]
Abstract
The poultry industry is one of the fastest growing industries in the world. Poultry breeding has developed significantly to meet the food needs of the increasing population and it is expected that this growth will continue in the coming years. Prevalent poultry diseases are of great importance as they are responsible for vast economic losses and public health concerns. They also affect the national and international trade of the poultry products. This review will provide a quick and general view of different important poultry diseases for poultry breeders, scientists and decision makers. Based on this review, Campylobacteriosis and infectious bursal disease (IBD) in the Asian continent, and Campylobacteriosis, Newcastle disease (ND) and coccidiosis in the African continent were the most prevalent diseases. In Europe, Campylobacter species and in America, Escherichia coli species are widespread in poultry meat. Infectious Bronchitis (IB) in Europe and Coccidiosis in America were high-incident.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Fereshteh Ansari
- Agricultural Research Education and Extension Organization (AREEO), Razi Vaccine and Serum Research Institute, Tehran, Iran
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3
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Carnegie L, Raghwani J, Fournié G, Hill SC. Phylodynamic approaches to studying avian influenza virus. Avian Pathol 2023; 52:289-308. [PMID: 37565466 DOI: 10.1080/03079457.2023.2236568] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2023] [Revised: 06/23/2023] [Accepted: 07/07/2023] [Indexed: 08/12/2023]
Abstract
Avian influenza viruses can cause severe disease in domestic and wild birds and are a pandemic threat. Phylodynamics is the study of how epidemiological, evolutionary, and immunological processes can interact to shape viral phylogenies. This review summarizes how phylodynamic methods have and could contribute to the study of avian influenza viruses. Specifically, we assess how phylodynamics can be used to examine viral spread within and between wild or domestic bird populations at various geographical scales, identify factors associated with virus dispersal, and determine the order and timing of virus lineage movement between geographic regions or poultry production systems. We discuss factors that can complicate the interpretation of phylodynamic results and identify how future methodological developments could contribute to improved control of the virus.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Carnegie
- Department of Pathobiology and Population Sciences, Royal Veterinary College (RVC), Hatfield, UK
| | - J Raghwani
- Department of Pathobiology and Population Sciences, Royal Veterinary College (RVC), Hatfield, UK
| | - G Fournié
- Department of Pathobiology and Population Sciences, Royal Veterinary College (RVC), Hatfield, UK
- Université de Lyon, INRAE, VetAgro Sup, UMR EPIA, Marcy l'Etoile, France
- Université Clermont Auvergne, INRAE, VetAgro Sup, UMR EPIA, Saint Genes Champanelle, France
| | - S C Hill
- Department of Pathobiology and Population Sciences, Royal Veterinary College (RVC), Hatfield, UK
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4
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Surveillance and Phylogenetic Characterisation of Avian Influenza Viruses Isolated from Wild Waterfowl in Zambia in 2015, 2020, and 2021. Transbound Emerg Dis 2023. [DOI: 10.1155/2023/4606850] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/06/2023]
Abstract
In recent years, the southern African region has experienced repeated incursions of highly pathogenic avian influenza viruses (HPAIVs), with wild migratory birds being implicated in the spread. To understand the profile of avian influenza viruses (AIVs) circulating in Zambia, we surveyed wild waterfowl for AIVs and phylogenetically characterised the isolates detected in 2015, 2020, and 2021. A total of 2,851 faecal samples of wild waterfowl were collected from Lochinvar National Park in the Southern Province of Zambia. During the study period, 85 (3.0%) low pathogenicity AIVs belonging to various subtypes were isolated, with H2N9, H8N4, and H10N8 being reported for the first time in avian species in Africa. The majority of the isolates were detected from glossy ibis (order Pelecaniformes) making it the first report of AIV from these birds in Zambia. Phylogenetic analysis of all eight gene segments of the 30 full genomes obtained in this study revealed that all the isolates belonged to the Eurasian lineage with their closest relatives being viruses isolated from wild and/or domestic birds in Bangladesh, Belgium, Egypt, Georgia, Mongolia, the Netherlands, and South Africa. Additionally, the Zambian viruses were grouped into distinct clusters based on the year of isolation. While no notifiable AIVs of the H5 or H7 subtypes were detected in wild birds in Zambia, viral internal protein genes of some viruses were closely related to H7 low pathogenicity AIVs. This study shows that periodically, a considerable diversity of AIV subtypes are introduced into the Zambian ecosystem by wild migratory waterfowl. The findings highlight the importance of continuous surveillance and monitoring of AIVs in wild waterfowl, including birds traditionally not considered to be major AIV reservoirs, for a better understanding of the eco-epidemiology and evolutionary dynamics of AIVs in Africa.
