Sex differences in visual-spatial ability: the role of performance factors

Sex differences in visuospatial cognition- a female advantage in jigsaw puzzle solving

Mentally visualizing objects, understanding relationships between two- or three- dimensional objects, and manipulating objects in space are some examples of visuospatial abilities. Numerous studies have shown that male participants outperform female participants in visuospatial tasks, particularly in mental rotation. One exception is solving jigsaw puzzles. Performance by seven- to eight-year-old girls was found to be superior to that of boys of the same age (Kocijan et al. 2017). No study, however, has confirmed this finding in an adult population, where sex differences are often detectable. Seventy-nine young adult participants were given four different jigsaw puzzles and the Shepard and Metzler mental rotation test (MRT) with two main goals: First, to investigate possible sex differences in jigsaw puzzle solving, and second, to explore a potential relationship between mental rotation and jigsaw puzzle solving. We hypothesized that female participants would outperform males in the jigsaw puzzles but males would outperform females in the MRT. The findings confirmed this hypothesis. Notably, the male performance in jigsaw puzzle solving was attributed to their sex and mediated by their higher MRT scores. These results yielded two key insights. First, they indicate a dissociation between these two visuospatial abilities, jigsaw puzzle solving and mental rotation; and second, female and male participants capitalize on their distinct cognitive strengths when solving visuospatial tasks.

Getting it right takes time: response time and performance in secondary school students

The relation between response time and performance in cognitive tasks is increasingly evident. In the present study, we analyzed the effect of participants' spontaneous speed when responding to a mental rotation task. We carried out a data reanalysis from a previous study where a training of 3 practice sessions of 100 trials each was applied. The procedure was applied to a sample of 21 high school students (11 boys, 10 girls). The relation between response time and performance (hits) across the training trials was analyzed. In addition, we carried out a regression analysis of performance on the learning task as a function of response time on that same task, as well as with the score on two previously applied tests of spatial intelligence and fluid intelligence. Results showed, (a) a significant relationship (r = 0.624) between response time and hits, (b) that the group of participants with longer response times performed better; (c) that participants' response time explained most of the variance of their score on the training task in the regression analysis, although spatial and fluid intelligence scores improved the prediction of performance. Our results suggest that the reflective style achieves greater performance in solving spatial tasks, which could have important practical implications to promote a slower and more reflective style when solving school tasks with spatial components.

Slower but more accurate mental rotation performance in aphantasia linked to differences in cognitive strategies

Mental rotation tasks are frequently used as standard measures of mental imagery. However, aphantasia research has brought such use into question. Here, we assessed a large group of individuals who lack visual imagery (aphantasia) on two mental rotation tasks: a three-dimensional block-shape, and a human manikin rotation task. In both tasks, those with aphantasia had slower, but more accurate responses than controls. Both groups demonstrated classic linear increases in response time and error-rate as functions of angular disparity. In the three-dimensional block-shape rotation task, a within-group speed-accuracy trade-off was found in controls, whereas faster individuals in the aphantasia group were also more accurate. Control participants generally favoured using object-based mental rotation strategies, whereas those with aphantasia favoured analytic strategies. These results suggest that visual imagery is not crucial for successful performance in classical mental rotation tasks, as alternative strategies can be effectively utilised in the absence of holistic mental representations.

Direct and indirect effects of mother's spatial ability on child's spatial ability: What role does the home environment play?

