Emerging trends in colorectal cancer: Dysregulated signaling pathways (Review)

KLF7 enhances the invasion and migration of colorectal cancer cells via the miR-139-5p/TPD52 axis

In this study, we aimed to investigate the molecular mechanism of Krüppel-like factor 7 (KLF7) in colorectal cancer (CRC) cell invasion and migration. The expression pattern of KLF7 in CRC tissues and the correlation between KLF7 expression and clinical symptoms of CRC were analyzed. CRC cell lines were transfected with si-KLF7, followed by qRT-PCR or western blot detection of KLF7, miR-139-5p, and tumor protein D52 (TPD52) expression, cell counting kit-8 (CCK-8) assay to detect cell viability, and transwell detection of invasion and migration. Chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) analyzed the enrichment KLF7 in the miR-139-5p promoter. The dual-luciferase reporter assay verified the binding relationship between KLF7 and miR-139-5p, and between miR-139-5p and TPD52. In the subcutaneous tumorigenesis experiment, tumor growth was observed and ki67-positive expression was detected. KLF7 is abundantly expressed in CRC cells KLF7 silencing inhibits CRC cell viability, invasion, and migration. KLF7 represses miR-139-5p expression by binding to the miR-139-5p promoter. miR-139-5p targets TPD52 expression. miR-13-5p inhibition or TPD52 overexpression partially counteracted the effect of KLF7 silencing in CRC cells. KLF7 silencing suppresses tumor growth in vivo. In conclusion, KLF7 suppresses miR-139-5p expression by binding to the miR-139-5p promoter, thereby upregulating TPD52 expression and enhancing CRC cell invasion and migration.

Inhibition of angiogenesis and metastasis in colorectal cancer cell lines through KRAS-associated signaling pathways by 2-methoxy-6-undecyl-1,4-benzoquinone

Colorectal cancer (CRC), the third most prevalent cancer globally, presents formidable hurdles in treatment owing to factors such as therapeutic resistance and genetic mutations affecting primary drug targets. 2-methoxy-6-undecyl-1,4-benzoquinone (BQ), derived from Ardisia crispa roots, has emerged as a potent anti-inflammatory and anti-angiogenic compound with substantial potential, as evidenced by previous studies. This study aimed to explore the potential of BQ in suppressing angiogenesis and metastasis in the human CRC cell lines LoVo and HCT116. Various in vitro and in silico studies have been conducted to elucidate the potential pathway(s) of BQ. BQ was highly cytotoxic, with an IC50 of 7.01 ± 0.6 μM in HCT116 and 9.58 ± 0.8 μM in LoVo cells. Moreover, BQ induced notable apoptotic activity and suppressed migration, invasion, and adhesion in both cell lines. The inhibition of MMP-2 suggests the potential of BQ to impede extracellular matrix degradation and CRC cell metastasis. BQ inhibits the expression of key proteins involved in angiogenesis and metastasis, including VEGF-A, VEGF-C, BRAF, ERK, KRAS, PI3K, and AKT. Molecular docking simulations illustrated the robust binding of BQ to CRC protein receptors. BQ holds promise in impeding CRC progression by targeting angiogenesis and metastasis, particularly through inhibition of the KRAS/BRAF/ERK and KRAS/PI3K/AKT signaling pathways.

Novel meroterpene-like compounds inhibit ferroptosis through Fe2+ chelation

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is the third most common type of cancer in the world. It is characterized by complex crosstalk between various signaling pathways, as a result of which it is highly challenging to identify optimal therapeutic targets and design treatment strategies. In this study, we tested the effect of 700 compounds on the CRC cell line HT-29 by using the sulforhodamine B assay and screened out 17 compounds that exhibited high toxicity (indicated by an inhibition rate of ≥75 % when applied at a concentration of 10 µM) against the HT-29 cell line. Next, we investigated the mechanisms underlying the effects of these 17 highly toxic compounds. The results of ferroptosis analysis and electron microscopy showed that compounds 575 and 578 were able to significantly reverse RSL3-induced increase in ferroptosis, while compound 580 had a less pronounced ferroptosis-regulating effect. In subsequent experiments, western blotting showed that compounds 575, 578, and 580, which belong to a class of meroterpene-like compounds that affect ferroptosis, do not induce autophagy or apoptosis in the CRC cell line. Instead, Fe2+ chelation experiments showed that these three compounds can serve as iron chelators by chelating Fe2+ at a 1:1 (chelator: Fe2+) ratio. Specifically, the aldehyde and hydroxyl groups of the benzene ring in these compounds may chelate Fe2+, thus reducing Fe2+ levels in cells and inhibiting ferroptosis. These results indicate that these novel meroterpene-like compounds are potential therapeutic small-molecule candidates for targeting ferroptosis in tumors.

Cellular and molecular events in colorectal cancer: biological mechanisms, cell death pathways, drug resistance and signalling network interactions

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is a leading cause of cancer-related deaths worldwide, affecting millions each year. It emerges from the colon or rectum, parts of the digestive system, and is closely linked to both genetic and environmental factors. In CRC, genetic mutations such as APC, KRAS, and TP53, along with epigenetic changes like DNA methylation and histone modifications, play crucial roles in tumor development and treatment responses. This paper delves into the complex biological underpinnings of CRC, highlighting the pivotal roles of genetic alterations, cell death pathways, and the intricate network of signaling interactions that contribute to the disease's progression. It explores the dysregulation of apoptosis, autophagy, and other cell death mechanisms, underscoring the aberrant activation of these pathways in CRC. Additionally, the paper examines how mutations in key molecular pathways, including Wnt, EGFR/MAPK, and PI3K, fuel CRC development, and how these alterations can serve as both diagnostic and prognostic markers. The dual function of autophagy in CRC, acting as a tumor suppressor or promoter depending on the context, is also scrutinized. Through a comprehensive analysis of cellular and molecular events, this research aims to deepen our understanding of CRC and pave the way for more effective diagnostics, prognostics, and therapeutic strategies.

Loss of monopolar spindle-binding protein 3B expression promotes colorectal cancer invasiveness by activation of target of rapamycin kinase/autophagy signaling

BACKGROUND

Monopolar spindle-binding protein 3B (MOB3B) functions as a signal transducer and altered MOB3B expression is associated with the development of human cancers.

AIM

To investigate the role of MOB3B in colorectal cancer (CRC).

METHODS

This study collected 102 CRC tissue samples for immunohistochemical detection of MOB3B expression for association with CRC prognosis. After overexpression and knockdown of MOB3B expression were induced in CRC cell lines, changes in cell viability, migration, invasion, and gene expression were assayed. Tumor cell autophagy was detected using transmission electron microscopy, while nude mouse xenograft experiments were performed to confirm the in-vitro results.

RESULTS

MOB3B expression was reduced in CRC vs normal tissues and loss of MOB3B expression was associated with poor CRC prognosis. Overexpression of MOB3B protein in vitro attenuated the cell viability as well as the migration and invasion capacities of CRC cells, whereas knockdown of MOB3B expression had the opposite effects in CRC cells. At the molecular level, microtubule-associated protein light chain 3 II/I expression was elevated, whereas the expression of matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)2, MMP9, sequestosome 1, and phosphorylated mechanistic target of rapamycin kinase (mTOR) was downregulated in MOB3B-overexpressing RKO cells. In contrast, the opposite results were observed in tumor cells with MOB3B knockdown. The nude mouse data confirmed these in-vitro findings, i.e., MOB3B expression suppressed CRC cell xenograft growth, whereas knockdown of MOB3B expression promoted the growth of CRC cell xenografts.

CONCLUSION

Loss of MOB3B expression promotes CRC development and malignant behaviors, suggesting a potential tumor suppressive role of MOB3B in CRC by inhibition of mTOR/autophagy signaling.

Precision prognosis of colorectal cancer: a multi-tiered model integrating microsatellite instability genes and clinical parameters

Background

Prognostic assessment for colorectal cancer (CRC) displays substantial heterogeneity, as reliance solely on traditional TNM staging falls short of achieving precise individualized predictions. The integration of diverse biological information sources holds the potential to enhance prognostic accuracy.

Objective

To establish a comprehensive multi-tiered precision prognostic evaluation system for CRC by amalgamating gene expression profiles, clinical characteristics, and tumor microsatellite instability (MSI) status in CRC patients.

Methods

We integrated genomic data, clinical information, and survival follow-up data from 483 CRC patients obtained from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) and Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) databases. MSI-related gene modules were identified using differential expression analysis and Weighted Gene Co-expression Network Analysis (WGCNA). Three prognostic models were constructed: MSI-Related Gene Prognostic Model (Model I), Clinical Prognostic Model (Model II), and Integrated Multi-Layered Prognostic Model (Model III) by combining clinical features. Model performance was assessed and compared using Receiver Operating Characteristic (ROC) curves, Kaplan-Meier analysis, and other methods.