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5
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Adel A, Abdelmagid MA, Mohamed AAE, Wasberg A, Mosaad Z, Selim K, Shaaban A, Tarek M, Hagag NM, Lundkvist Å, Ellström P, Naguib MM. Genetic Variations among Different Variants of G1-like Avian Influenza H9N2 Viruses and Their Pathogenicity in Chickens. Viruses 2022; 14:1030. [PMID: 35632771 PMCID: PMC9143995 DOI: 10.3390/v14051030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2022] [Revised: 05/03/2022] [Accepted: 05/09/2022] [Indexed: 12/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Since it was first discovered, the low pathogenic avian influenza (LPAI) H9N2 subtype has established linages infecting the poultry population globally and has become one of the most prevalent influenza subtypes in domestic poultry. Several different variants and genotypes of LPAI H9N2 viruses have been reported in Egypt, but little is known about their pathogenicity and how they have evolved. In this study, four different Egyptian LPAI H9N2 viruses were genetically and antigenically characterized and compared to representative H9N2 viruses from G1 lineage. Furthermore, the pathogenicity of three genetically distinct Egyptian LPAI H9N2 viruses was assessed by experimental infection in chickens. Whole-genome sequencing revealed that the H9N2 virus of the Egy-2 G1-B lineage (pigeon-like) has become the dominant circulating H9N2 genotype in Egypt since 2016. Considerable variation in virus shedding at day 7 post-infections was detected in infected chickens, but no significant difference in pathogenicity was found between the infected groups. The rapid spread and emergence of new genotypes of the influenza viruses pinpoint the importance of continuous surveillance for the detection of novel reassortant viruses, as well as monitoring the viral evolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amany Adel
- Reference Laboratory for Veterinary Quality Control on Poultry Production, Animal Health Research Institute, Agriculture Research Center, Giza 12618, Egypt; (A.A.); (M.A.A.); (A.A.-E.M.); (Z.M.); (K.S.); (A.S.); (M.T.); (N.M.H.)
| | - Marwa A. Abdelmagid
- Reference Laboratory for Veterinary Quality Control on Poultry Production, Animal Health Research Institute, Agriculture Research Center, Giza 12618, Egypt; (A.A.); (M.A.A.); (A.A.-E.M.); (Z.M.); (K.S.); (A.S.); (M.T.); (N.M.H.)
| | - Ahmed Abd-Elhalem Mohamed
- Reference Laboratory for Veterinary Quality Control on Poultry Production, Animal Health Research Institute, Agriculture Research Center, Giza 12618, Egypt; (A.A.); (M.A.A.); (A.A.-E.M.); (Z.M.); (K.S.); (A.S.); (M.T.); (N.M.H.)
| | - Anishia Wasberg
- Zoonosis Science Center, Department of Medical Biochemistry and Microbiology, Uppsala University, SE-75121 Uppsala, Sweden; (A.W.); (Å.L.)
| | - Zienab Mosaad
- Reference Laboratory for Veterinary Quality Control on Poultry Production, Animal Health Research Institute, Agriculture Research Center, Giza 12618, Egypt; (A.A.); (M.A.A.); (A.A.-E.M.); (Z.M.); (K.S.); (A.S.); (M.T.); (N.M.H.)