Individual differences in spatial thinking are predictive of children's math and science achievement and later entry into Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) disciplines. Little is known about whether parent characteristics predict individual differences in children's spatial thinking. This study aims to understand whether, and to what extent, mother's intrinsic (i.e., mental rotation) and extrinsic (i.e., spatial scaling) spatial ability directly and indirectly, via the variation in home spatial environment, predicts children's intrinsic and extrinsic spatial ability. A total of 165 mothers and their 4-6-year-old children were recruited to participate in a remote video session with an experimenter. Mothers were administered a forced-choice Intrinsic Spatial Toy Preference Task gauging their preference for highly spatial versus less spatial toys and asked questions with the Home Intrinsic Spatial Environmental Questionnaire about the frequency with which they engage their child in spatial activities at home. Mothers completed a Mental Rotations Test and a Spatial Scaling Task adapted for adults. Children were administered the Picture Rotation Task, the Spatial Scaling Task, and the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test. Structural equation modeling was used to examine direct and indirect, via home spatial environment and toy choices, influences of mother spatial ability on child spatial ability. Contrary to our predictions, we did not find direct, nor indirect, relations between mother and child spatial ability. These findings suggest that researchers should consider alternative conceptualizations of the early home spatial environment beyond the frequency of spatial play in the home. RESEARCH HIGHLIGHTS: The identification of factors that predict individual differences in children's spatial ability is important in order to maximize STEM learning outcomes. Data collection was conducted remotely rather than in traditional preschool or laboratory settings. Contrary to our pre-registered hypotheses, no significant relations between mother spatial ability, the early home spatial environment, and children's development of spatial skills were found. Future research should consider examining the amount of spatial language used in the home or the quality of parent-child interactions during spatial play as potential explanations for individual differences in children's spatial ability.

Hands of confidence: When gestures increase confidence in spatial problem-solving

This study examined whether the metacognitive system monitors the potential positive effects of gestures on spatial thinking. Participants (N = 59, 31F, Mage = 21.67) performed a mental rotation task, consisting of 24 problems varying in difficulty, and they evaluated their confidence in their answers to problems in either gesture or control conditions. The results revealed that performance and confidence were higher in the gesture condition, in which the participants were asked to use their gestures during problem-solving, compared with the control condition, extending the literature by evidencing gestures' role in metacognition. Yet, the effect was only evident for females, who already performed worse than males, and when the problems were difficult. Encouraging gestures adversely affected performance and confidence in males. Such results suggest that gestures selectively influence cognition and metacognition and highlight the importance of task-related (i.e., difficulty) and individual-related variables (i.e., sex) in elucidating the links between gestures, confidence, and spatial thinking.

Gender Differences in Mental Rotational Training Based on Computer Adaptive Tests

Mental rotation tasks have been widely used to assess individuals' spatial cognition and the ability to mentally manipulate objects. This study employed a computerized adaptive training method to investigate the behavioral performance of participants of different genders in mental rotation tasks with different rotation angles before and after training. A total of 44 Chinese university students participated in the experiment, with the experimental group undergoing a five-day mental rotation training program. During the training phase, a three-down/one-up staircase procedure was used to adjust the stimulus levels (response time) based on participants' responses. The results showed that the training had a facilitative effect on the mental rotation ability of both male and female participants, and it was able to eliminate the gender differences in mental rotation performance. Regarding the angles, we observed that the improvement in the angles involved in the training was significantly higher compared to untrained angles. However, no significant differences in improvement were found among the three trained angles. In summary, these findings demonstrate the effectiveness of computerized adaptive training methods in improving mental rotation ability and highlight the influence of gender and angles on learning outcomes.

Genitourinary syndrome in menopause: Impact of vaginal symptoms

Objective

To describe the impact of genitourinary syndrome symptoms on daily activities and well-being in peri- and postmenopausal women living in an urban area.

Materials and Methods

Observational, prospective, and cross-sectional research in a population of peri- and postmenopausal women living in the Lima region. A non-probabilistic sample was used. The instrument used is "The Day-to-Day Impact of Vaginal Aging" questionnaire. It consists of four domains and its internal reliability is between 0.82 and 0.93. The questions were answered using a Likert scale. High values indicate a more severe impact. Statistical procedures were performed using SPSS version 26.

Results

One thousand seventy women participated; the mean age was 54±7.5 years. The results about the activities of daily living showed that 35% of women reported regular vaginal symptoms and 14.7% major symptoms. In the emotional well-being domain, 90% had minor symptoms. In the sexual function domain, 57.6% reported minor vaginal symptoms, and in the self-concept and body image domain, 60.9% reported minor symptoms and 20.7% major symptoms. According to the global score, 60.9% reported minor discomfort, 36.3% regular discomfort, and 2.8% major discomfort. The sexually active women declared an impact of severity in terms of their daily activities and sexual function (p<0.05).

