Anti-inflammatory and anti-rheumatic activities in vitro of alkaloids separated from Aconitum soongoricum Stapf

Research on quality marker based on the processing from Aconiti lateralis radix praeparata to Heishunpian

INTRODUCTION

Aconiti lateralis radix praeparata (ALRP), the sub root of Aconitum carmichaelii Debx., is a traditional Chinese medicine with good pharmacological effects. Heishunpian (HSP), prepared through the process of brine immersing, boiling, rinsing, dyeing, and steaming ALRP is one of the most widely used forms of decoction pieces in clinical practice.

OBJECTIVES

This study aims to investigate the mechanisms of component changes and transformations during the processing from ALRP to HSP, and to screen for their quality markers through UHPLC-QTOF-MS analysis.

METHODS

Samples from ALRP to HSP during processing were prepared and analyzed by UHPLC-QTOF-MS. By comparing the differences between before and after each processing step, the purpose of processing and the transformation of components during processing were studied. In addition, multiple batches of ALRP and HSP were determined, and potential quality markers were screened.

RESULTS

Through the analysis of ALRP and five key processing samples, 55 components were identified. Immersing in brine, rinsing, and dyeing were the main factors of component loss, and boiling caused a slight loss of components. Some components were enhanced during the steaming process. Combining the screened differences components between multiple ALRP and HSP, 10 components were considered as potential quality biomarkers.

CONCLUSION

This study found that the adjacent hydroxyl groups of the ester group may have a positive impact on the hydrolysis of the ester group, and 10 quality markers were preliminarily screened. It provides a reference for quality control and clinical application of ALRP and HSP.

Anti-inflammatory potential of aconitine produced by endophytic fungus Acremonium alternatum

Argemone mexicana belonging to family Papaveraceae is a traditional medicinal plant widely utilized by tribal people in India for treating various ailments like skin infections, wounds and inflammation. This plant is very rich in alkaloidal content, which has a great potential in the treatment of anti-inflammatory disorders. Therapeutically promising bioactive molecules are often produced by endophytic fungi associated with medicinal plants. In this investigation, endophytic fungi were isolated from various parts of A. mexicana and screened for alkaloidal content. Among these, one of the fungal isolate, Acremonium alternatum AMEF-5 producing maximum alkaloids showed significant anti-inflammatory activity. Fractionation of this crude fungal extract through column chromatography yielded eight fractions, which were further screened for anti-inflammatory activities. Fraction 3 exhibited significant anti-inflammatory activity by the inhibition of lipoxygenase enzyme (IC50 15.2 ± 0.09 µg/ml), scavenging of the nitric oxide radicals (IC50 11.38 ± 0.35 µg/ml), protein denaturation (IC50 14.93 ± 0.4 µg/ml), trypsin inhibition (IC50 12.06 ± 0.64 µg/ml) and HRBC stabilization (IC50 11.9 ± 0.22 µg/ml). The bioactive alkaloid in fraction 3 was identified as aconitine which was confirmed by UV, FTIR, HPLC, HRMS, 1H NMR, and 13C NMR analysis. This study demonstrates that endophytic fungi serve a potential source for sustainable production of therapeutically important alkaloids.

A review of Aconiti Lateralis Radix Praeparata (Fuzi) for kidney disease: phytochemistry, toxicology, herbal processing, and pharmacology

Background

Aconiti Lateralis Radix Praeparata, commonly known as Fuzi in. traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), is widely utilized in clinical practice despite its inherent toxicity. Since ancient times, TCM practitioners have explored various processing techniques to broaden its clinical applications and enhance its safety profile. This review aims to summarize the effects of processing on the chemical composition, toxicity, and pharmacological properties of Fuzi, as well as investigate potential underlying mechanisms.

Methods

Data on phytochemistry, toxicology, pharmacology, and processing methods of Fuzi were gathered from the literature of electronic databases, including Web of Science, PubMed, and CNKI.