| | - Karim Selim
- Reference Laboratory for Veterinary Quality Control on Poultry Production, Animal Health Research Institute, Agriculture Research Center, Giza 12618, Egypt; (A.A.); (M.A.A.); (A.A.-E.M.); (Z.M.); (K.S.); (A.S.); (M.T.); (N.M.H.)
| | - Asmaa Shaaban
- Reference Laboratory for Veterinary Quality Control on Poultry Production, Animal Health Research Institute, Agriculture Research Center, Giza 12618, Egypt; (A.A.); (M.A.A.); (A.A.-E.M.); (Z.M.); (K.S.); (A.S.); (M.T.); (N.M.H.)
| | - Mohamed Tarek
- Reference Laboratory for Veterinary Quality Control on Poultry Production, Animal Health Research Institute, Agriculture Research Center, Giza 12618, Egypt; (A.A.); (M.A.A.); (A.A.-E.M.); (Z.M.); (K.S.); (A.S.); (M.T.); (N.M.H.)
| | - Naglaa M. Hagag
- Reference Laboratory for Veterinary Quality Control on Poultry Production, Animal Health Research Institute, Agriculture Research Center, Giza 12618, Egypt; (A.A.); (M.A.A.); (A.A.-E.M.); (Z.M.); (K.S.); (A.S.); (M.T.); (N.M.H.)
| | - Åke Lundkvist
- Zoonosis Science Center, Department of Medical Biochemistry and Microbiology, Uppsala University, SE-75121 Uppsala, Sweden; (A.W.); (Å.L.)
| | - Patrik Ellström
- Zoonosis Science Center, Department of Medical Sciences, Uppsala University, SE-75185 Uppsala, Sweden;
| | - Mahmoud M. Naguib
- Reference Laboratory for Veterinary Quality Control on Poultry Production, Animal Health Research Institute, Agriculture Research Center, Giza 12618, Egypt; (A.A.); (M.A.A.); (A.A.-E.M.); (Z.M.); (K.S.); (A.S.); (M.T.); (N.M.H.)
- Zoonosis Science Center, Department of Medical Biochemistry and Microbiology, Uppsala University, SE-75121 Uppsala, Sweden; (A.W.); (Å.L.)
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6
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Influenza A and D Viruses in Non-Human Mammalian Hosts in Africa: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Viruses 2021; 13:v13122411. [PMID: 34960680 PMCID: PMC8706448 DOI: 10.3390/v13122411] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2021] [Revised: 11/25/2021] [Accepted: 11/30/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
We conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis to investigate the prevalence and current knowledge of influenza A virus (IAV) and influenza D virus (IDV) in non-human mammalian hosts in Africa. PubMed, Google Scholar, Wiley Online Library and World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE-WAHIS) were searched for studies on IAV and IDV from 2000 to 2020. Pooled prevalence and seroprevalences were estimated using the quality effects meta-analysis model. The estimated pooled prevalence and seroprevalence of IAV in pigs in Africa was 1.6% (95% CI: 0-5%) and 14.9% (95% CI: 5-28%), respectively. The seroprevalence of IDV was 87.2% (95% CI: 24-100%) in camels, 9.3% (95% CI: 0-24%) in cattle, 2.2% (95% CI: 0-4%) in small ruminants and 0.0% (95% CI: 0-2%) in pigs. In pigs, H1N1 and H1N1pdm09 IAVs were commonly detected. Notably, the highly pathogenic H5N1 virus was also detected in pigs. Other subtypes detected serologically and/or virologically included H3N8 and H7N7 in equids, H1N1, and H3N8 and H5N1 in dogs and cats. Furthermore, various wildlife animals were exposed to different IAV subtypes. For prudent mitigation of influenza epizootics and possible human infections, influenza surveillance efforts in Africa should not neglect non-human mammalian hosts. The impact of IAV and IDV in non-human mammalian hosts in Africa deserves further investigation.
