Infant exposure to ochratoxin A, zearalenone, and deoxynivalenol from the consumption of milk formula and baby cereal in Chile

Ochratoxin A (OTA), zearalenone (ZEN), and deoxynivalenol (DON) are mycotoxins whose exposure is associated with various adverse health effects, including cancer and renal disorders, estrogenic effects, and immunosuppressive and gastrointestinal disorders, respectively. Infants (<2 years) are the most vulnerable group to mycotoxins, representing a unique combination of restricted food consumption types, low body weight, lower ability to eliminate toxins, and more future years to accumulate toxins. This study aimed to estimate the infant́s exposure to OTA, DON, and ZEN due to the consumption of milk formula and baby cereals in Chile. Milk formula samples (n = 41) and baby cereals (n = 30) were collected and analyzed using commercial ELISA kits for OTA, DON, and ZEA determination. Exposure was assessed by the Estimated Daily Intake (EDI) approach (mean and worst-case scenario, WCS) with the levels found in a modified Lower Bound (mLB) and Upper Bound (UB); ideal consumption (<6m, 7-12 m, and 13-24 m); adjusted by the weight of each group. The risk was estimated by comparing the EDI with a reference tolerable daily intake or by the margin of exposure (MOE) in the case of OTA. DON and OTA occurrence in infant formula were 34 % and 41 %, respectively. The co-occurrence between these mycotoxins was 22 %. Mycotoxin contents were below LOQ values except for OTA determined in one sample (0.29 ng/ml). No milk formulae were contaminated with ZEN. In the case of baby cereals, the occurrences were 17 % for OTA, 30 % for DON, and 7 % for ZEN, all below LOQ. Co-occurrence was seen in two samples between ZEN and OTA. According to exposure calculations, the MOE for OTA was less than 10,000 in all models for milk formula between 0 to 12 months of age and in the UB and WCS for cereal consumption. Health concerns were observed for DON in the WCS and UB for milk consumption in all ages and only in the UB WCS for cereal consumption. Considering the high consumption of milk formula in these age groups, regulation of OTA and other co-occurring mycotoxins in infant milk and food is strongly suggested.

Risks for animal health related to the presence of ochratoxin A (OTA) in feed

In 2004, the EFSA Panel on Contaminants in the Food Chain (CONTAM) adopted a Scientific Opinion on the risks to animal health and transfer from feed to food of animal origin related to the presence of ochratoxin A (OTA) in feed. The European Commission requested EFSA to assess newly available scientific information and to update the 2004 Scientific Opinion. OTA is produced by several fungi of the genera Aspergillus and Penicillium. In most animal species it is rapidly and extensively absorbed in the gastro-intestinal tract, binds strongly to plasma albumins and is mainly detoxified to ochratoxin alpha (OTalpha) by ruminal microbiota. In pigs, OTA has been found mainly in liver and kidney. Transfer of OTA from feed to milk in ruminants and donkeys as well as to eggs from poultry is confirmed but low. Overall, OTA impairs function and structure of kidneys and liver, causes immunosuppression and affects the zootechnical performance (e.g. body weight gain, feed/gain ratio, etc.), with monogastric species being more susceptible than ruminants because of limited detoxification to OTalpha. The CONTAM Panel considered as reference point (RP) for adverse animal health effects: for pigs and rabbits 0.01 mg OTA/kg feed, for chickens for fattening and hens 0.03 mg OTA/kg feed. A total of 9,184 analytical results on OTA in feed, expressed in dry matter, were available. Dietary exposure was assessed using different scenarios based on either model diets or compound feed (complete feed or complementary feed plus forage). Risk characterisation was made for the animals for which an RP could be identified. The CONTAM Panel considers that the risk related to OTA in feed for adverse health effects for pigs, chickens for fattening, hens and rabbits is low.