Results

Fuzi contains over 100 kinds of chemical compounds, including alkaloids, flavonoids, and polysaccharides, among which alkaloids are the main active compounds. Diester-diterpenoid alkaloids are the main contributors to Fuzi's toxicity and have side effects on some organs, such as the heart, liver, kidneys, nervous system, and reproductive system. The chemical composition of aconite, particularly its alkaloid content, was changed by hydrolysis or substitution reaction during processing to enhance its efficacy and reduce its toxicity. Salted aconite could enhance the therapeutic efficacy of Fuzi in treating kidney diseases and influence its pharmacokinetics.

Conclusion

Processing plays an important role in increasing the efficiency and decreasing toxicity of aconite. Further studies are needed to elucidate the changes of aconite before and after processing and the underlying mechanisms of these changes, thereby providing evidence for the clinical safety of drug use.

Triterpenoids from the leaves of Eleutherococcus sessiliflorus, and their antiproliferative activities in TNF-α induced HFLS-RA cells

Five undescribed elesesterpenes L-U, along with nine known 3,4-seco-lupane-type triterpenoids were isolated from the leaves of Eleutherococcus sessiliflorus (Rupr. & Maxim.) S. Y. Hu. Elesesterpene L-S, and U were lupane-type triterpenoids, whereas elesesterpene T was an oleanane-type triterpenoid, probably artifact, as suggested by LC-MS analysis. Out of the nine known compounds, five were initially identified in E. sessiliflorus. Moreover, their structures were definitively determined using spectroscopic analyses, and the absolute configurations of elesesterpenes L-M and sachunogenin 3-O-glucoside were clarified using X-ray crystallographic techniques. The absolute configuration of elesesterpene T was determined by measuring and calculating its ECD. In addition, all compounds were tested to examine their ability to inhibit the proliferation of HFLS-RA cells induced by TNF-α in vitro. Elesesterpene M, chiisanogenin, chiisanoside, and 3-methylisochiisanoside significantly inhibited HFLS-RA proliferation.

Integration of serum pharmacochemistry and metabolomics to reveal the underlying mechanism of shaoyao-gancao-fuzi decoction to ameliorate rheumatoid arthritis

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

For centuries, Shaoyao-Gancao-Fuzi decoction (SGFD) has been a reliable traditional Chinese medicine for treating rheumatoid arthritis (RA). Despite its long history of use, the specific active components and underlying mechanisms of its therapeutic effects have yet to be fully understood.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The aim of this study was to investigate the active ingredients and therapeutic effects of SGFD on RA, and to further understand its underlying mechanism.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The chemical constituents in SGFD extract and in rat serum after oral administration of SGFD were identified and evaluated using ultra-performance liquid chromatography quadrupole-time-flight mass spectrometry (UPLC-Q-TOF/MS) together with various data-processing methods, respectively. The efficacy of SGFD was assessed by using an adjuvant-induced arthritis (AIA) rat model and lipopolysaccharide-stimulated RAW 264.7 cell. Subsequently, cell metabolomic was conducted to clarify the potential biomarkers and pathways. ELISA, RT-qPCR, and WB were used to verify the anti-arthritis mechanism of SGFD.

RESULTS

A total of 65 chemical constituents were identified in SGFD. 17 active components were distinguished in rat serum samples, of which 13 may be the main active ingredients for SGFD treatment of RA. The remarkable efficacy of SGFD in reducing the symptoms of RA is evident through its ability to alleviate the redness and swelling of the affected paws, as well as reduce the infiltration of inflammatory cells. Cell experiments revealed that rat serum of SGFD reduced IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α secretion in RAW 264.7 cells. 27 potential biomarkers were identified through cell metabolomics analysis. The arachidonic acid (AA) metabolism signaling pathway was activated in RA, which could be reversed by rat serum of SGFD. SGFD effectively inhibited the expression and transformation of AA by downregulating the expression of key enzymes, including phospholipase A and cyclooxygenase.