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Abstract
This study aimed to systematically review the literature about the virucidal efficacy of CHX in comparison to other substances used in the oral cavity. Electronic searches were performed in four databases (PubMed, Scopus, Embase, and Web of Science). Only studies that presented the following characteristics were included: (1) verified virucidal efficacy of CHX against Herpes Simplex Type-1 (HSV-1), any Influenza, or any human coronavirus (HcoV); and (2) compared the virucidal efficacy of CHX with essential oils (Listerine®), quaternary ammonium compounds, povidone-iodine, hydrogen peroxide, negative control substance, and absence of therapy. Two researchers independently selected the studies, extracted data and evaluated the risk of bias. A narrative data synthesis was used. Twenty-five studies were included, of which 21 were in vitro and four were randomized clinical trials (RCT). Studies assessed the virucidal efficacy of CHX against Herpes Simplex Type-1 (HSV-1) (10 studies), Influenza A (InfluA) (4 studies), human coronavirus (HCoV) (4 studies) and Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome-Related Coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) (11 studies). Most studies demonstrated that CHX has a positive virucidal efficacy against HSV-1 and InfluA strains. However, lower efficacy was shown to InfluA strain in comparison to povidone-iodine. Lower to none virucidal efficacy of CHX is expected for HCoV and SARS-CoV-2 strains for in vitro studies. Three RCT demonstrated that CHX was able to significantly reduce the viral load of SARS-CoV-2 for a short period. CHX may present an interesting virucidal efficacy against HSV-1 and InfluA viruses. CHX also presents transient efficacy against SARS-CoV-2 when used as a mouthwash.
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8
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Liu Y, Liu C, Dang A, Sun S, Zhang D, Wang M, Chen F, Li Y, Xue R, Chen J, Lan Z. Pathological analysis and genetic characterization of the first outbreak H5N8 subtype avian influenza virus isolated from wild swan in Shandong, China. Transbound Emerg Dis 2021; 68:3200-3206. [PMID: 34359099 DOI: 10.1111/tbed.14279] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2021] [Revised: 07/14/2021] [Accepted: 08/04/2021] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
In January 2021, an outbreak of H5N8 subtype avian influenza was identified from wild mute swans (Cygnus olor) in an overwintering site located within Yellow River Delta Nature Reserve in Shandong, China, for the first time. We sequenced the hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA) genome segments of the virus, named A/mute swan/Shandong/1/2021 (H5N8), and explored the genetic characterization and comparative phylogenetic analysis to track its origin. The wild swans prior to death showed nervous signs accompanied by a twisted neck. The major pathological changes of the heart, lung, trachea, kidney, spleen, and glandular stomach were hemorrhage, and extensive necrotic lesions in the liver and pancreas were also observed. Further analysis of the HA and NA phylogenetic trees generated by H5N8 strains isolated worldwide revealed that the isolate has a close genetic relationship with the H5N8 subtype avian influenza virus (AIV) recently isolated in Korea and Japan from 2020 to 2021, suggesting the potential role of mute swans in the global dissemination of the H5N8 subtype AIVs along the migration routes. Therefore, enhanced active surveillance in wild and domestic birds is required to monitor the introduction and spread of the H5N8 subtype AIV by migratory birds in order to decrease the risk of H5N8 outbreaks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanhan Liu
- Shandong Provincial Center for Animal Disease Control, Jinan, Shandong, China
| | - Cun Liu
- Shandong Provincial Center for Animal Disease Control, Jinan, Shandong, China
| | - Ankun Dang