Conclusion

There is a relationship between activities of daily living, sexual function, and women with sexual activity, causing a negative impact on social life and quality of life.

The fMRI correlates of visuo-spatial abilities: sex differences and gender dysphoria

The contribution of brain regions to visuospatial abilities according to sex differences and gender identity is inconsistently described. One potential explaining factor may be the different tasks employed requiring a variable load of working memory and other cognitive resources. Here we asked to 20 cis and 20 transgender participants to undergo functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging during performance of a judgement line of orientation test that was adapted to explore the basic visuospatial processing while minimizing the working memory load. We show that V1 activation may be viewed as a brain area with enhanced activation in males, regardless of participants’ gender identity. On its turn, gender identity exclusively influences the visuospatial processing of extrastriate visual areas (V5) in women with gender dysphoria. They showed enhanced V5 activation and an increased functional connectivity between V5 and V1. Overall our neuroimaging results suggest that the basic visuospatial abilities are associated with different activations pattern of cortical visual areas depending on the sex assigned at birth and gender identity.

Bioethical implications of robotic surgery in urology: a narrative review

BACKGROUND

Robotic technologies are being increasingly implemented in healthcare, including urology, holding promises for improving medicine worldwide. However, these new approaches raise ethical concerns for professionals, patients, researchers and institutions that need to be addressed. The aim of this review is to investigate the existing literature related to bioethical issues associated with robotic surgery in urology, in order to identify current challenges and make preliminary suggestions to ensure an ethical implementation of these technologies.

METHODS

We performed a narrative review of the pertaining literature through a systematic search of two databases (PubMed and Web of Science) in August 2020.

RESULTS

Our search yielded 76 articles for full-text evaluation and 48 articles were included in the narrative review. Several bioethical issues were identified and can be categorized into five main subjects: 1) robotic surgery accessibility; 2) safety; 3) gender gap; 4) costs and 5) learning curve. 1) Robotic surgery is expensive, and in some health systems may lead to inequality in healthcare access. In more affluent countries the national distribution of several robotic platforms may influence the centralization of robotic surgery, therefore potentially affecting oncological and functional outcomes in low-volume centers. 2) There is a considerable gap between surgical skills and patients' perception of competence, leading to ethical consequences on modern healthcare. Published incidence of adverse events during robotic surgery in large series is between 2% and 15%, which does not significantly differ amongst open or laparoscopic approaches. 3) No data about gap differences in accessibility to robotic platforms were retrieved from our search. 4) Robotic platforms are expensive but a key reason why hospitals are willing to absorb the high upfront costs is patient demand. It is possible to achieve cost-equivalence between open and robotic prostatectomy if the volume of centers is higher than 10 cases per week. 5) A validated, structured curriculum and accreditation has been created for robotic surgery. This allows acquisition and development of basic and complex robotic skills focusing on patient safety and short learning curve.

CONCLUSIONS

Tech-medicine is rapidly moving forward. Robotic approach to urology seems to be accessible in more affluent countries, safe, economically sustainable, and easy to learn with an appropriate learning curve for both sex. It is mandatory to keep maintaining a critical rational approach with constant control of the available evidence regarding efficacy, efficiency and safety.