CONCLUSION

SGFD may ameliorate RA symptoms by regulating the AA-PGH2-PGE2/PGF2α pathway. The main active components include songorine, fuziline, neoline, albiflorin, paeoniflorin, liquiritin, benzoylmesaconine, isoformononetin, liquiritigenin, isoliquiritigenin, formononetin, glycyrrhizic acid, and glycyrrhetinic acid.

Evaluation of aconitine cardiotoxicity with a heart-on-a-particle prepared by a microfluidic device

A heart-on-a-particle model based on multicompartmental microgel is proposed to simulate the heart microenvironment and study the cardiotoxicity of drugs. The relevant microgel was fabricated by a biocompatible microfluidic-based approach, where heart function-related HL-1 and HUVEC cells were arranged in separate compartments. Finally, the mechanism of aconitine-induced heart toxicity was elucidated using mass spectrometry and molecular biotechnology.

Songorine inhibits oxidative stress-related inflammation through PI3K/AKT/NRF2 signaling pathway to alleviate lipopolysaccharide-induced septic acute lung injury

OBJECTIVE

The present study aimed to investigate the protective action and mechanism of songorine on sepsis-induced acute lung injury (ALI).

METHODS

The sepsis-induced ALI mouse and cell models were established by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) induction. Lung injury was assayed by hematoxylin and eosin staining, lung injury score, and lung wet-to-dry (W/D) weight ratio. Apoptosis in lung tissues was evaluated by TUNEL assay, and the expression of apoptosis-related markers (Bcl2, Bax, and caspase-3) was measured by western blotting. Levels of pro-inflammatory factors and oxidative stress markers in the bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) of mice were measured by ELISA and RT-qPCR. The expression of PI3K/AKT/NRF2 pathway-related proteins was analyzed by western blotting.

RESULTS

Songorine treatment at 40 mg/kg mitigated sepsis-induced ALI, characterized by improved histopathology, lung injury score, and lung W/D weight ratio (p < 0.05). Moreover, songorine markedly attenuated sepsis-induced apoptosis in lung tissues; this was evidenced by an increase in Bcl2 levels and a decrease in Bax and caspase-3 levels (p < 0.01). Also, songorine reduced levels of proinflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-6, IL-1β and MPO) and oxidative stress regulators (SOD and GSH) in the BALF of LPS-induced sepsis mice and RAW264.7 cells (p < 0.05). In addition, songorine upregulated the PI3K/AKT/NRF2 pathway-related proteins in LPS-induced sepsis mice and RAW264.7 cells (p < 0.05). Furthermore, LY294002 (a PI3K inhibitor) treatment reversed the protective effect of songorine on sepsis-induced ALI.

CONCLUSION

Songorine inhibits oxidative stress-related inflammation in sepsis-induced ALI via the activation of the PI3K/AKT/NRF2 signaling pathway.

Therapeutic Potentials of Aconite-like Alkaloids: Bioinformatics and Experimental Approaches

Compounds from plants that are used in traditional medicine may have medicinal properties. It is well known that plants belonging to the genus Aconitum are highly poisonous. Utilizing substances derived from Aconitum sp. has been linked to negative effects. In addition to their toxicity, the natural substances derived from Aconitum species may have a range of biological effects on humans, such as analgesic, anti-inflammatory, and anti-cancer characteristics. Multiple in silico, in vitro, and in vivo studies have demonstrated the effectiveness of their therapeutic effects. In this review, the clinical effects of natural compounds extracted from Aconitum sp., focusing on aconitelike alkaloids, are investigated particularly by bioinformatics tools, such as the quantitative structure- activity relationship method, molecular docking, and predicted pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic profiles. The experimental and bioinformatics aspects of aconitine's pharmacogenomic profile are discussed. Our review could help shed light on the molecular mechanisms of Aconitum sp. compounds. The effects of several aconite-like alkaloids, such as aconitine, methyllycacintine, or hypaconitine, on specific molecular targets, including voltage-gated sodium channels, CAMK2A and CAMK2G during anesthesia, or BCL2, BCL-XP, and PARP-1 receptors during cancer therapy, are evaluated. According to the reviewed literature, aconite and aconite derivatives have a high affinity for the PARP-1 receptor. The toxicity estimations for aconitine indicate hepatotoxicity and hERG II inhibitor activity; however, this compound is not predicted to be AMES toxic or an hERG I inhibitor. The efficacy of aconitine and its derivatives in treating many illnesses has been proven experimentally. Toxicity occurs as a result of the high ingested dose; however, the usage of this drug in future research is based on the small quantity of an active compound that fulfills a therapeutic role.