- Shandong Provincial Center for Animal Disease Control, Jinan, Shandong, China
| | - Shengfu Sun
- Shandong Provincial Center for Animal Disease Control, Jinan, Shandong, China
| | - Dong Zhang
- Shandong Provincial Center for Animal Disease Control, Jinan, Shandong, China
| | - Miaoli Wang
- Shandong Provincial Center for Animal Disease Control, Jinan, Shandong, China
| | - Feng Chen
- Shandong Provincial Center for Animal Disease Control, Jinan, Shandong, China
| | - Yujie Li
- Shandong Provincial Center for Animal Disease Control, Jinan, Shandong, China
| | - Ruixue Xue
- Shandong Provincial Center for Animal Disease Control, Jinan, Shandong, China
| | - Jing Chen
- Shandong Provincial Center for Animal Disease Control, Jinan, Shandong, China
| | - Zouran Lan
- Shandong Provincial Center for Animal Disease Control, Jinan, Shandong, China
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9
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Simbizi V, Moerane R, Ramsay G, Mubamba C, Abolnik C, Gummow B. A study of rural chicken farmers, diseases and remedies in the Eastern Cape province of South Africa. Prev Vet Med 2021; 194:105430. [PMID: 34303288 DOI: 10.1016/j.prevetmed.2021.105430] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2021] [Revised: 07/08/2021] [Accepted: 07/09/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
The source of emerging diseases and antimicrobial resistance is of increasing interest to epidemiologists. This paper looks at village chickens as such a source. In addition, infectious diseases constitute a major challenge to the growth and profitability of the rural poultry sector in Sub-Saharan Africa. A serological survey was conducted to estimate the apparent seroprevalence of selected chicken diseases in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa alongside a sociological survey of poultry farmers and the remedies most commonly used to prevent diseases in their flocks. Sera collected from village chickens (n = 1007) in the province were screened for specific antibodies against Newcastle disease (ND), avian influenza (AI), avian infectious bronchitis (IB) and Mycoplasma gallisepticum (MG). The overall seroprevalence of ND, AI, IB and MG in the province was found to be 69.2 % (95 % CI 51.9-86.5%); 1.8 % (95 % CI 0.2-3.4%); 78.5 % (95 % CI 74.9-82%) and 55.8 % (95 % CI 41.3-70.3%) respectively with clustering found at the District level. Cross hemagglutination inhibition (HI) tests indicated that the chickens were exposed to the ND vaccine. AI ELISA-positive samples were tested using HIs against the H5, H6 and H7-subtypes, but only H6-specific antibodies were detected. Avian influenza strains shared the common ancestor responsible for the 2002 chicken outbreak in KwaZulu-Natal Province. The majority of chicken farmers were females and pensioners (69 % and 66.1 % respectively) and had a primary school education (47.1 %). Traditional remedies were commonly used by farmers (47.15 %) and among the remedies, Aloe plant (Aloe ferox Mill.) or ikhala (Xhosa) was the most commonly used product (28.23 %) for preventing and reducing mortalities among village chickens. The findings stress the importance of village chickens as a substitute for social welfare and highlight the exposure of village chickens to important chicken pathogens. The economic impact of these pathogens on the development of this sub-sector needs further investigation. Village chickens are a potential source of virulent Newcastle disease virus (NDV) because of the lack of vaccination and biosecurity. They may serve as amplification hosts which increases the probability that virulent NDV could spill over into commercial poultry flocks due to large amounts of circulating virus. The zoonotic threat of circulating H6N2 viruses raise concern due to their mutation and reassortment among chickens and a potential movement of infected birds within the province. Finally, the use of antibiotics by untrained chicken farmers constitute another major concern as it could serve as a source of antimicrobial resistance (AMR).