Results

Six MSI-related genes were selected for constructing Model I (AUC = 0.724); Model II used two clinical features (AUC = 0.684). Compared to individual models, the integrated Model III exhibited superior performance (AUC = 0.825) and demonstrated good stability in an independent dataset (AUC = 0.767).

Conclusion

This study successfully developed and validated a comprehensive multi-tiered precision prognostic assessment model for CRC, providing an effective tool for personalized medical management of CRC.

Identification and validation of calcium extrusion-related genes prognostic signature in colon adenocarcinoma

Background

Disruptions in calcium homeostasis are associated with a wide range of diseases, and play a pivotal role in the development of cancer. However, the construction of prognostic models using calcium extrusion-related genes in colon adenocarcinoma (COAD) has not been well studied. We aimed to identify whether calcium extrusion-related genes serve as a potential prognostic biomarker in the COAD progression.

Methods

We constructed a prognostic model based on the expression of calcium extrusion-related genes (SLC8A1, SLC8A2, SLC8A3, SLC8B1, SLC24A2, SLC24A3 and SLC24A4) in COAD. Subsequently, we evaluated the associations between the risk score calculated by calcium extrusion-related genes and mutation signature, immune cell infiltration, and immune checkpoint molecules. Then we calculated the immune score, stromal score, tumor purity and estimate score using the Estimation of STromal and Immune cells in MAlignant Tumor tissues using Expression data (ESTIMATE) algorithm. The response to immunotherapy was assessed using tumor immune dysfunction and exclusion (TIDE). Finally, colorectal cancer cells migration, growth and colony formation assays were performed in RKO cells with the overexpression or knockdown SLC8A3, SLC24A2, SLC24A3, or SLC24A4.

Results

We found that patients with high risk score of calcium extrusion-related genes tend to have a poorer prognosis than those in the low-risk group. Additionally, patients in high-risk group had higher rates of KRAS mutations and lower MUC16 mutations, implying a strong correlation between KRAS and MUC16 mutations and calcium homeostasis in COAD. Moreover, the high-risk group showed a higher infiltration of regulatory T cells (Tregs) in the tumor microenvironment. Finally, our study identified two previously unreported model genes (SLC8A3 and SLC24A4) that contribute to the growth and migration of colorectal cancer RKO cells.

Conclusions

Altogether, we developed a prognostic risk model for predicting the prognosis of COAD patients based on the expression profiles of calcium extrusion-related genes, Furthermore, we validated two previously unreported tumor suppressor genes (SLC8A3 and SLC24A4) involved in colorectal cancer progression.

Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor Targeting in Colorectal Carcinoma: Antibodies and Patient-Derived Organoids as a Smart Model to Study Therapy Resistance

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is the second leading cause of cancer-related death worldwide. Therefore, the need for new therapeutic strategies is still a challenge. Surgery and chemotherapy represent the first-line interventions; nevertheless, the prognosis for metastatic CRC (mCRC) patients remains unacceptable. An important step towards targeted therapy came from the inhibition of the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) pathway, by the anti-EGFR antibody, Cetuximab, or by specific tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKI). Cetuximab, a mouse-human chimeric monoclonal antibody (mAb), binds to the extracellular domain of EGFR thus impairing EGFR-mediated signaling and reducing cell proliferation. TKI can affect the EGFR biochemical pathway at different steps along the signaling cascade. Apart from Cetuximab, other anti-EGFR mAbs have been developed, such as Panitumumab. Both antibodies have been approved for the treatment of KRAS-NRAS wild type mCRC, alone or in combination with chemotherapy. These antibodies display strong differences in activating the host immune system against CRC, due to their different immunoglobulin isotypes. Although anti-EGFR antibodies are efficient, drug resistance occurs with high frequency. Resistant tumor cell populations can either already be present before therapy or develop later by biochemical adaptations or new genomic mutations in the EGFR pathway. Numerous efforts have been made to improve the efficacy of the anti-EGFR mAbs or to find new agents that are able to block downstream EGFR signaling cascade molecules. Indeed, we examined the importance of analyzing the anti-EGFR antibody-drug conjugates (ADC) developed to overcome resistance and/or stimulate the tumor host's immunity against CRC growth. Also, patient-derived CRC organoid cultures represent a useful and feasible in vitro model to study tumor behavior and therapy response. Organoids can reflect tumor genetic heterogeneity found in the tissue of origin, representing a unique tool for personalized medicine. Thus, CRC-derived organoid cultures are a smart model for studying the tumor microenvironment and for the preclinical assay of anti-EGFR drugs.

Impact of adjuvant chemotherapy on survival after pathological complete response in rectal cancer: a meta-analysis of 31,558 patients

BACKGROUND

Locally advanced rectal cancer (LARC) typically involves neoadjuvant chemoradiotherapy (nCRT) followed by surgery (total mesorectal excision, TME). While achieving a complete pathological response (pCR) is a strong indicator of a positive prognosis, the specific benefits of adjuvant chemotherapy after pCR remain unclear. To address this knowledge gap, we conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis to assess the potential advantages of adjuvant therapy in patients who achieve pCR.

METHODS

In this study, we searched Medline, Embase, and Web of Science databases for relevant research. We focused on binary outcomes, analyzing them using odds ratios (ORs) with 95% confidence intervals (CIs). To account for potential variability between studies, all endpoints were analyzed with DerSimonian and Laird random-effects models. We assessed heterogeneity using the I2 statistic and employed the R statistical software (version 4.2.3) for all analyses.

RESULTS

Thirty-four studies, comprising 31,558 patients, were included. The outcomes demonstrated a significant difference favoring the AC group in terms of overall survival (OS) (HR 0.75; 95% CI 0.60-0.94; p = 0.015; I2 = 0%), and OS in 5 years (OR 1.65; 95% CI 1.21-2.24; p = 0.001; I2 = 39%). There was no significant difference between the groups for disease-free survival (DFS) (HR 0.94; 95% CI 0.76-1.17; p = 0.61; I2 = 17%), DFS in 5 years (OR 1.19; 95% CI 0.82-1.74; p = 0.36; I2 = 43%), recurrence-free survival (RFS) (HR 1.10; 95% CI 0.87-1.40; p = 0.39; I2 = 0%), and relapse-free survival (OR 1.08; 95% CI 0.78-1.51; p = 0.62; I2 = 0%).

CONCLUSION

This systematic review and meta-analysis found a significant difference in favor of the ACT group in terms of survival after pCR. Therefore, the administration of this treatment as adjuvant therapy should be encouraged in clinical practice.

Laser-activable murine ferritin nanocage for chemo-photothermal therapy of colorectal cancer

Chemotherapy, as a conventional strategy for tumor therapy, often leads to unsatisfied therapeutic effect due to the multi-drug resistance and the serious side effects. Herein, we genetically engineered a thermal-responsive murine Ferritin (mHFn) to specifically deliver mitoxantrone (MTO, a chemotherapeutic and photothermal agent) to tumor tissue for the chemotherapy and photothermal combined therapy of colorectal cancer, thanks to the high affinity of mHFn to transferrin receptor that highly expressed on tumor cells. The thermal-sensitive channels on mHFn allowed the effective encapsulation of MTO in vitro and the laser-controlled release of MTO in vivo. Upon irradiation with a 660 nm laser, the raised temperature triggered the opening of the thermal-sensitive channel in mHFn nanocage, resulting in the controlled and rapid release of MTO. Consequently, a significant amount of reactive oxygen species was generated, causing mitochondrial collapse and tumor cell death. The photothermal-sensitive controlled release, low systemic cytotoxicity, and excellent synergistic tumor eradication ability in vivo made mHFn@MTO a promising candidate for chemo-photothermal combination therapy against colorectal cancer.

Interferon-induced transmembrane protein 2 is a prognostic marker in colorectal cancer and promotes its progression by activating the PI3K/AKT pathway

BACKGROUND

Interferon-induced transmembrane protein 2 (IFITM2) is involved in repressing viral infection. This study aim to investigate the expression of IFITM2 in colorectal cancer (CRC) and explore its effect on cell proliferation, migration, and invasion.

METHODS

We analyzed The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) database for IFITM2 expression in colorectal cancer and used western blots to detect IFITM2 protein in specimens and cell lines of colorectal cancers. To assess the association between IFITM2 and clinical features, both univariate and multivariate cox regression analysis were conducted. Kaplan-Meier plots were used in the TCGA database to assess IFITM2 gene expression's prognostic significance. Silencing IFITM2 in SW480 and HCT116 cells was achieved by transient transfection with siRNA. Proliferation of CRCs was examined using Cell Counting Kit-8. The effect of IFITM2 on the migration and invasion of CRC cells was studied using wound healing and transwell assays. Gene set enrichment analysis (GSEA) was used to examine IFITM2-associated pathways and Western blotting was used to confirm it.