Bioinformatics Tools for the Analysis of Active Compounds Identified in Ranunculaceae Species

The chemical compounds from extracts of three Ranunculaceae species, Aconitum toxicum Rchb., Anemone nemorosa L. and Helleborus odorus Waldst. & Kit. ex Willd., respectively, were isolated using the HPLC purification technique and analyzed from a bioinformatics point of view. The classes of compounds identified based on the proportion in the rhizomes/leaves/flowers used for microwave-assisted extraction and ultrasound-assisted extraction were alkaloids and phenols. Here, the quantifying of pharmacokinetics, pharmacogenomics and pharmacodynamics helps us to identify the actual biologically active compounds. Our results showed that (i) pharmacokinetically, the compounds show good absorption at the intestinal level and high permeability at the level of the central nervous system for alkaloids; (ii) regarding pharmacogenomics, alkaloids can influence tumor sensitivity and the effectiveness of some treatments; (iii) and pharmacodynamically, the compounds of these Ranunculaceae species bind to carbonic anhydrase and aldose reductase. The results obtained showed a high affinity of the compounds in the binding solution at the level of carbonic anhydrases. Carbonic anhydrase inhibitors extracted from natural sources can represent the path to new drugs useful both in the treatment of glaucoma, but also of some renal, neurological and even neoplastic diseases. The identification of natural compounds with the role of inhibitors can have a role in different types of pathologies, both associated with studied and known receptors such as carbonic anhydrase and aldose reductase, as well as new pathologies not yet addressed.

A review on efforts for improvement in medicinally important chemical constituents inAconitum through biotechnological interventions

The genus Aconitum belongs to the family Ranunculaceae, is endowed with more than 350 species on the earth. Medicinally important aconitine type of diterpenoid alkaloids are the characteristic compounds in most of the Aconitum species. The present review endeavored the major research carried out in the field of genetic resource characterization, pharmacological properties, phytochemistry, major factors influencing quantity, biosynthetic pathways and processing methods for recovery of active ingredients, variety improvement, propagation methods, and important metabolite production through cell/organ culture of various Aconitum species. More than 450 derivatives of aconitine-type C19 and C20-diterpenoid alkaloids along with a few other non-alkaloidal compounds, such as phenylpropanoids, flavonoids, terpenoids, and fatty acids, have been identified in the genus. A few Aconitum species and their common diterpenoid alkaloid compounds are also well characterized for analgesic, inflammatory and cytotoxic properties. However, the different isolated compound needs to be validated for supporting other traditional therapeutical uses of the plant species. Aconitine alkaloids shared common biosynthesis pathway, but their diversification mechanism remains unexplored in the genus. Furthermore, the process needs to be developed on secondary metabolite recovery, mass-scale propagation methods, and agro-technologies for maintaining the quality of products. Many species are losing their existence in nature due to over-exploitation or anthropogenic factors; thus, temporal monitoring of the population status in its habitat, and suitable management programs for ascertaining conservation needs to be developed.