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Affiliation(s)
- V Simbizi
- State Veterinary Services, Department of Rural Development and Agrarian Reform, Lady Frere, 5410, South Africa; Department of Production Animal Studies, Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Pretoria, Onderstepoort, 0110, South Africa; Discipline of Veterinary Sciences, College of Public Health, Medical and Veterinary Sciences, James Cook University, Townsville, 4811, Australia.
| | - R Moerane
- Department of Production Animal Studies, Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Pretoria, Onderstepoort, 0110, South Africa
| | - G Ramsay
- School of Animal & Veterinary Sciences and Graham Centre for Agricultural Innovation, Charles Sturt University, Wagga Wagga, 2650, Australia
| | - C Mubamba
- Department of Veterinary Services, Ministry of Fisheries and Livestock, Lusaka, 50060, Zambia
| | - C Abolnik
- Department of Production Animal Studies, Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Pretoria, Onderstepoort, 0110, South Africa
| | - B Gummow
- Department of Production Animal Studies, Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Pretoria, Onderstepoort, 0110, South Africa; Discipline of Veterinary Sciences, College of Public Health, Medical and Veterinary Sciences, James Cook University, Townsville, 4811, Australia
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Uwishema O, Adriano LF, Chalhoub E, Onyeaka H, Mhanna M, David SC, Nasrallah Y, Ribeiro LLPA, Berjaoui C. Bird flu outbreak amidst COVID-19 pandemic in South Africa: Efforts and challenges at hand. J Med Virol 2021; 93:5676-5679. [PMID: 34081338 PMCID: PMC8242854 DOI: 10.1002/jmv.27124] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2021] [Accepted: 06/01/2021] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
Over the months of April and May 2021, South Africa has witnessed several outbreaks of highly infective avian influenza (H5N1) in different poultry farms. This came as a shock to a country that was already battling with the deadly COVID‐19 pandemic. The emergence of the virus has spurred import bans and massive culls in the poultry business. Local experts have also called for a restriction on the movement of people and cars in and out of their chicken farms. Employees have also been encouraged to shower in the mornings when they arrive at the farms and wear fresh clothes, as the flu spreads very quickly. In a country that is already facing the economic implications of the COVID‐19, this has the potential to cause a significant dent in the economy, as well as severely impact people's day‐to‐day life. Bird flu—also called avian influenza—is a viral infection that can infect not only birds but also humans and other animals. The threat of a new influenza pandemic has prompted countries to draft national strategic preparedness plans to prevent, contain and mitigate the next human influenza pandemic. This paper describes the South African burden, current efforts, and preparedness against the avian influenza virus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olivier Uwishema
- Oli Health Magazine Organization, Research and Education, Kigali, Rwanda.,Clinton Global Initiative University, New York, New York, USA.,Faculty of Medicine, Karadeniz Technical University, Trabzon, Turkey
| | - Lubanga F Adriano
- Oli Health Magazine Organization, Research and Education, Kigali, Rwanda.,University of Malawi College of Medicine, Blantyre, Malawi
| | - Elie Chalhoub
- Oli Health Magazine Organization, Research and Education, Kigali, Rwanda.,Faculty of Medicine, University of Saint Joseph of Beirut, Beirut, Lebanon
| | - Helen Onyeaka
- School of Chemical Engineering, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham, B152TT, UK
| | - Melissa Mhanna
- Oli Health Magazine Organization, Research and Education, Kigali, Rwanda.,Faculty of Medicine, University of Saint Joseph of Beirut, Beirut, Lebanon
| | - Success C David
- Oli Health Magazine Organization, Research and Education, Kigali, Rwanda.,Faculty of pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Enugu State, Nigeria
| | - Yves Nasrallah
- Oli Health Magazine Organization, Research and Education, Kigali, Rwanda.,School of Medicine and Medical Sciences, Holy Spirit University of Kaslik, Beirut, Lebanon
| | - Lucas L P A Ribeiro
- Oli Health Magazine Organization, Research and Education, Kigali, Rwanda.,School of Medicine, University of Fortaleza, Fortaleza, Ceará, Brazil
| | - Christin Berjaoui
- Oli Health Magazine Organization, Research and Education, Kigali, Rwanda.,Faculty of Medicine, Beirut Arab University, Beirut, Lebanon
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