Numerical Magnitude Processing in Deaf Adolescents and Its Contribution to Arithmetical Ability

Although most deaf individuals could use sign language or sign/spoken language mix, hearing loss would still affect their language acquisition. Compensatory plasticity holds that the lack of auditory stimulation experienced by deaf individuals, such as congenital deafness, can be met by enhancements in visual cognition. And the studies of hearing individuals have showed that visual form perception is the cognitive mechanism that could explain the association between numerical magnitude processing and arithmetic computation. Therefore, we examined numerical magnitude processing and its contribution to arithmetical ability in deaf adolescents, and explored the differences between the congenital and acquired deafness. 112 deaf adolescents (58 congenital deafness) and 58 hearing adolescents performed a series of cognitive and mathematical tests, and it was found there was no significant differences between the congenital group and the hearing group, but congenital group outperformed acquired group in numerical magnitude processing (reaction time) and arithmetic computation. It was also found there was a close association between numerical magnitude processing and arithmetic computation in all deaf adolescents, and after controlling for the demographic variables (age, gender, onset of hearing loss) and general cognitive abilities (non-verbal IQ, processing speed, reading comprehension), numerical magnitude processing could predict arithmetic computation in all deaf adolescents but not in congenital group. The role of numerical magnitude processing (symbolic and non-symbolic) in deaf adolescents' mathematical performance should be paid attention in the training of arithmetical ability.

The Impact of Aging on Spatial Abilities in Deaf Users of a Sign Language

Research involving the general population of people who use a spoken language to communicate has demonstrated that older adults experience cognitive and physical changes associated with aging. Notwithstanding the differences in the cognitive processes involved in sign and spoken languages, it is possible that aging can also affect cognitive processing in deaf signers. This research aims to explore the impact of aging on spatial abilities among sign language users. Results showed that younger signers were more accurate than older signers on all spatial tasks. Therefore, the age-related impact on spatial abilities found in the older hearing population can be generalized to the population of signers. Potential implications for sign language production and comprehension are discussed.

Interindividual differences in brain dynamics of early visual processes: Impact on score accuracy in the mental rotation task

Interindividual variations in the ability to perform visuospatial mental transformations have been investigated extensively, in particular through mental rotation tasks. However, the impact of early visual processes on performance has been largely ignored. To clarify this issue, we explored the time-course of early visual processing (from 0 to 450 ms poststimulus) using event-related potentials topographic analyses. The main findings demonstrated a significant link between early attentional processes and accuracy scores occurring more than five seconds later, as well as a strong association between spatial covariance and microstate topographies exhibiting substantial gender differences. More specifically, the results indicated that, in a classical mental rotation task, the male brain expends more time processing visual-spatial information resulting in a longer bilateral positive potential at posterior-occipital sites. In comparison, the female brain initiates earlier processing of non-spatial information resulting in a faster transition from a bilateral positive potential of posterior-occipital sites to a negative potential at central-frontal sites. These findings illustrate how a more complete utilization of the spatiotemporal information contained in EEG recordings can provide important insights about the impact of early visual processes on interindividual differences, particularly across gender, and thus shed new light on alternate cognitive strategies.

Neuroendocrine-Immune Crosstalk Shapes Sex-Specific Brain Development

Sex is an essential biological variable that significantly impacts multiple aspects of neural functioning in both the healthy and diseased brain. Sex differences in brain structure and function are organized early in development during the critical period of sexual differentiation. While decades of research establish gonadal hormones as the primary modulators of this process, new research has revealed a critical, and perhaps underappreciated, role of the neuroimmune system in sex-specific brain development. The immune and endocrine systems are tightly intertwined and share processes and effector molecules that influence the nervous system. Thus, a natural question is whether endocrine-immune crosstalk contributes to sexual differentiation of the brain. In this mini-review, we first provide a conceptual framework by classifying the major categories of neural sex differences and review the concept of sexual differentiation of the brain, a process occurring early in development and largely controlled by steroid hormones. Next, we describe developmental sex differences in the neuroimmune system, which may represent targets or mediators of the sexual differentiation process. We then discuss the overwhelming evidence in support of crosstalk between the neuroendocrine and immune systems and highlight recent examples that shape sex differences in the brain. Finally, we review how early life events can perturb sex-specific neurodevelopment via aberrant immune activation.