RESULTS

IFITM2 was over-expressed in the CRC tissues and cells, with high IFITM2 expression related to the tumor N, M, and pathologic stages. The presence of IFITM2 significantly impacted patient survival in CRC. The proliferation of SW480 and HCT116 cells was suppressed when IFITM2 was silenced, resulting in weakened migration and invasion of CRC cells. GSEA analysis showed that IFITM2 was positively related to the phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K)/AKT pathway, and western blot results confirmed that IFITM2 activated it.

CONCLUSIONS

IFITM2 was over-expressed in CRC and modulated the PI3K/AKT pathway to promote CRC cells proliferation and metastasis.

Spheroids and organoids derived from colorectal cancer as tools for in vitro drug screening

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is a heterogeneous disease. Conventional two-dimensional (2D) culture employing cell lines was developed to study the molecular properties of CRC in vitro. Although these cell lines which are isolated from the tumor niche in which cancer develop, the translation to human model such as studying drug response is often hindered by the inability of cell lines to recapture original tumor features and the lack of heterogeneous clinical tumors represented by this 2D model, differed from in vivo condition. These limitations which may be overcome by utilizing three-dimensional (3D) culture consisting of spheroids and organoids. Over the past decade, great advancements have been made in optimizing culture method to establish spheroids and organoids of solid tumors including of CRC for multiple purposes including drug screening and establishing personalized medicine. These structures have been proven to be versatile and robust models to study CRC progression and deciphering its heterogeneity. This review will describe on advances in 3D culture technology and the application as well as the challenges of CRC-derived spheroids and organoids as a mode to screen for anticancer drugs.

Exploring the Key Signaling Pathways and ncRNAs in Colorectal Cancer

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is the third most prevalent cancer to be diagnosed, and it has a substantial mortality rate. Despite numerous studies being conducted on CRC, it remains a significant health concern. The disease-free survival rates notably decrease as CRC progresses, emphasizing the urgency for effective diagnostic and therapeutic approaches. CRC development is caused by environmental factors, which mostly lead to the disruption of signaling pathways. Among these pathways, the Wingless/Integrated (Wnt) signaling pathway, Phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/protein kinase B/mammalian target of rapamycin (PI3K/AKT/mTOR) signaling pathway, Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase (MAPK) signaling pathway, Transforming Growth Factor-β (TGF-β) signaling pathway, and p53 signaling pathway are considered to be important. These signaling pathways are also regulated by non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs), including microRNAs (miRNAs), long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs), and circular RNAs (circRNAs). They have emerged as crucial regulators of gene expression in CRC by changing their expression levels. The altered expression patterns of these ncRNAs have been implicated in CRC progression and development, suggesting their potential as diagnostic and therapeutic targets. This review provides an overview of the five key signaling pathways and regulation of ncRNAs involved in CRC pathogenesis that are studied to identify promising avenues for diagnosis and treatment strategies.

Human β-defensin-1 affects the mammalian target of rapamycin pathway and autophagy in colon cancer cells through long non-coding RNA TCONS_00014506

BACKGROUND

Colorectal cancer has a low 5-year survival rate and high mortality. Human β-defensin-1 (hBD-1) may play an integral function in the innate immune system, contributing to the recognition and destruction of cancer cells. Long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) are involved in the process of cell differentiation and growth.

AIM

To investigate the effect of hBD-1 on the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) pathway and autophagy in human colon cancer SW620 cells.

METHODS

CCK8 assay was utilized for the detection of cell proliferation and determination of the optimal drug concentration. Colony formation assay was employed to assess the effect of hBD-1 on SW620 cell proliferation. Bioinformatics was used to screen potentially biologically significant lncRNAs related to the mTOR pathway. Additionally, p-mTOR (Ser2448), Beclin1, and LC3II/I expression levels in SW620 cells were assessed through Western blot analysis.

RESULTS

hBD-1 inhibited the proliferative ability of SW620 cells, as evidenced by the reduction in the colony formation capacity of SW620 cells upon exposure to hBD-1. hBD-1 decreased the expression of p-mTOR (Ser2448) protein and increased the expression of Beclin1 and LC3II/I protein. Furthermore, bioinformatics analysis identified seven lncRNAs (2 upregulated and 5 downregulated) related to the mTOR pathway. The lncRNA TCONS_00014506 was ultimately selected. Following the inhibition of the lncRNA TCONS_00014506, exposure to hBD-1 inhibited p-mTOR (Ser2448) and promoted Beclin1 and LC3II/I protein expression.

CONCLUSION

hBD-1 inhibits the mTOR pathway and promotes autophagy by upregulating the expression of the lncRNA TCONS_00014506 in SW620 cells.

A prognostic model established using bile acid genes to predict the immunity and survival of patients with gastrointestinal cancer

BACKGROUND

The metabolism of abnormal bile acids (BAs) is implicated in the initiation and development of gastrointestinal (GI) cancer. However, there was a lack of research on the molecular mechanisms of BAs metabolism in GI.

METHODS

Genes involved in BAs metabolism were excavated from public databases of The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) database, Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) database, and Molecular Signatures Database (MSigDB). ConsensusClusterPlus was used to classify molecular subtypes for GI. To develop a RiskScore model for predicting GI prognosis, univariate Cox analysis was performed on the genes in protein-protein interaction (PPI) network, followed by using Lasso regression and stepwise regression to refine the model and to determine the key prognostic genes. Tumor immune microenvironment in GI patients from different risk groups was assessed using the ESTIMATE algorithm and enrichment analysis. Reverse transcription-quantitative real-time PCR (RT-qPCR), Transwell assay, and wound healing assay were carried out to validate the expression and functions of the model genes.

RESULTS

This study defined three molecular subtypes (C1, C2, and C3). Specifically, C1 had the best prognosis, while C3 had the worst prognosis with high immune checkpoint gene expression levels and TIDE scores. We selected nine key genes (AXIN2, ATOH1, CHST13, PNMA2, GYG2, MAGEA3, SNCG, HEYL, and RASSF10) that significantly affected the prognosis of GI and used them to develop a RiskScore model accordingly. Combining the verification results from a nomogram, the prediction of the model was proven to be accurate. The high RiskScore group was significantly enriched in tumor and immune-related pathways. Compared with normal gastric mucosal epithelial cells, the mRNA levels of the nine genes were differential in the gastric cancer cells. Inhibition of PNMA2 suppressed migration and invasion of the cancer cells.

CONCLUSION

We distinguished three GI molecular subtypes with different prognosis based on the genes related to BAs metabolism and developed a RiskScore model, contributing to the diagnosis and treatment of patients with GI.

The Natural Product Secoemestrin C Inhibits Colorectal Cancer Stem Cells via p38-S100A8 Feed-Forward Regulatory Loop

Cancer stem cells (CSCs) are closely associated with tumor initiation, metastasis, chemoresistance, and recurrence, which represent some of the primary obstacles to cancer treatment. Targeting CSCs has become an important therapeutic approach to cancer care. Secoemestrin C (Sec C) is a natural compound with strong anti-tumor activity and low toxicity. Here, we report that Sec C effectively inhibited colorectal CSCs and non-CSCs concurrently, mainly by inhibiting proliferation, self-renewal, metastasis, and drug resistance. Mechanistically, RNA-seq analysis showed that the pro-inflammation pathway of the IL17 axis was enriched, and its effector S100A8 was dramatically decreased in Sec C-treated cells, whose roles in the stemness of CSCs have not been fully clarified. We found that the overexpression of S100A8 hindered the anti-CSCs effect of Sec C, and S100A8 deficiency attenuated the stemness traits of CSCs to enhance the Sec C killing activity on them. Meanwhile, the p38 signal pathway, belonging to the IL17 downstream axis, can also mediate CSCs and counter with Sec C. Notably, we found that S100A8 upregulation increased the p38 protein level, and p38, in turn, promoted S100A8 expression. This indicated that p38 may have a mutual feedback loop with S100A8. Our study discovered that Sec C was a powerful anti-colorectal CSC agent, and that the positive feedback loop of p38-S100A8 mediated Sec C activity. This showed that Sec C could act as a promising clinical candidate in colorectal cancer treatment, and S100A8 could be a prospective drug target.