Chemical constituents, pharmacological effects, toxicology, processing and compatibility of Fuzi (lateral root of Aconitum carmichaelii Debx): A review

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

The lateral root of Aconitum carmichaelii Debx is known as Fuzi in Chinese. It is traditionally valued and used for dispelling cold, relieving pain effects, restoring 'Yang,' and treating shock despite its high toxicity. This review aims to provide comprehensive information on the chemical composition, pharmacological research, preparation, and compatibility of Fuzi to help reduce its toxicity and increase its efficiency, based on the scientific literature. In addition, this review will establish a new foundation for further studies on Fuzi.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A systematic review of the literature on Fuzi was performed using several resources, namely classic books on Chinese herbal medicine and various scientific databases, such as PubMed, the Web of Science, and the China Knowledge Resource Integrated databases.

RESULTS

Fuzi extracts contain diester-type alkaloids, monoester-type alkaloids, other types of alkaloids, and non-alkaloids types, and have various pharmacological activities, such as strong heart effect, effect on blood vessels, and antidepressant, anti-diabetes, anti-inflammatory, pain-relieving, antitumor, immunomodulatory, and other therapeutic effects. However, these extracts can also lead to various toxicities such as cardiotoxicity, neurotoxicity, reproductive toxicity, hepatotoxicity, and embryonic toxicity. In vivo and in vitro experiments have demonstrated that different processing methods and suitable compatibility with other herbs can effectively reduce the toxicities and increase the efficiency of Fuzi.

CONCLUSION

The therapeutic potential of Fuzi has been demonstrated in conditions, such as heart failure, various pains, inflammation, and tumors, which is attributed to the diester-type alkaloids, monoester-type alkaloids, other types of alkaloids, and non-alkaloid types. In contrast, they are also toxic components. Proper processing and suitable compatibility can effectively reduce toxicity and increase the efficiency of Fuzi. Thus more pharmacological and toxicological mechanisms on main active compounds are necessary to be explored.

Antitumor effects and potential mechanisms of aconitine based on preclinical studies: an updated systematic review and meta-analysis

Background: Herbs originating from the Aconitum L. (Ranunculaceae), such as Aconitum carmichaelii Debeaux. (Wutou), Aconitum pendulum Busch. (Tiebangchui), and Aconitum kusnezoffii Reichb. (Caowu), etc. are highly valued for their medicinal properties. The roots and tubers of these herbs are commonly used to treat an array of ailments, including joint pain and tumors. The alkaloids present in them are the primary active components, with aconitine being the most notable. Aconitine has gained attention for its exceptional anti-inflammatory and analgesic properties, as well as its potential as an anti-tumor and cardiotonic agent. However, the exact process through which aconitine hinders the growth of cancerous cells and triggers their programmed cell death remains unclear. Therefore, we have undertaken a comprehensive systematic review and meta-analysis of the current research on the potential antitumor properties of aconitine. Methods: We conducted a thorough search of relevant preclinical studies in databases including PubMed, Web of Science, VIP, WanFang Data, CNKI, Embase, Cochrane Library, and National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). The search was conducted up until 15 September 2022, and the data were statistically analyzed using RevMan 5.4 software. The number of tumor cell value-added, tumor cell apoptosis rate, thymus index (TI), and Bcl-2 gene expression level were the main indicators to be analyzed. Results: After applying the final inclusion criteria, a total of thirty-seven studies, comprising both in vivo and in vitro research were analyzed. The results showed that treatment with aconitine led to a significant reduction in tumor cell proliferation, a noteworthy increase in the rate of apoptosis among tumor cells, a decrease in the thymus index, and a reduction in the expression level of Bcl-2. These results suggested that aconitine could inhibit the proliferation, invasion, and migration abilities of tumor cells by regulating Bcl-2 etc., thereby enhancing the anti-tumor effects. Conclusion: In summary, our present study demonstrated that aconitine effectively reduced tumor size and volume, indicating a strong anti-tumor effect. Additionally, aconitine could increase the expression levels of caspase-3, Bax and other targets. Mechanistically, it may regulate the expression levels of Bax and Bcl-2 through the NF-κB signaling pathway, ultimately inhibiting tumor cell proliferation through autophagy.