Incidence of Aflatoxins and Ochratoxin A in Wheat and Corn from Albania

In this study, aflatoxins (AFs) and ochratoxin A (OTA) were analyzed in grains, specifically wheat and corn, from Albania. To summarize, 71 wheat and 45 corn samples from different growing areas were collected. The multi-toxin analytical procedure involved sample extraction and liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). The incidence of AF was 18% in the analyzed wheat and 71% in the corn samples. The concentration of AFs was much higher in the corn samples than in the wheat samples. The maximum permitted levels for aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) and total AFs were not exceeded in the wheat samples, while they were exceeded in 36% of the corn samples. In the wheat samples, the AFB1 concentration varied between 0.2 and 0.4 µg kg-1. However, the highest concentrations in the corn samples were 2057, 2944, and 3550 µg kg-1. OTA was present in only three corn samples and one wheat sample. However, all contaminated samples exceeded the maximum permitted levels. This report reveals the presence of AFs and OTA in grain commodities, specifically wheat and corn, grown in Albania.

Foodborne Diseases Due to Underestimated Hazard of Joint Mycotoxin Exposure at Low Levels and Possible Risk Assessment

The subject of this review paper is to evaluate the underestimated hazard of multiple mycotoxin exposure of animals/humans for the appearance of foodborne ailments and diseases. The significance of joint mycotoxin interaction in the development of foodborne diseases is discussed, and appropriate conclusions are made. The importance of low feed/food levels of some target mycotoxins co-contaminations in food and feedstuffs for induction of target foodborne mycotoxicoses is also studied in the available literature. The appropriate hygiene control and the necessary risk assessment in regard to possible hazards for animals and humans are also discussed, and appropriate suggestions are made. Some internationally recognized prophylactic measures, management of the risk, and the necessity of elaboration of new international regulations in regard to the maximum permitted levels are also carefully discussed and analysed in the cases of multiple mycotoxin contaminations. The necessity of harmonization of mycotoxin regulations and control measures at international levels is also discussed in order to facilitate food trade between the countries and to ensure global food safety.

Determination of Fumonisins in Grains and Poultry Feedstuffs in Croatia: A 16-Year Study

Fumonisins are a group of closely related mycotoxins produced by Fusarium, Alternaria alternata and Aspergillus species. Their occurrence is correlated with various factors during growth, processing and storage. Fumonisins occurrence data in the literature mainly include the B group of fumonisins (FB1 & FB2) in raw materials, showing high frequency of positive samples in a wide range of concentrations. In this study, a total of 933 grains (63.7%) and poultry feed (36.3%) samples, collected in the 16-year period (2006–2021), were analysed with commercial enzyme-linked-immunosorbent assay for detection of three fumonisins (FB1, FB2 & FB3). All positive and suspect samples were confirmed with high-performance-liquid-chromatography method with fluorescence detection. Overall, we have determined high occurrence of FBs in grains and poultry feed in all tested years, while the lowest occurrence was determined in 2019, followed by 2009 and 2008. Although, contamination levels varied from year-to-year, majority of analyzed samples in all tested years were around 1 mg/kg, while the maximum values varied from 3 mg/kg to 22.23 mg/kg. This study highlights the importance of regular monitoring of raw materials and understanding of the fate of FBs in the food chain in order to avoid undesirable health effects in animals and accompanied economic losses.

Antifungal activity of puroindoline protein from soft wheat against grain molds and its potential as a biocontrol agent

Mold growth reduces the quality of stored grains, besides producing toxins that pose a potential threat to human health. Therefore, prevention of grain mold growth during storage is important to ensure a safe and high-quality product, preferably using an eco-friendly antifungal agent. The Puroindoline (PIN) protein was extracted by Triton X-114, and identified by QE mass spectrometry. A. flavus has attracted much attention because of its toxic secondary metabolites, and PIN protein showed a significant inhibition on A. flavus growth. Scanning electron microscopy revealed altered spore morphology of A. flavus following PIN protein treatment, and propidium iodide staining showed incomplete spore cell membranes. The disruption and deformation of A. flavus spores suggest that the cell walls and cell membranes were compromised. Decreased mitochondrial membrane potential and increased levels of intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) were detected using JC-1 and 2,7-dichlorodihydrofluorescein diacetate staining, respectively. PIN protein could effectively inhibit the growth and aflatoxins B1 production of A. flavus in stored grains, such as wheat and rice. PIN proteins can inhibit the growth of many common grain storage molds, including Penicillium, Aspergillus spp. (A. flavus, A. glaucus, A. kawachii, A. ochraceus, A. niger), Alternaria, and Fusarium graminearum, in a dose-dependent manner. PIN protein has a significant inhibitory effect on the growth of grain molds, with a stronger inhibitory effect noted in wheat and rice. Our study provides a novel and simple theoretical basis for the selection and storage of mold-resistant in grains and food during storage.