ENO1 deletion potentiates ferroptosis and decreases glycolysis in colorectal cancer cells via AKT/STAT3 signaling

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is one of the most prevailing and lethal forms of cancer globally. α-enolase (ENO1) has been well documented to be involved in the progression and drug resistance of CRC. The present study was designed to specify the role of ENO1 in major events during the process of CRC and to introduce its latent functional mechanism. ENO1 expression was determined by western blot analysis. Extracellular acidification rates were assessed using an XF96 extracellular flux analyzer. Glucose uptake, lactic acid production, total iron levels and ferroptosis-related markers were examined with corresponding kits. A dichlorodihydrofluorescein diacetate probe measured intracellular reactive oxygen species content. Western blotting detected the expression of glycolysis- and ferroptosis-related proteins. CCK-8 and EdU staining assays assessed cell proliferation. In the current study, ENO1 was highly expressed in CRC cells. Knockdown of ENO1 markedly reduced the glycolysis and accelerated the ferroptosis in CRC cells. Moreover, the inhibitory effects of WZB117, a specific inhibitor of glycolysis-related glucose transporter type 1, on CRC cell proliferation were further enhanced by ENO1 interference. In addition, silencing of ENO1 inactivated the AKT/STAT3 signaling. The AKT activator SC79 partially reversed the effects of ENO1 deficiency on the AKT/STAT3 signaling, glycolysis, proliferation as well as ferroptosis in CRC cells. In summary, inactivation of AKT/STAT3 signaling mediated by ENO1 inhibition might boost the ferroptosis and suppress the glycolysis in CRC cells.

Identification of EDNRA as the Key Biomarker for Hypercholesterolemia and Colorectal Cancer

Some studies have investigated the role of cholesterol in the progression of colorectal cancer (CRC). However, the underlying mechanism of action is not clear. In this study, we used bioinformatics tools to elucidate the molecular mechanisms involved. We initially obtained CRC datasets from the Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) database and hypercholesterolemia data from GeneCards and DisGeNE. Common differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were determined by using Venn diagram web tools. Next, we performed Gene Ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway analyses using the Database for Annotation, Visualization, and Integrated Discovery (DAVID). The hub gene was identified through common expression pattern analysis and survival analysis. Finally, we conducted an immune regulatory point analysis and predicted target drugs based on the hub gene. The results of our analysis revealed 13 common DEGs, with endothelin receptor type A (EDNRA) identified as the hub gene linking hypercholesterolemia and CRC. The results of the GO analysis showed that the common DEGs were primarily associated with the G-protein coupled receptor signaling pathway, extracellular space, and receptor binding. The results of the KEGG pathway enrichment analysis indicated enrichment in pathways related to cancer and the phospholipase D signaling pathway. Additionally, we identified potential target drugs, including Podocarpus montanus, Diospyros kaki, Herba Salviae japoniae, sitaxentan, and ambrisentan. We found that EDNRA might be an underlying biomarker for both hypercholesterolemia and CRC. The predicted target drugs provide new strategies for treating CRC.

TSC22D2 Regulates ACOT8 to Delay the Malignant Progression of Colorectal Cancer

Purpose

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is one of the cancers with high incidence and mortality rates worldwide. In China, there are approximately 400,000 new CRC cases each year, seriously endangering people's life and health. Transforming growth factor β-stimulated clone 22 domain family, member 2 (TSC22D2) is widely expression in cancers, but the role of TSC22D2 in CRC are still unknown.

Methods

Real‑time quantitative PCR (qRT-PCR) and Western blot were applied to determine the TSC22D2 levels. CCK-8, colony formation and transwell assays were used to determine the proliferation and metastasis abilities of CRC cells in vitro. In vivo metastatic potential was assessed using a subcutaneously injected mouse model and. Western-blot and immunoprecipitation experiments were used to study the mechanism of TSC22D2‑mediated metastasis.

Results

We found TSC22D2 was deregulated in CRC tissues and cells and implied poor prognosis. Overexpression TSC22D2 significantly promoted CRC cells proliferation and tumorigenicity both in vitro and vivo, whereas knockdown TSC22D2 resulted in the opposite effects. Importantly using a co-immunoprecipitation (co-IP) assay combined with mass spectrometry analysis to identify TSC22D2-interacting acyl-coenzyme A thioesterases 8 (ACOT8), TSC22D2 maintained stability of ACOT8. Overexpression of TCC22D2 in CRC cells can promote the expression of ACOT8 and inhibit the proliferation and metastasis of CRC cells through EMT mechanism, highlighting the possibility of TSC22D2 as a potential target in CRC development.

Conclusion

In summary, the present study revealed the inhibitory effect of TSC22D2 on the proliferation of colorectal cancer cells, suggesting that TSC22D2 may be an important tumor suppressor and a potential therapeutic target during colorectal carcinogenesis.

Evodiamine Inhibits Colorectal Cancer Growth via RTKs Mediated PI3K/AKT/p53 Signaling Pathway

Objective: To investigate the inhibitory effect of EVO on colorectal cancer (CRC) growth and further explore the potential mechanism involving the RTKs-mediated PI3K/AKT/p53 signaling pathway. Methods: Firstly, the inhibitory effect of EVO on CRC cells was detected in vitro by cell viability assay and colony formation assay. The effects of EVO on spatial migration and invasion capacity of cells were detected by Transwell assay. The effects of EVO on apoptosis and cycle of cells were detected by flow cytometry. Then, the molecular mechanism of EVO against CRC was revealed by qRT-PCR and Western blot. Finally, the excellent anti-tumour activity of EVO was verified by in vivo experiments. Results: The results demonstrated that EVO exerts inhibitory effects on CRC cell proliferation, invasion, and colony formation. The cell cycle assay revealed that EVO induces G1/S phase arrest. Through RNA seq, we explored the influence of EVO on the transcriptional profile of colon cancer and observed significant activation of RTKs and the PI3K/AKT pathway, along with its downstream signaling pathways. Furthermore, we observed upregulation of p53 proteins by EVO, which led to the inhibition of Bcl-2 expression and an increase in Bax expression. Consistently, EVO exhibited remarkable suppression of tumor xenograft growth in nude mice. Conclusion: This study confirmed that EVO inhibits the proliferation of CRC cells and promotes cell apoptosis. The possible mechanism of action is inhibiting the expression of the RTK protein family, activating the PI3K/AKT/p53 apoptotic signaling pathway, thereby inhibiting Bcl-2 expression and increasing Bax expression, promoting apoptosis of CRC cells. As a natural product, EVO has very high potential application value.

Development and validation of a prediction model for early screening of people at high risk for colorectal cancer

BACKGROUND

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is a serious threat worldwide. Although early screening is suggested to be the most effective method to prevent and control CRC, the current situation of early screening for CRC is still not optimistic. In China, the incidence of CRC in the Yangtze River Delta region is increasing dramatically, but few studies have been conducted. Therefore, it is necessary to develop a simple and efficient early screening model for CRC.

AIM

To develop and validate an early-screening nomogram model to identify individuals at high risk of CRC.

METHODS

Data of 64448 participants obtained from Ningbo Hospital, China between 2014 and 2017 were retrospectively analyzed. The cohort comprised 64448 individuals, of which, 530 were excluded due to missing or incorrect data. Of 63918, 7607 (11.9%) individuals were considered to be high risk for CRC, and 56311 (88.1%) were not. The participants were randomly allocated to a training set (44743) or validation set (19175). The discriminatory ability, predictive accuracy, and clinical utility of the model were evaluated by constructing and analyzing receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves and calibration curves and by decision curve analysis. Finally, the model was validated internally using a bootstrap resampling technique.

RESULTS

Seven variables, including demographic, lifestyle, and family history information, were examined. Multifactorial logistic regression analysis revealed that age [odds ratio (OR): 1.03, 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.02-1.03, P < 0.001], body mass index (BMI) (OR: 1.07, 95%CI: 1.06-1.08, P < 0.001), waist circumference (WC) (OR: 1.03, 95%CI: 1.02-1.03 P < 0.001), lifestyle (OR: 0.45, 95%CI: 0.42-0.48, P < 0.001), and family history (OR: 4.28, 95%CI: 4.04-4.54, P < 0.001) were the most significant predictors of high-risk CRC. Healthy lifestyle was a protective factor, whereas family history was the most significant risk factor. The area under the curve was 0.734 (95%CI: 0.723-0.745) for the final validation set ROC curve and 0.735 (95%CI: 0.728-0.742) for the training set ROC curve. The calibration curve demonstrated a high correlation between the CRC high-risk population predicted by the nomogram model and the actual CRC high-risk population.

CONCLUSION

The early-screening nomogram model for CRC prediction in high-risk populations developed in this study based on age, BMI, WC, lifestyle, and family history exhibited high accuracy.