Gender Differences in Visuospatial Abilities and Complex Mathematical Problem Solving

Mathematical problem-solving and spatial visualization are areas in which performance has been shown to vary with sex. This article describes the impact of gender on spatial relations measured in 331 secondary school students (202 males, 129 females), 145 (105 males, 40 females) of whom had been selected to participate in a mathematical talent stimulation project after passing a complex problem-solving test. In the two tests administered, the Differential Aptitude Tests-Space Relations (DAT-SR) and the Primary Mental Abilities-Space Relations (PMA-SR), performance was assessed on the grounds of both absolute scores and the ratio to the number of items answered. The students participating in the talent program earned higher scores on both tests, although no interaction was identified between mathematical abilities and gender in connection with the differences in spatial habilities observed. In PMA-SR, boys answered more items and scored higher, whereas in DAT-SR girls tended to omit more items. None of the indicators studied exhibited differences between the sexes in both tests and in some cases the differences in the absolute values of the indicators were absent when expressed as ratios.

Investigating sex differences, cognitive effort, strategy, and performance on a computerised version of the mental rotations test via eye tracking

Mental rotation tests (MRTs) have previously shown one of the most prominent sex differences in cognitive psychology, marked by a large male performance advantage. However, debate continues over the reasons for these sex differences. Previously, we used pupillometry to demonstrate sex differences in the cognitive effort invoked during the original MRT. Here, we evaluated the magnitude of sex differences during performance on a computerized version of the Vandenberg and Kuse MRT. Secondly, we examined whether fixation metrics could illuminate strategy use by participants. Finally, we used pupillometry to investigate whether cognitive effort differed between sexes and trials of different difficulty. While our results demonstrate no performance differences between sexes on the computerized MRT, fixation patterns provided evidence that gaze strategy was associated with performance on different parts of the test. Moreover, we show the cognitive demand of the V&K MRT, evidenced by large task dependent increases in participants’ pupil diameters.

The Role of Time Constraints in Athletes' Egocentric Mental Rotation Performance

A selective effect of motor expertise on mental rotation is revealed by a high correlation between the performance of sports experts and ability on a mental rotation task. Evidence is shown by studies involving a spatial factor, such as image interference or a movement constraint. Alternatively, the time constraint, as another performance factor, is considered critical in the effect of sport expertise on mental rotation. Three experiments were conducted to examine the role of time constraints in egocentric mental rotation and the stage performance of athletes (divers) and nonathletes. In Experiment 1, an egocentric mental rotation task in an untimed condition was conducted, and reaction times (RTs), error rates (ERs), RTs at 0 °, and mental rotation speed were assessed. The results indicated that divers outperformed nonathletes in terms of RT, as well as perceptual and decision stages and rotation stages. Experiments 2 and 3 added a relative time constraint (subtracting 1/2 SD of all the subjects' RT from the M of each group's RT) and an absolute time constraint (subtracting 1/2 SD of all the subjects' RT from the M of all the subjects' RT) to the task, respectively. Superior RT and lower ER were observed for the divers in the time constraint condition. Moreover, the results illustrated that divers were faster than nonathletes in both stages when facing time pressure. In general, the present study has, for the first time, confirmed the role of time in the relationship between sports expertise and mental rotation.

Why Time Constraints Increase the Gender Gap in Measured Numerical Intelligence in Academically High Achieving Samples

Abstract. Gender differences in the numerical domain vary greatly according to the assessment method used. We suggest that strict time constraints, as employed on most numerical intelligence tests but not on mathematical competency tests, unduly increase the gender gap in measured numerical intelligence if the test focuses reasoning. Two studies were conducted. First, 666 11th and 12th graders were randomly assigned to speeded or nonspeeded versions of verbal, figural, and numerical reasoning tests. Extending the test time reduced gender differences in numerical but not in verbal and figural reasoning. To rule out ceiling effects and to test for potential motivational and emotional effects on test performance, a second sample of 542 students completed both a speeded and a nonspeeded numerical reasoning test as well as several motivational and emotional questionnaires. In the nonspeeded condition, girls increased their performance more than boys. This effect was especially strong for female students with medium and high performances and was largely but not fully explained by emotional and motivational factors. We conclude that girls are prevented from showing their actual potential on speeded numerical reasoning tests.