Aconiti lateralis radix praeparata total alkaloids exert anti-RA effects by regulating NF-κB and JAK/STAT signaling pathways and promoting apoptosis

Aconiti Lateralis Radix Praeparata (“Fuzi” in Chinese) is one of the traditional herbs widely used to intervene rheumatoid arthritis (RA), while Fuzi total alkaloids (FTAs) are the main bioactive components. However, the treatment targets and specific mechanisms of FTAs against RA have not been fully elucidated. The purpose of the present study was to confirm the anti-rheumatism effects of FTAs and reveal its potential molecular mechanisms. In TNF-α-induced MH7A cells model, we found that FTAs showed inhibitory effects on proliferation. While, FTAs significantly decreased the expression levels of IL-1β, IL-6, MMP-1, MMP-3, PGE2, TGF-β, and VEGF. FTAs also enhanced the progress of apoptosis and arrested the cell cycle at G0/G1 phase to prevent excessive cell proliferation. In addition, FTAs inhibited the hyperactivity of NF-κB and JAK/STAT signaling pathways, and regulated the cascade reaction of mitochondrial apoptosis signaling pathway. The results suggested that FTAs exerted anti-inflammatory effects by inhibiting NF-κB and JAK/STAT signaling pathways, promoted apoptosis by stimulating mitochondrial apoptosis signaling pathway, and inhibited cell proliferation by modulating cell cycle progression.

Identification and Characterization of Sclerotium delphinii Causing Southern Blight on Aconitum kusnezoffii in Northeast China

Aconitum kusnezoffii is a perennial medicinal plant that belongs to the Ranunculaceae family and is distributed mainly in Northeast and North China. In July 2018, a typical southern blight disease of A. kusnezoffii was observed in commercial fields of Qingyuan County, Fushun City, Liaoning Province, China. The fungus mainly infected stem base and tuberous roots of the plant by wrapping the hyphae and absorbing nutrition, resulting in tuberous root wilted or whole plant death. Morphological characteristics of colony and sclerotia of three representative strains isolated from the diseased plants differed from those of Sclerotium rolfsii isolated from A. carmichaelii. Sclerotia were large (0.8 to 5.1 mm), reddish-brown, and irregular and had pitted surfaces, and the hyphae were white, compact, or fluffy, with a growth rate ranging from 8.0 to 10.1 mm/day. Phylogenetic analysis of the internal transcribed spacer and the large subunit sequences of Akln6, Akln9, and Akln15 showed that three strains isolated from A. kusnezoffii formed a unique and well-supported clade that groups with the reference isolates of S. delphinii. Based on phylogenetic analysis and cultural and morphological characteristics, the three isolates of A. kusnezoffii were identified as S. delphinii. The optimum temperature for mycelial growth of the three tested isolates was 30°C, and sclerotia formed and matured more easily at 20°C. Light promoted the growth of mycelial, whereas dark was beneficial to the formation and maturation of sclerotia. The pathogenicity of S. delphinii showed stronger than S. rolfsii at low temperature (20°C). This is the first report of S. delphinii causing southern blight on A. kusnezoffii in China, and this finding provides a basis for disease-accurate diagnosis and the development of effective management strategies.

Advances on pharmacology and toxicology of aconitine

Aconitum alkaloids are considered to be the characteristic bioactive ingredients of Aconitum species, which are widely applied to the treatment of diverse diseases, and aconitine (AC) is found in most Aconitum plants. Research evidence shows that low-dose AC has a good therapeutic potential in heart failure, myocardial infarction, neuroinflammatory diseases, rheumatic diseases, and tumors, which has become one of the hotspots in global research in recent years. However, the cardiotoxicity and neurotoxicity of AC have also attracted extensive attention. Excessive use of AC always induces ventricular tachyarrhythmia and heart arrest, even can be potentially lethal. Therefore, AC cannot simply be regarded as a good medicine or a toxicant, but its underlying curative and toxic properties remained chaos. In order to dig the unique pharmacological value of AC while preventing its toxicity, the pharmacological activities and toxic effects of AC were summarized in this paper, providing new insight into the safe and effective use of AC in clinical practice.