Regulation of the migration of colorectal cancer stem cells via the TLR4/MyD88 signaling pathway by the novel surface marker CD14 following LPS stimulation

Cell surface markers are most widely used in the study of cancer stem cells (CSCs). However, cell surface markers that are safely and stably expressed in CSCs have yet to be identified. Colonic CSCs express leukocyte CD14. CD14 binding to the ligand lipopolysaccharide (LPS) is involved in the inflammatory response via the Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4)/myeloid differentiation factor 88 (MyD88) signaling pathway. TLR4 and MyD88 have been reported to promote the proliferation, metastasis and tumorigenicity of colon cancer cells, which is consistent with the characteristics of CSCs. In the present study, the proposed experimental method to detect cell proliferation, metastasis and tumorigenesis was used to confirm that, under LPS stimulation, CD14 promoted the proliferation, migration and tumorigenesis of colonic CSCs via the TLR4/MyD88 signaling pathway. Cell Counting Kit-8 and 5-ethynyl-2'-deoxyuridine assays were used to assess the proliferation and migration of the cells. Colony formation and nude mouse xenograft assays were used to assess the capacity of cells to form tumors. Using western blotting and reverse transcription-quantitative PCR, the mRNA and protein levels of CD14, TLR4 and MyD88 were examined. It was confirmed that CD14 promoted the proliferation, metastasis and tumorigenesis of colon CSCs in response to LPS stimulation via the TLR4/MyD88 signaling pathway, and CD14+ colon cancer cells were successfully isolated and sorted. According to the results of proliferation assay, it was determined that CD14 regulated the LPS-induced proliferation of colon CSCs. CD14, TLR4 and MyD88 protein and mRNA expression was upregulated in colon CSCs in response to LPS stimulation. This indicates a potential novel target for colon CSC-related studies.

KLF15 transcriptionally activates LINC00689 to inhibit colorectal cancer development

Colorectal cancer is a grievous health concern, we have proved long non-coding RNA LINC00689 is considered as a potential diagnosis biomarker for colorectal cancer, and it is necessary to further investigate its upstream and downstream mechanisms. Here, we show that KLF15, a transcription factor, exhibits the reduced expression in colorectal cancer. KLF15 suppresses the proliferative and metastatic capacities of colorectal cancer cells both in vitro and in vivo by transcriptionally activating LINC00689. Subsequently, LINC00689 recruits PTBP1 protein to enhance the stability of LATS2 mRNA in the cytoplasm. This stabilization causes the suppression of the YAP1/β-catenin pathway and its target downstream genes. Our findings highlight a regulatory network involving KLF15, LINC00689, PTBP1, LATS2, and the YAP1/β-catenin pathway in colorectal cancer, shedding light on potential therapeutic targets for colorectal cancer therapy.

Emerging trends in gastrointestinal cancers: Targeting developmental pathways in carcinogenesis and tumor progression

Gastrointestinal carcinomas are a group of cancers associated with the digestive system and its accessory organs. The most prevalent cancers related to the gastrointestinal tract are colorectal, gall bladder, gastric, hepatocellular, and esophageal cancers, respectively. Molecular aberrations in different signaling pathways, such as signal transduction systems or developmental pathways are the chief triggering mechanisms in different cancers Though a massive advancement in diagnostic and therapeutic interventions results in improved survival of patients with gastrointestinal cancer; the lower malignancy stages of these carcinomas are comparatively asymptomatic. Various gastrointestinal-related cancers are detected at advanced stages, leading to deplorable prognoses and increased rates of recurrence. Recent molecular studies have elucidated the imperative roles of several signaling pathways, namely Wnt, Hedgehog, and Notch signaling pathways, play in the progression, therapeutic responsiveness, and metastasis of gastrointestinal-related cancers. This book chapter gives an interesting update on recent findings on the involvement of developmental signaling pathways their mechanistic insight in gastrointestinalcancer. Subsequently, evidences supporting the exploration of gastrointestinal cancer related molecular mechanisms have also been discussed for developing novel therapeutic strategies against these debilitating carcinomas.

A perspective on emerging therapies in metastatic colorectal cancer: Focusing on molecular medicine and drug resistance

The majority of cancer cases are colorectal cancer, which is also the second largest cause of cancer-related deaths worldwide. Metastasis is the leading cause of death for patients with colorectal cancer. Metastatic colorectal cancer incidence are on the rise due to a tiny percentage of tumors developing resistant to medicines despite advances in treatment tactics. Cutting-edge targeted medications are now the go-to option for customized and all-encompassing CRC care. Specifically, multitarget kinase inhibitors, antivascular endothelial growth factors, and epidermal growth factor receptors are widely used in clinical practice for CRC-targeted treatments. Rare targets in metastatic colorectal cancer are becoming more well-known due to developments in precision diagnostics and the extensive use of second-generation sequencing technology. These targets include the KRAS mutation, the BRAF V600E mutation, the HER2 overexpression/amplification, and the MSI-H/dMMR. Incorporating certain medications into clinical trials has significantly increased patient survival rates, opening new avenues and bringing fresh viewpoints for treating metastatic colorectal cancer. These focused therapies change how cancer is treated, giving patients new hope and better results. These markers can significantly transform and individualize therapy regimens. They could open the door to precisely customized and more effective medicines, improving patient outcomes and quality of life. The fast-growing body of knowledge regarding the molecular biology of colorectal cancer and the latest developments in gene sequencing and molecular diagnostics are directly responsible for this advancement.

Curcumin affects apoptosis of colorectal cancer cells through ATF6-mediated endoplasmic reticulum stress

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is the main cause of cancer-associated death. Herein, we treated SW620 and HT-29 CRC cells with different curcumin concentrations, followed by treatment with the half maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50) curcumin/endoplasmic reticulum stress (ERS) inhibitor 4-phenyl butyric acid (4-PBA)/activating transcription factor 6 (ATF6) interference plasmid (si-ATF6). We detected cell proliferation/apoptosis, ATF6 cellular localization/nuclear translocation, ion concentration, ATF6 protein/apoptotic protein (Bax/Bcl-2/Cleaved Caspase-3) levels, and ERS-related proteins (glucose-regulated protein 78 [Grp78]/C/EBP homologous protein [CHOP]). We discovered inhibited cell proliferation/growth, enhanced cell apoptosis/(Bax/Bcl-2) ratio/Cleaved Caspase-3 levels/Ca2+ concentration in the cytoplasm/ERS-related protein (Grp78/CHOP) levels, and activated ERS following treatment with IC50 curcumin. 4-PBA partially reversed the inhibitory effect of curcumin on SW620 cells by restraining ERS. Curcumin stimulated ATF6 expression and its nuclear translocation to activate ERS. ATF6 silencing partly annulled the inhibitory effect of curcumin on SW620 cells. Our study explored the molecular mechanism of curcumin affecting CRC cell apoptosis through ATF6.

LncRNA MEG3 inhibits the proliferation and migration abilities of colorectal cancer cells by competitively suppressing MiR-31 and reducing the binding of MiR-31 to target gene SFRP1

To explore the potential mechanism of long-chain non-coding ribonucleic acid (lncRNA) maternal expression gene 3 (MEG3) in colorectal cancer (CRC). The relationship between MEG3 and miR-31 was detected by dual-luciferase assay. Quantitative polymerase chain reaction was utilized to determine the expression of MEG3 in CRC cell lines. Cell Counting Kit-8 assay was performed to detect cell proliferation. Transwell, cell scratch wound assay, and monoclonal proliferation assay were used to detect the proliferation, migration, and invasion of cells. In addition, cell motility was evaluated by detecting the expression of cellular pseudopodia protein α-actinin via immunofluorescence assay, and cell proliferation and motility were judged by determining the expressions of Ki-67, MMP2 and MMP9 via Western blotting. The effect of MEG3 and miR-31 on the development of colorectal cancer was verified by nude mouse tumor-bearing assay and HE staining. Transient transfection with MEG3 overexpression plasmid revealed that MEG3 inhibited the proliferation and motility of cells. The results of dual-luciferase assay showed that MEG3 could specifically inhibit the expression of miR-31, which inhibits the development of colorectal cancer. Transwell, cell scratch wound assay, and monoclonal proliferation experiment showed that miR-31 enhanced cell proliferation, migration and invasion. MEG3 overexpression plasmid was capable of reversing the proliferation and motility of CRC cells enhanced by miR-31. MEG3 can inhibit the proliferation and motility of CRC cells by competitively suppressing the binding of miR-31 to the target gene SFRP1, thus playing an inhibitory role in the pathogenesis of CRC.