Mycotoxins Biocontrol Methods for Healthier Crops and Stored Products

Contamination of crops with phytopathogenic genera such as Fusarium, Aspergillus, Alternaria, and Penicillium usually results in mycotoxins in the stored crops or the final products (bread, beer, etc.). To reduce the damage and suppress the fungal growth, it is common to add antifungal substances during growth in the field or storage. Many of these antifungal substances are also harmful to human health and the reduction of their concentration would be of immense importance to food safety. Many eminent researchers are seeking a way to reduce the use of synthetic antifungal compounds and to implement more eco-friendly and healthier bioweapons against fungal proliferation and mycotoxin synthesis. This paper aims to address the recent advances in the effectiveness of biological antifungal compounds application against the aforementioned fungal genera and their species to enhance the protection of ecological and environmental systems involved in crop growing (water, soil, air) and to reduce fungicide contamination of food derived from these commodities.

Field Monitoring of Aflatoxins in Feed and Milk of High-Yielding Dairy Cows under Two Feeding Systems

Aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) is a hydroxylated metabolite of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) that can be excreted in milk of cows after consuming contaminated feed. The aim of this study consisted of a field monitoring to assess the contamination levels of AFB1 in 60 feed samples from two feeding systems for high-yielding dairy cows and of AFM1 in the corresponding raw milk samples. The aflatoxins were analyzed by in-house validated methods based on high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with fluorescence detection. AFB1 was detected in 55% of feed samples (mean 0.61 μg/kg, with 2 samples exceeding the European Union (EU) maximum level set at 5 μg/kg), with greater incidence and concentration in compound feed than in unifeed rations (p < 0.05). AFM1 was detected in 38.3% milk samples (mean 12.6 ng/kg, with 5 samples exceeding the EU maximum level set at 50 ng/kg), with a higher occurrence in milk of cows fed compound feed, as well as in spring milk compared to that produced in winter. The overall transfer ratio of aflatoxins from feed to milk was 3.22%, being higher in cows fed with compound feed and in spring milkings. In a selection of positive matched samples (n = 22), the ratio AFM1/AFB1 exceeded the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) estimated 6% threshold for high-yielding dairy cows.

Exposure Biomarkers and Histopathological Analysis in Pig Liver After Exposure to Mycotoxins Under Field Conditions: Special Report on Fumonisin B1

Liver samples from finisher pigs were collected at the slaughterhouses for the analysis of zearalenone (ZEA), alfa-/beta-zearalenone (α-ZE, β-ZE), zearalanone (ZA), alfa-/beta-ZA (α-ZA, β-ZA), aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) and aflatoxin M1, fumonisin B1 (FB1), ochratoxin A (OTA) and ochratoxin B, deoxynivalenol and deepoxi-deoxynivalenol (DOM-1). For the analysis liquid chromatography-triple quadrupole coupled with mass spectrometry was applied. Liver samples with detected FB1 were further histopathologically evaluated after hematoxylin and eosin staining. Various levels of liver mycotoxins were detected in all farms. Pig livers with 2.91-8.30 μg/kg of FB1 were detected in three farms, estimate of 850-2400 μg/kg of FB1 intake, whereas 0.54 μg/kg of OTA was detected in one farm, estimate of 75 μg/kg of OTA intake. Moreover, pig livers with 0.30 μg/kg of ZEA, 1.87 μg/kg of α-ZE, and 0.63 μg/kg of β-ZE were detected in one farm, estimate with of 300 μg/kg of ZEA intake. The histopathological analysis revealed that the lesions' grading and necrosis grading were analogously increased when FB1 concentration increased from 2.91 to 4.36-8.30 μg/kg. The severity of megalocytosis was analogously increased with FB1 detection levels and particularly in levels of 4.36-8.3 μg/kg. However, the increased FB1 detection levels did not show analogous behavior with the severity of hepatic cell vacuolization. Results showed that FB1 remained the most critical risk factor in the Greek pig industry, whereas ZEA and AFB1 were also prevalent. The OTA contamination in pig farms raised a high risk for animal and human health.