Network analysis combined with pharmacological evaluation strategy to reveal the mechanism of Tibetan medicine Wuwei Shexiang pills in treating rheumatoid arthritis

Tibetan medicine is an important part of traditional Chinese medicine and a significant representative of ethnic medicine in China. Tibetan medicine is gradually recognized by the world for its unique curative effects. Wuwei Shexiang pills (WPW) has been widely used to treat “Zhenbu” disease (Also known as rheumatoid arthritis) in Tibetan medicine, however, its potential bioactive ingredients and mechanism for RA treatment remain unclear. In this study, we used a combination of gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), ultra-performance liquid chromatography coupled with quadrupole time-of-fight mass spectrometry (UPLC-Q-TOF/MS), network analysis and experimental validation to elucidate the potential pharmacodynamic substances and mechanisms of WPW in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis (RA). The results showed that songoramine, cheilanthifoline, saussureanine C, acoric acid, arjunolic acid, peraksine, ellagic acid, arjungenin and other 11 components may be the main activities of WPW in the treatment of RA. PIK3CA, AKT, MAPK, IL-6, TNF, MMP1, MMP3, and CDK1 are considered as core targets. PI3K-AKT, MAPK, apoptosis, cell cycle, and other signaling pathways may be the key pathways for WPW to play a role in the treatment of RA. Furthermore, we validated the underlying molecular mechanism of WPW predicted by network analysis and demonstrated its possible mechanism through in vivo animal experiments. It was found that WPW could significantly improve the degree of paw swelling, and reduce ankle joint diameter and arthritis index. Further histomorphological analysis showed that WPW could reduce the degree of synovial tissue inflammation and ankle joint cartilage damage. Meanwhile, WPW could down-regulate the levels of IL-6, IL-1β, and IL-17, and increase the levels of IL-10 and IL-4 in the serum of AA rats. TUNEL staining confirmed that WPW could significantly promote the apoptosis of synovial cells. Moreover, the immunohistochemical results showed that WPW decreased the expression of PI3K, AKT, MAPK, MMP1, MMP3, CDK1, and Bcl-2, as well as increased the expression of Bax protein. In conclusion, we successfully combined GC-MS, UPLC-Q-TOF/MS, network analysis, and experimental validation strategies to elucidate the inhibition of inflammation by WPW in AA model rats via PI3K/AKT, MAPK, cell cycle and apoptotic pathways process. This not only provides new evidence for the study of potential pharmacodynamic substances and the mechanism of WPW in the treatment of RA, but also provides ideas for the study of other Tibetan medicine compound preparations.

An insight into current advances on pharmacology, pharmacokinetics, toxicity and detoxification of aconitine

Aconitine is a diterpenoid alkaloid, which mainly exists in the plants of Aconitum. In the last decade, a plethora of studies on the pharmacological activities of aconitine has been conducted and demonstrated that aconitine possessed an extensive range of pharmacological activities such as anti-tumor, anti-inflammatory, analgesic, local anesthesia, and immunomodulatory effects. Pharmacokinetic studies indicated that aconitine may have the characteristics of poor bioavailability, wide distribution, and slow elimination. However, studies have also found that aconitine has toxic effects on the heart, nerves, embryos, etc. Therefore, we believe that aconitine may not be suitable for heart patients and pregnant women to treat related diseases. It is important to note that all of these pharmacological effects require further high-quality studies to determine the clinical efficacy of aconitine. This review aims to summarize the advances in pharmacological, pharmacokinetics, toxicity, and detoxification of aconitine in the last decade with an emphasis on its anti-tumor and anti-inflammatory activities, to provide researchers with the latest information and point out the limitations of relevant research at the current stage and the aspects that should be strengthened in future research.