CLDN6 inhibits colorectal cancer proliferation dependent on restraining p53 ubiquitination via ZO-1/PTEN axis

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is one of the most common cancers in the world. Abnormal proliferation is a chief characteristic of cancer and is the initiation of CRC progression. As an important component of tight junctions, CLDN6 regulates the proliferation of multiple tumors. Our previous study showed that CLDN6 was low expressed in CRC, and CLDN6 overexpression inhibited CRC proliferation. However, the specific mechanism of how CLDN6 works remains unclear. This research aimed to reveal the relationship between CLDN6 and clinical features, as well as the molecular mechanism by which CLDN6 inhibited CRC proliferation. We found that low expression of CLDN6 was associated with pathological grade and prognosis of CRC patients, and confirmed that CLDN6 inhibited CRC proliferation dependent on p53. Mechanically, we elucidated that CLDN6 regulated ubiquitination to enhance p53 stability and nuclear import by PTEN/AKT/MDM2 pathway. Through the PDZ-binding motif (PBM), CLDN6 bound to ZO-1 to interact with PTEN, and regulate AKT/MDM2 pathway. Collectively, our data enriched the theoretical basis for CLDN6 as a potential biomarker for diagnosis, therapy and prognosis of CRC.

Repurposing Synthetic Congeners of a Natural Product Aurone Unveils a Lead Antitumor Agent Inhibiting Folded P-Loop Conformation of MET Receptor Tyrosine Kinase

A library of 24 congeners of the natural product sulfuretin were evaluated against nine panels representing nine cancer diseases. While sulfuretin elicited very weak activities at 10 µM concentration, congener 1t was identified as a potential compound triggering growth inhibition of diverse cell lines. Mechanistic studies in HCT116 colon cancer cells revealed that congener 1t dose-dependently increased levels of cleaved-caspases 8 and 9 and cleaved-PARP, while it concentration-dependently decreased levels of CDK4, CDK6, Cdc25A, and Cyclin D and E resulting in induction of cell cycle arrest and apoptosis in colon cancer HCT116 cells. Mechanistic study also presented MET receptor tyrosine kinase as the molecular target mediating the anticancer activity of compound 1t in HCT116 cells. In silico study predicted folded p-loop conformation as the form of MET receptor tyrosine kinase responsible for binding of compound 1t. Together, the current study presents compound 1t as an interesting anticancer lead for further development.

Development and validation of a nomogram predictive model for colorectal adenoma with low-grade intraepithelial neoplasia using routine laboratory tests: A single-center case-control study in China

Background

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is the third most common cancer in the world and has a high mortality rate. Colorectal adenoma (CRA) is precancerous lesions of CRC. The purpose of the present study was to construct a nomogram predictive model for CRA with low-grade intraepithelial neoplasia (LGIN) in order to identify high-risk individuals, facilitating early diagnosis and treatment, and ultimately reducing the incidence of CRC.

Methods

We conducted a single-center case-control study. Based on the results of colonoscopy and pathology, 320 participants were divided into the CRA group and the control group, the demographic and laboratory test data were collected. A development cohort (n = 223) was used for identifying the risk factors for CRA with LGIN and to develop a predictive model, followed by an internal validation. An independent validation cohort (n = 97) was used for external validation. Receiver operating characteristic curve, calibration plot and decision curve analysis were used to evaluate discrimination ability, accuracy and clinical practicability of the model.

Results

Four predictors, namely sex, age, albumin and monocyte count, were included in the predictive model. In the development cohort, internal validation and external validation cohort, the area under the curve (AUC) of this risk predictive model were 0.946 (95%CI: 0.919-0.973), 0.909 (95 % CI: 0.869-0.940) and 0.928 (95%CI: 0.876-0.980), respectively, which demonstrated the model had a good discrimination ability. The calibration plots showed a good agreement and the decision curve analysis (DCA) suggested the predictive model had a high clinical net benefit.

Conclusion

The nomogram model exhibited good performance in predicting CRA with LGIN, which can aid in the early detection of high-risk patients, improve early treatment, and ultimately reduce the incidence of CRC.

RIZ2 at the crossroad of the EGF/EGFR signaling in colorectal cancer

BACKGROUND

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is the third most deadly and fourth most diagnosed cancer worldwide. Despite the progress in early diagnosis and advanced therapeutic options, CRC shows a poor prognosis with a 5 year survival rate of ~ 45%. PRDM2/RIZ, a member of PR/SET domain family (PRDM), expresses two main molecular variants, the PR-plus isoform (RIZ1) and the PR-minus (RIZ2). The imbalance in their expression levels in favor of RIZ2 is observed in many cancer types. The full length RIZ1 has been extensively investigated in several cancers where it acts as a tumor suppressor, whereas few studies have explored the RIZ2 oncogenic properties. PRDM2 is often target of frameshift mutations and aberrant DNA methylation in CRC. However, little is known about its role in CRC.

METHODS

We combined in-silico investigation of The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) CRC datasets, cellular and molecular assays, transcriptome sequencing and functional annotation analysis to assess the role of RIZ2 in human CRC.

RESULTS

Our in-silico analysis on TCGA datasets confirmed that PRDM2 gene is frequently mutated and transcriptionally deregulated in CRC and revealed that a RIZ2 increase is highly correlated with a significant RIZ1 downregulation. Then, we assayed several CRC cell lines by qRT-PCR analysis for the main PRDM2 transcripts and selected DLD1 cell line, which showed the lowest RIZ2 levels. Therefore, we overexpressed RIZ2 in these cells to mimic TCGA datasets analysis results and consequently to assess the PRDM2/RIZ2 role in CRC. Data from RNA-seq disclosed that RIZ2 overexpression induced profound changes in CRC cell transcriptome via EGF pathway deregulation, suggesting that RIZ2 is involved in the EGF autocrine regulation of DLD1 cell behavior. Noteworthy, the forced RIZ2 expression increased cell viability, growth, colony formation, migration and organoid formation. These effects could be mediated by the release of high EGF levels by RIZ2 overexpressing DLD1 cells.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings add novel insights on the putative RIZ2 tumor-promoting functions in CRC, although additional efforts are warranted to define the underlying molecular mechanism.

Activation of AKT induces EZH2-mediated β-catenin trimethylation in colorectal cancer

Colorectal cancer (CRC) develops in part through the deregulation of different signaling pathways, including activation of the WNT/β-catenin and PI3K/AKT pathways. Additionally, the lysine methyltransferase enhancer of zeste homologue 2 (EZH2) is commonly overexpressed in CRC. EZH2 canonically represses gene transcription by trimethylating lysine 27 of histone H3, but also has non-histone substrates. Here, we demonstrated that in CRC, active AKT phosphorylated EZH2 on serine 21. Phosphorylation of EZH2 by AKT induced EZH2 to interact with and methylate β-catenin at lysine 49, which increased β-catenin's binding to the chromatin. Additionally, EZH2-mediated β-catenin trimethylation induced β-catenin to interact with TCF1 and RNA polymerase II and resulted in dramatic gains in genomic regions with β-catenin occupancy. EZH2 catalytic inhibition decreased stemness but increased migratory phenotypes of CRC cells with active AKT. Overall, we demonstrated that EZH2 modulates AKT-induced changes in gene expression through the AKT/EZH2/β-catenin axis in CRC.

Principles of Molecular Utility for CMS Classification in Colorectal Cancer Management

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is the second cause of cancer-related deaths in both sexes globally and presents different clinical outcomes that are described by a range of genomic and epigenomic alterations. Despite the advancements in CRC screening plans and treatment strategies, the prognosis of CRC is dismal. In the last two decades, molecular biomarkers predictive of prognosis have been identified in CRC, although biomarkers predictive of treatment response are only available for specific biological drugs used in stage IV CRC. Translational clinical trials mainly based on "omic" strategies allowed a better understanding of the biological heterogeneity of CRCs. These studies were able to classify CRCs into subtypes mainly related to prognosis, recurrence risk, and, to some extent, also to treatment response. Accordingly, the comprehensive molecular characterizations of CRCs, including The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) and consensus molecular subtype (CMS) classifications, were presented to improve the comprehension of the genomic and epigenomic landscapes of CRCs for a better patient management. The CMS classification obtained by the CRC subtyping consortium categorizes CRC into four consensus molecular subtypes (CMS1-4) characterized by different prognoses. In this review, we discussed the CMS classification in different settings with a focus on its relationships with precursor lesions, tumor immunophenotype, and gut microbiota, as well as on its role in predicting prognosis and/or response to pharmacological treatments, as a crucial step towards precision medicine.