Evaluation of the Multimycotoxin-Degrading Efficiency of Rhodococcus erythropolis NI1 Strain with the Three-Step Zebrafish Microinjection Method

The multimycotoxin-degrading efficiency of the Rhodococcus erythropolis NI1 strain was investigated with a previously developed three-step method. NI1 bacterial metabolites, single and combined mycotoxins and their NI1 degradation products, were injected into one cell stage zebrafish embryos in the same doses. Toxic and interaction effects were supplemented with UHPLC-MS/MS measurement of toxin concentrations. Results showed that the NI1 strain was able to degrade mycotoxins and their mixtures in different proportions, where a higher ratio of mycotoxins were reduced in combination than single ones. The NI1 strain reduced the toxic effects of mycotoxins and mixtures, except for the AFB1+T-2 mixture. Degradation products of the AFB1+T-2 mixture by the NI1 strain were more toxic than the initial AFB1+T-2 mixture, while the analytical results showed very high degradation, which means that the NI1 strain degraded this mixture to toxic degradation products. The NI1 strain was able to detoxify the AFB1, ZEN, T-2 toxins and mixtures (except for AFB1+T-2 mixture) during the degradation experiments, which means that the NI1 strain degraded these to non-toxic degradation products. The results demonstrate that single exposures of mycotoxins were very toxic. The combined exposure of mycotoxins had synergistic effects, except for ZEN+T-2 and AFB1+ZEN +T-2, whose mixtures had very strong antagonistic effects.

Incidence of Fusarium Mycotoxins in Wheat and Maize from Albania

In this study, ten Fusarium toxins were analysed in wheat and maize commodities from Albania. In total, 71 samples of wheat and 45 samples of maize were collected from different producing regions. The analytical procedure consisted of a simple one-step sample extraction followed by the determination of toxins using liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry. Fusarium toxins were found in 23% of the analysed wheat samples and in 78% of maize samples. In maize samples, most often fumonisins B1 (FB1) and B2 (FB2) were found. They were present in 76% of samples. They were detected in all positive samples except in one with concentrations ranging from 59.9 to 16,970 μg/kg. The sum of FB1 and FB2 exceeded the EU maximum permitted level (4000 μg/kg) in 31% of maize samples. In wheat samples, the only detected Fusarium mycotoxin was deoxynivalenol (DON), present in 23% of samples. In one sample with the concentration of 1916 μg/kg, the EU maximum permitted level (1250 μg/kg) was exceeded. This is the first report on the presence of Fusarium toxins in wheat and maize grains cultivated in Albania.

Zearalenone (ZEN) in Livestock and Poultry: Dose, Toxicokinetics, Toxicity and Estrogenicity

One of the concerns when using grain ingredients in feed formulation for livestock and poultry diets is mycotoxin contamination. Aflatoxin, fumonisin, ochratoxin, trichothecene (deoxynivalenol, T-2 and HT-2) and zearalenone (ZEN) are mycotoxins that have been frequently reported in animal feed. ZEN, which has raised additional concern due to its estrogenic response in animals, is mainly produced by Fusarium graminearum (F. graminearum), F. culmorum, F. cerealis, F. equiseti, F. crookwellense and F. semitectums, and often co-occurs with deoxynivalenol in grains. The commonly elaborated derivatives of ZEN are α-zearalenol, β-zearalenol, zearalanone, α-zearalanol, and β-zearalanol. Other modified and masked forms of ZEN (including the extractable conjugated and non-extractable bound derivatives of ZEN) have also been quantified. In this review, common dose of ZEN in animal feed was summarized. The absorption rate, distribution (“carry-over”), major metabolites, toxicity and estrogenicity of ZEN related to poultry, swine and ruminants are discussed.