Are there Sex Differences in Confidence and Metacognitive Monitoring Accuracy for Everyday, Academic, and Psychometrically Measured Spatial Ability?

The current study evaluated sex differences in (1) self-perceptions of everyday and academic spatial ability, and (2) metacognitive monitoring accuracy for measures of spatial visualization and spatial orientation. Undergraduate students completed the Paper Folding Test, Spatial Relations Test, and the Revised Purdue Spatial Visualization Test while making confidence judgments (CJs) for each trial. They also made global estimates of performance and rated their ability to perform several everyday and academic spatial scenarios. Across multiple spatial measures, female students displayed lower confidence in their item-level monitoring and global assessments of performance than did male students, even when no actual differences in spatial performance occurred. Women were also less confident in their self-assessments of their visualspatial ability for scientific domains than were men. However, the absolute and relative accuracy of CJs did not differ as a function of sex suggesting that women can monitor their spatial performance as well as men.

Stereotype threat and working memory among surgical residents

BACKGROUND

Stereotype threat is a situational threat in which a member of a stereotyped group fears conforming to a negative stereotype. In this study, we examined the impact of stereotype threat on surgical performance and working memory among surgical residents.

METHODS

Residents at one institution were randomized to either the threat condition or the no-threat condition. We administered the Vandenberg Mental Rotation Test and the reading span task to assess residents' mental rotation and working memory, respectively.

RESULTS

102 residents participated in this study (response rate 61%). In multivariable analysis, we found significant gender differences. Men outperformed women in mental rotation, and women outperformed men in working memory. There was no effect of condition on performance on the mental rotation or working memory test.

CONCLUSIONS

No effect of condition on either test suggests that high-achieving women may be less susceptible to stereotype threat. This could be due to self-selection or adapted resilience, or women in this context may be more qualified to reach the same level of achievement as their male colleagues.

Sex Differences and Menstrual Cycle Dependent Changes in Cognitive Strategies during Spatial Navigation and Verbal Fluency

Men typically outperform women in spatial navigation tasks, while the advantage of women in verbal fluency is more controversial. Sex differences in cognitive abilities have been related to sex-specific cognitive strategies on the one hand and sex hormone influences on the other hand. However, sex hormone and menstrual cycle influences on cognitive strategies have not been previously investigated. In the present study we assessed cognitive strategy use during spatial navigation and verbal fluency in 51 men and 49 women. In order to evaluate sex hormone influences, all participants completed two test sessions, which were time-locked to the early follicular (low estradiol and progesterone) and mid-luteal cycle phase (high estradiol and progesterone) in women. As hypothesized, men outperformed women in navigation, whereas women outperformed men in phonemic verbal fluency. Furthermore, women switched more often between categories in the phonemic fluency condition, compared to men, indicating sex-specific strategy use. Sex differences in strategy use during navigation did, however, not follow the expected pattern. Menstrual cycle phase, however, did modulate strategy use during navigation as expected, with improved performance with the landmark strategy in the luteal, compared to the follicular phase. No menstrual cycle effects were observed on clustering or switching during verbal fluency. This suggests a modulation of cognitive strategy use during spatial navigation, but not during verbal fluency, by relative hormone increases during the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle.

Sex Differences in Line Judgment: Relation to Mathematics Preparation and Strategy Use

This study explored visuospatial ability using a new group-administered task, the Judgment of Line Angle and Position-15 test (JLAP–15). We investigated how this task relates to the Vandenberg Mental Rotation Test and whether the sex difference in performance could be explained by the number of prior mathematics courses or strategy used. Undergraduates ( n = 86 men and 112 women) completed the two tests and reported their strategies. Men had higher scores than women on both tests ( d = 1.04 for JLAP–15 and 1.10 for the Vandenberg Mental Rotation Test), with a significant intertask correlation of .41. Regression analyses indicated that strategy type, number of mathematics courses completed, and sex were significant predictors of performance on the JLAP–15 but only accounted for 21% of the variance.