UBXN2A suppresses the Rictor-mTORC2 signaling pathway, an established tumorigenic pathway in human colorectal cancer

The mTORC2 pathway plays a critical role in promoting tumor progression in human colorectal cancer (CRC). The regulatory mechanisms for this signaling pathway are only partially understood. We previously identified UBXN2A as a novel tumor suppressor protein in CRCs and hypothesized that UBXN2A suppresses the mTORC2 pathway, thereby inhibiting CRC growth and metastasis. We first used murine models to show that haploinsufficiency of UBXN2A significantly increases colon tumorigenesis. Induction of UBXN2A reduces AKT phosphorylation downstream of the mTORC2 pathway, which is essential for a plethora of cellular processes, including cell migration. Meanwhile, mTORC1 activities remain unchanged in the presence of UBXN2A. Mechanistic studies revealed that UBXN2A targets Rictor protein, a key component of the mTORC2 complex, for 26S proteasomal degradation. A set of genetic, pharmacological, and rescue experiments showed that UBXN2A regulates cell proliferation, apoptosis, migration, and colon cancer stem cells (CSCs) in CRC. CRC patients with a high level of UBXN2A have significantly better survival, and high-grade CRC tissues exhibit decreased UBXN2A protein expression. A high level of UBXN2A in patient-derived xenografts and tumor organoids decreases Rictor protein and suppresses the mTORC2 pathway. These findings provide new insights into the functions of an ubiquitin-like protein by inhibiting a dominant oncogenic pathway in CRC.

Phloretin induces G2/M arrest and apoptosis by suppressing the β-catenin signaling pathway in colorectal carcinoma cells

Colorectal carcinoma (CRC) is the third most prevalent cancer, causing a significant mortality worldwide. Present available therapies are surgery, chemotherapy including radiotherapy, and these are known to be associated with heavy side effects. Therefore, nutritional intervention in the form of natural polyphenols has been well recognised to prevent CRC. Phloretin, a known dihydrochalcone is present in apple, pear and strawberry. This has been proven to induce apoptosis in cancer cells and also exhibited anti-inflammatory activity, thus can be explored as a potential anticancer nutraceutical agent. This study demonstrated phloretin's significant in vitro anticancer activity against CRC. Phloretin suppressed cell proliferation, colony forming ability and cellular migration in human colorectal cancer HCT-116 and SW-480 cells. Results also revealed that phloretin generated reactive oxygen species (ROS) which provoked depolarization of mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) and further contributed to cytotoxicity in colon cancer cells. Phloretin also modulated the cell cycle regulators including cyclins and cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs) and halted cell cycle at G2/M phase. Moreover, it also induced apoptosis by regulating the expression of Bax and BCl-2. The Wnt/β-catenin signaling is inactivated by phloretin by targeting the downstream oncogenes namely CyclinD1, c-Myc and Survivin which are involved in the proliferation and apoptosis of colon cancer cells. In our study we showed that lithium chloride (LiCl) induced the expression of β-catenin and its target genes and the co-treatment of phloretin circumvent its effect and downregulated the Wnt/β-catenin signaling. In conclusion, our results strongly suggested that phloretin can be utilized as a nutraceutical anticancer agent for combating CRC.

The Rise of Gastrointestinal Cancers as a Global Phenomenon: Unhealthy Behavior or Progress?

The overall burden of cancer is rapidly increasing worldwide, reflecting not only population growth and aging, but also the prevalence and spread of risk factors. Gastrointestinal (GI) cancers, including stomach, liver, esophageal, pancreatic, and colorectal cancers, represent more than a quarter of all cancers. While smoking and alcohol use are the risk factors most commonly associated with cancer development, a growing consensus also includes dietary habits as relevant risk factors for GI cancers. Current evidence suggests that socioeconomic development results in several lifestyle modifications, including shifts in dietary habits from local traditional diets to less-healthy Western diets. Moreover, recent data indicate that increased production and consumption of processed foods underlies the current pandemics of obesity and related metabolic disorders, which are directly or indirectly associated with the emergence of various chronic noncommunicable conditions and GI cancers. However, environmental changes are not restricted to dietary patterns, and unhealthy behavioral features should be analyzed with a holistic view of lifestyle. In this review, we discussed the epidemiological aspects, gut dysbiosis, and cellular and molecular characteristics of GI cancers and explored the impact of unhealthy behaviors, diet, and physical activity on developing GI cancers in the context of progressive societal changes.

Autophagy and the Insulin-like Growth Factor (IGF) System in Colonic Cells: Implications for Colorectal Neoplasia

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is one of the most common human malignancies worldwide. Along with apoptosis and inflammation, autophagy is one of three important mechanisms in CRC. The presence of autophagy/mitophagy in most normal mature intestinal epithelial cells has been confirmed, where it has mainly protective functions against reactive oxygen species (ROS)-induced DNA and protein damage. Autophagy regulates cell proliferation, metabolism, differentiation, secretion of mucins and/or anti-microbial peptides. Abnormal autophagy in intestinal epithelial cells leads to dysbiosis, a decline in local immunity and a decrease in cell secretory function. The insulin-like growth factor (IGF) signaling pathway plays an important role in colorectal carcinogenesis. This is evidenced by the biological activities of IGFs (IGF-1 and IGF-2), IGF-1 receptor type 1 (IGF-1R) and IGF-binding proteins (IGF BPs), which have been reported to regulate cell survival, proliferation, differentiation and apoptosis. Defects in autophagy are found in patients with metabolic syndrome (MetS), inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD) and CRC. In neoplastic cells, the IGF system modulates the autophagy process bidirectionally. In the current era of improving CRC therapies, it seems important to investigate the exact mechanisms not only of apoptosis, but also of autophagy in different populations of tumor microenvironment (TME) cells. The role of the IGF system in autophagy in normal as well as transformed colorectal cells still seems poorly understood. Hence, the aim of the review was to summarize the latest knowledge on the role of the IGF system in the molecular mechanisms of autophagy in the normal colon mucosa and in CRC, taking into account the cellular heterogeneity of the colonic and rectal epithelium.

Cross-talk between AMP-activated protein kinase and the sonic hedgehog pathway in the high-fat diet triggered colorectal cancer

The major cause of colorectal cancer (CRC) related mortality is due to its metastasis. Signaling pathways play a definite role in the development and progression of CRC. Recent studies demonstrate that the regulation of the sonic hedgehog (Shh) pathway is beneficial in the CRC treatment strategy. Also, 5'-adenosine monophosphate (AMP)-activated protein kinase (AMPK) is a well-known regulator of metabolism and inflammation, making it a suitable treatment option for CRC. Consumption of a high-fat diet (HFD) is a significant cause of CRC genesis. Also, the lipids play an indispensable role in aberrant activation of the Shh pathway. This review explains in detail the interconnection between HFD consumption, Shh pathway activation, and the progression of CRC. According to recent studies and literature, AMPK is a potential regulator that can control the complexities of CRC and reduce lipid levels and may directly inhibit shh signalling. The review also suggests the possible risk elements of AMPK activation in CRC due to its context-dependent role. Also, the activation of AMPK in HFD-induced CRC may modulate cancer progression by regulating the Shh pathway and metabolism.

Short Linear Motifs in Colorectal Cancer Interactome and Tumorigenesis

Colorectal tumorigenesis is driven by alterations in genes and proteins responsible for cancer initiation, progression, and invasion. This multistage process is based on a dense network of protein-protein interactions (PPIs) that become dysregulated as a result of changes in various cell signaling effectors. PPIs in signaling and regulatory networks are known to be mediated by short linear motifs (SLiMs), which are conserved contiguous regions of 3-10 amino acids within interacting protein domains. SLiMs are the minimum sequences required for modulating cellular PPI networks. Thus, several in silico approaches have been developed to predict and analyze SLiM-mediated PPIs. In this review, we focus on emerging evidence supporting a crucial role for SLiMs in driver pathways that are disrupted in colorectal cancer (CRC) tumorigenesis and related PPI network alterations. As a result, SLiMs, along with short peptides, are attracting the interest of researchers to devise small molecules amenable to be used as novel anti-CRC targeted therapies. Overall, the characterization of SLiMs mediating crucial PPIs in CRC may foster the development of more specific combined pharmacological approaches.

Regulation of transforming growth factor-β signaling as a therapeutic approach to treating colorectal cancer

According to data from 2020, Slovakia has long been among the top five countries with the highest incidence rate of colorectal cancer (CRC) worldwide, and the rate is continuing to rise every year. In approximately 80% of CRC cases, allelic loss (loss of heterozygosity, LOH) occurs in the long arm of chromosome 18q. The most important genes that can be silenced by 18q LOH or mutations are small mothers against decapentaplegic homolog (SMAD) 2 and SMAD4, which are intracellular mediators of transforming growth factor (TGF)-β superfamily signals. TGF-β plays an important role in the pro-oncogenic processes, including such properties as invasion, epithelial-mesenchymal transition (commonly known as EMT), promotion of angiogenesis, and immunomodulatory effects. Several recent studies have reported that activation of TGF-β signaling is related to drug resistance in CRC. Because the mechanisms of drug resistance are different between patients in different stages of CRC, personalized treatment is more effective. Therefore, knowledge of the activation and inhibition of factors that affect the TGF-β signaling pathway is very important.

Regulation of transforming growth factor-β signaling as a therapeutic approach to treating colorectal cancer

According to data from 2020, Slovakia has long been among the top five countries with the highest incidence rate of colorectal cancer (CRC) worldwide, and the rate is continuing to rise every year. In approximately 80% of CRC cases, allelic loss (loss of heterozygosity, LOH) occurs in the long arm of chromosome 18q. The most important genes that can be silenced by 18q LOH or mutations are small mothers against decapentaplegic homolog (SMAD) 2 and SMAD4, which are intracellular mediators of transforming growth factor (TGF)-β superfamily signals. TGF-β plays an important role in the pro-oncogenic processes, including such properties as invasion, epithelial-mesenchymal transition (commonly known as EMT), promotion of angiogenesis, and immunomodulatory effects. Several recent studies have reported that activation of TGF-β signaling is related to drug resistance in CRC. Because the mechanisms of drug resistance are different between patients in different stages of CRC, personalized treatment is more effective. Therefore, knowledge of the activation and inhibition of factors that affect the TGF-β signaling pathway is very important.

Association of β-Catenin, APC, SMAD3/4, Tp53, and Cyclin D1 Genes in Colorectal Cancer: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Objectives

Accumulating evidence indicates that the expression and/or variants of several genes play an essential role in the progress of colorectal cancer (CRC). The current study is a meta-analysis undertaken to estimate the prognosis and survival associated with CTNNB1/β-catenin, APC, Wnt, SMAD3/4, TP53, and Cyclin D1 genes among CRC patients.

Methods

The authors searched PubMed, EMBASE, and Science Direct for relevant reports published between 2000 and 2020 and analyzed them to determine any relationship between the (immunohistochemically/sequencing-detected) gene expression and variants of the selected genes and the survival of CRC patients.

Results

The analysis included 34,074 patients from 64 studies. To evaluate association, hazard ratios (HRs) were estimated for overall survival (OS) or disease-free survival (DFS), with a 95% confidence interval (CIs). Pooled results showed that β-catenin overexpression, APC mutation, SMAD-3 or 4 loss of expression, TP53 mutations, and Cyclin D1 expression were associated with shorter OS. β-Catenin overexpression (HR: 0.137 (95% CI: 0.131–0.406)), loss of expression of SMAD3 or 4 (HR: 0.449 (95% CI: 0.146–0.753)), the mutations of TP53 (HR: 0.179 (95% CI: 0.126–0.485)), and Cyclin D1 expression (HR: 0.485 (95% CI: 0.772–0.198)) also presented risk for shorter DFS.

Conclusions

The present meta-analysis indicates that overexpression or underexpression and variants of CTNNB1/β-catenin, APC, SMAD3/4, TP53, and Cyclin D1 genes potentially acted as unfavorable biomarkers for the prognosis of CRC. The Wnt gene was not associated with prognosis.

Effects of diabetes type 2 and metformin treatment in Swedish patients with colorectal cancer

The association between type 2 diabetes mellitus (DM) and colorectal cancer (CRC) has been thoroughly investigated and reports have demonstrated that the risk of CRC is increased in DM patients. The association between DM and the survival of patients with CRC is controversial. Evidence suggests that metformin with its anti-inflammatory effects is a protective factor against the development of CRC among DM patients and that metformin therapy is associated with a better prognosis in patients with DM. In our cohort, we did not find any associations between the presence of DM or metformin and cancer specific survival or any relation to plasma levels of a panel of 40 inflammatory factors and irisin. On the other hand, we identified that the insulin-like growth factor binding protein 7 single nucleotide polymorphism rs2041437 was associated with DM in CRC patients. The dominance of the T bearing genotypes in patients with DM was statistically significant (P = 0.038), with an odds ratio of 1.66 (95% confidence interval: 1.03-2.69).

Recent advances in targeted drug delivery systems for resistant colorectal cancer

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is one of the deadliest cancers in the world, the incidences and morality rate are rising and poses an important threat to the public health. It is known that multiple drug resistance (MDR) is one of the major obstacles in CRC treatment. Tumor microenvironment plus genomic instability, tumor derived exosomes (TDE), cancer stem cells (CSCs), circulating tumor cells (CTCs), cell-free DNA (cfDNA), as well as cellular signaling pathways are important issues regarding resistance. Since non-targeted therapy causes toxicity, diverse side effects, and undesired efficacy, targeted therapy with contribution of various carriers has been developed to address the mentioned shortcomings. In this paper the underlying causes of MDR and then various targeting strategies including exosomes, liposomes, hydrogels, cell-based carriers and theranostics which are utilized to overcome therapeutic resistance will be described. We also discuss implication of emerging approaches involving single cell approaches and computer-aided drug delivery with high potential for meeting CRC medical needs.

Therapeutic Strategies and Potential Actions of Female Sex Steroid Hormones and Their Receptors in Colon Cancer Based on Preclinical Studies

Several epidemiological studies have reported that the use of female sex steroid hormones could reduce the risk of colon cancer (CRC). This review summarizes the available data related to estradiol (E2) and progesterone (P4) single and dual treatments in CRC male and female in vitro and in vivo models, mainly from preclinical studies, alongside their potential molecular mechanisms. Most of the studies showed that E2 exogenous treatment and/or reactivation of its beta receptor (ERβ) significantly inhibited cell proliferation, induced cell cycle arrest, and promoted apoptosis by modulating several molecular pathways. Likewise, the inhibition of ERα receptors produced similar antitumorigenic actions, both in vivo and in vitro, suggesting that E2 could have dual opposing roles in CRC that are dependent on the expression profile of its nuclear receptors. The available studies on P4 are scarce, and the results revealed that in vitro and in vivo treatments with natural and synthetic progesterone were also associated with promising tumoricidal actions. Nevertheless, the combination of E2 with P4 showed enhanced anticancer activities compared with their monotherapy protocols in male–female cell lines and animals. Collectively, the studies suggested that the female sex steroid hormones could provide a novel and effective therapeutic strategy against CRC.

Uniparental disomy is a chromosomic disorder in the first place

Background

Uniparental disomy (UPD) is well-known to be closely intermingled with imprinting disorders. Besides, UPD can lead to a disease by ‘activation’ of a recessive gene mutation or due to incomplete (cryptic) trisomic rescue. Corresponding to all common theories how UPD forms, it takes place as a consequence of a “chromosomic problem”, like an aneuploidy or a chromosomal rearrangement. Nonetheless, UPD is rarely considered as a cytogenetic, but most often as a molecular genetic problem.

Results

Here a review on the ~ 4900 published UPD-cases is provided, and even though being biased as discussed in the paper, the following insights have been given from that analysis: (1) the rate of maternal to paternal UPD is 2~3 to 1; (2) at most only ~ 0.03% of the available UPD cases are grasped scientifically, yet; (3) frequencies of single whole-chromosome UPDs are non-random, with UPD(16) and UPD(15) being most frequent in clinically healthy and diseased people, respectively; (4) there is a direct correlation of UPD frequency and known frequent first trimester trisomies, except for chromosomes 1, 5, 11 and 18 (which can be explained); (5) heterodisomy is under- and UPD-mosaicism is over-represented in recent reports; and (6) cytogenetics is not considered enough when a UPD is identified.

Conclusions

As UPD is diagnosed using molecular genetic approaches, and thus by specialists considering chromosomes at best as a whim of nature, most UPD reports lack the chromosomal aspect. Here it is affirmed and substantiated by corresponding data that UPD is a chromosomic disorder in the first place and cytogenetic analyses is indicated in each diagnosed UPD-case.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s13039-022-00585-2.

Organoid: Next-Generation Modeling of Cancer Research and Drug Development

Colorectal carcinoma is a highly prevalent and heterogeneous gastrointestinal malignancy. The emergence of organoid technology has provided a new direction for colorectal cancer research. As a novel-type model, organoid has significant advantages compared with conventional tumor research models, characterized with the high success rate of construction and the high matching with the original tumor. These characteristics provide new possibilities to study the mechanism of colorectal carcinogenesis and improve the treatment effects. The present literature would mainly summarize the characteristics of tumor organoids and the up-to-date technique development of patient-derived organoids (PDOs) and application in colorectal cancer.