Sex Differences in Gray Matter Volume of the Right Anterior Hippocampus Explain Sex Differences in Three-Dimensional Mental Rotation

Behavioral studies have reported that males perform better than females in 3-dimensional (3D) mental rotation. Given the important role of the hippocampus in spatial processing, the present study investigated whether structural differences in the hippocampus could explain the sex difference in 3D mental rotation. Results showed that after controlling for brain size, males had a larger anterior hippocampus, whereas females had a larger posterior hippocampus. Gray matter volume (GMV) of the right anterior hippocampus was significantly correlated with 3D mental rotation score. After controlling GMV of the right anterior hippocampus, sex difference in 3D mental rotation was no longer significant. These results suggest that the structural difference between males’ and females’ right anterior hippocampus was a neurobiological substrate for the sex difference in 3D mental rotation.

Role of Strategies and Prior Exposure in Mental Rotation

The purpose of these two studies was to examine sex differences in strategy use and the effect of prior exposure on the performance on Vandenberg and Kuse's 1978 Mental Rotation Test. A total of 152 participants completed the spatial task and self-reported their strategy use. Consistent with previous studies, men outperformed women. Strategy usage did not account for these differences, although guessing did. Previous exposure to the Mental Rotation Test, American College Test scores and frequent computer or video game play predicted performance on the test. These results suggest that prior exposure to spatial tasks may provide cues to improve participants' performance.

Experimental But Not Sex Differences of a Mental Rotation Training Program on Adolescents

Given the importance of visuospatial processing in areas related to the STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics) disciplines, where there is still a considerable gap in the area of sex differences, the interest in the effects of visuospatial skills training continues to grow. Therefore, we have evaluated the visuospatial improvement of adolescents after performing a computerized mental rotation training program, as well as the relationship of this visuospatial ability with other cognitive, emotional factors and those factors based on the experience with videogames. The study, which was performed on students aged 14 and 15 years old, showed a significant improvement in this visuospatial skill for a training group (n = 21) compared to a control group (n = 24). Furthermore, no significant sex differences were obtained for spatial ability or for any of the other tasks evaluated, either before or after training. Regarding the relationship between skills, a significant correlation between experience with video games and spatial ability was found, as well as between mathematical reasoning and intelligence and with spatial ability in the initial phase for the total sample. These findings are discussed from a cognitive point of view and within the current sociocultural context, where the equal use of new technologies could help reduce the visuospatial gap between sexes.

Can Spatial Training Erase the Gender Differences on the Water-Level Task?

Spatial training has been only modestly effective at improving the performance of adolescents and adults on the water-level task. Based on previous findings with the task, a self-discovery training procedure was developed that involved having participants proceed from easier to more difficult problems along a dimension of increasingly greater competing perceptual cues. The training was effective in (a) eliminating the gender differences on the drawing task, and (b) significantly improving females' knowledge of the physical (invariance) principle, although not to the level of males. Training effects did not transfer to a related spatial task.

You Should Be the Specialist! Weak Mental Rotation Performance in Aviation Security Screeners - Reduced Performance Level in Aviation Security with No Gender Effect

Aviation security screeners analyze a large number of X-ray images per day and seem to be experts in mentally rotating diverse kinds of visual objects. A robust gender-effect that men outperform women in the Vandenberg & Kuse mental rotation task has been well documented over the last years. In addition it has been shown that training can positively influence the overall task-performance. Considering this, the aim of the present study was to investigate whether security screeners show better performance in the Mental Rotation Test (MRT) independently of gender. Forty-seven security screeners of both sexes from two German airports were examined with a computer based MRT. Their performance was compared to a large sample of control subjects. The well-known gender-effect favoring men on mental rotation was significant within the control group. However, the security screeners did not show any sex differences suggesting an effect of training and professional performance. Surprisingly this specialized group showed a lower level of overall MRT performance than the control participants. Possible aviation related influences such as secondary effects of work-shift or expertise which can cumulatively cause this result are discussed.

Keeping It in Three Dimensions: Measuring the Development of Mental Rotation in Children with the Rotated Colour Cube Test (RCCT)

This study introduces the new Rotated Colour Cube Test (RCCT) as a measure of object identification and mental rotation using single 3D colour cube images in a matching-to-sample procedure. One hundred 7- to 11-year-old children were tested with aligned or rotated cube models, distracters and targets. While different orientations of distracters made the RCCT more difficult, different colours of distracters had the opposite effect and made the RCCT easier because colour facilitated clearer discrimination between target and distracters. Ten-year-olds performed significantly better than 7- to 8-year-olds. The RCCT significantly correlated with children's performance on the Raven's Coloured Progressive Matrices Test (RCPM) presumably due to the shared multiple-choice format, but the RCCT was easier, as it did not require sequencing. Children from families with a high socio-economic status performed best on both tests, with boys outperforming girls on the more difficult RCCT test sections.

Spatial abilities and aging: a meta-analysis

BACKGROUND/STUDY CONTEXT: Age-related effects in performance on spatial tasks have been well documented, with results suggesting a negative effect on performance in older samples. Although meta-analyses have been conducted examining performance on specific spatial tasks, it appears that data incorporating a variety of tasks have not yet been integrated into a single meta-analyses.

METHODS

The present study examined age-related effects on spatial abilities in a multilevel meta-analysis of 137 effect sizes, drawn from 80 samples dated between 1958 and 2011. In addition to sample characteristics (education, year of publication, and age range), procedural factors (spatial ability category, spatial task, dependent variable, task setting, and medium of administration) were also considered. The standardized mean difference (Cohen's d) was used as the effect size measure in meta-analytic calculations.

RESULTS

RESULTS revealed a large (mean d = 1.01) age-related decrease in spatial performance on psychometric tests. Specifically, older adults (mean age range = 63-79.5 years) performed worse on psychometric tests than younger adults (mean age range = 17-28.6 years). Interestingly, this age effect was unaffected by factors such as specific test, test category (mental rotation, spatial perception, or spatial visualization), timing conditions, and group or individual administration. However, measures of response time produced significantly larger effects of age than measures of accuracy on spatial performance.

CONCLUSION

The present analysis demonstrates a clear pattern of negative age effects in spatial ability across the literature. Although these effects are unaffected by the specific spatial component under investigation or testing conditions, speed of processing was shown to be an important factor in spatial performance. The need to report more thoroughly on characteristics of young and old participants in future studies is also emphasized.

Training Spatial Skills in Men and Women

Recent studies suggest that even short-term video game training may transfer to other cognitive tasks. With the popularity of the Nintendo Wii with women, more of them might be exposed to the games that will increase their mental rotation skills. Because performance on mental rotation tests (MRT) has been linked to math performance in women, and thus may ultimately contribute to the under-representation of women in STEM fields, it is important to continue to explore ways to decrease or eliminate the robust sex difference in mental rotation. The present study of 30 men and 30 women provides additional evidence that women may benefit from short-term (1 hour) training on either a Nintendo Wii™ or GameCube console to increase their mental rotation skills. One hour of video game training not only increased women's MRT scores to a level similar to men's scores, but also produced greater average improvement for women, even when controlling for experiential factors such as spatial and masculine childhood activities that could contribute to the sex difference in spatial ability.

Improving spatial abilities through mindfulness: effects on the mental rotation task

In this study, we demonstrate a previously unknown finding that mindful learning can improve an individual's spatial cognition without regard to gender differences. Thirty-two volunteers participated in the experiment. Baselines for spatial ability were first measured for the reaction time on the mental rotation task. Next, the participants were randomly assigned to either a mindful or mindless learning condition. After learning, the mental rotation task showed that those in the mindful learning condition responded faster than those in the mindless learning condition. This study provides promising evidence for applying mindful learning to education.