Exposure assessment of adult consumers in Serbia, Greece and Croatia to deoxynivalenol and zearalenone through consumption of major wheat-based products

The main objective of this research was to perform an exposure assessment of mycotoxin intake through consumption of wheat-based products in Serbia, Croatia, and Greece by estimating deoxynivalenol (DON) and zearalenone (ZEA) exposure from wheat. Food consumption survey of wheat-based products has been performed during 2017 in the three countries with at least 1000 interviewees per country. Values for the concentration of DON and ZEA were extracted from available research published in this decade. Finally, a Monte Carlo analysis of 100,000 simulations was performed to estimate the intake of DON and ZEA from consumption of wheat-based products. Results revealed that the estimated daily wheat-borne intake of DON of the adult population in Croatia was 0.121 μg/kg bw/day, followed by Greece with 0.181 μg/kg bw/day and Serbia with 0.262 μg/kg bw/day. This shows that 0.25% of Croatian, 1.19% of Greek and 3.96% of Serbian adult population is exposed to higher daily dietary intakes of DON than recommended. Estimated daily wheat-borne intake of ZEA was 0.017 μg/kg bw/day in Greece, 0.026 μg/kg bw/day in Croatia and 0.050 μg/kg bw/day in Serbia. Higher intake of ZEA is associated with 0.62% of the Greek population, followed by 0.95% Croatian and 2.25% of Serbian citizens. This type of research is helpful to assess accurately the risk by DON/ZEA intake associated with the consumption of wheat-based products by consumers in these three countries. Distributions of potential mycotoxin intakes were highly right-skewed.

Detection of mycobiota, aflatoxigenic and ochratoxigenic genes, and cytotoxic ability in spices

Spices are portions of plants because their properties are used as colorants, preservatives, or medicine. The employments of spices have been known since long time, and the interest in the capability of spices is astounding because of the chemical compounds contained in spices. The molds grow on a variety of different crops and foodstuffs including spices often under warm and humid conditions. The mycobiota of five spice species were surveyed. Forty-six fungal species were obtained. Aspergillus flavus and A. niger were the prevalent species recorded. The aflatoxins (AFs) and ochratoxins (OTs) were detected in some samples and isolates. Cumin had the highest concentration of AFs 8.2 ppb, while ginger had a considerable occurrence of OTs 6.7 ppb. A. flavus obtained from ginger recorded the maximum concentration of AFs 7.5 ppb, and A. niger from turmeric was the highest producer for OTs 3.6 ppb. omt-A and Aopks genes were detected in all tested A. flavus isolates and two out of four A. niger isolates. One of the important properties of spices is cancer etiology and prevention. Ginger and sage were the highest cytotoxic against four human tumor cell lines.

Exposure assessment and risk characterization of aflatoxins intake through consumption of maize products in the adult populations of Serbia, Croatia and Greece

The main objective of this research was to perform an exposure assessment of aflatoxins intake through consumption of maize products in Serbia, Croatia, and Greece. Food consumption survey of maize-based products has been performed during 2017 in the three countries with at least 1,000 interviewees per country covering their dietary habits and body weight. Values for the concentration of aflatoxins were extracted from available research published in the last ten years. Finally, a Monte Carlo analysis of 100,000 iterations was performed to estimate the intake of aflatoxins from consumption of maize-based products. Results revealed that the estimated average exposure of adults to aflatoxins, from maize consumption, in each of the three countries was between 0.44 ng kg^-1 bw day^-1 and 5.59 ng kg^-1 bw day^-1. Margin of exposure values for the mean exposure levels, in all three countries, were between 30 and 389. Estimations for hepatocellular carcinoma cases/year/10⁵ individuals, depending on the HBsAg+ prevalence, were 0.075-0.098, 0.006-0.008 and 0.020-0.026 for Serbia, Croatia and Greece, respectively.

Co-occurrence of mycotoxins, including aflatoxins, trichothecenes, and zearalenone, in Chinese feedstuffs collected in 2013 and 2014

A total of 357 feedstuff samples, including cottonseed meal plus soybean meal (CSM), wheat bran (WB) and dried distillers grain with solubles (DDGS) collected from 14 provinces in China in 2013 and 2014 were analysed for the co-occurrence of mycotoxins, including 4 aflatoxins, 7 trichothecenes, and zearalenone (ZEA), by high-performance liquid chromatography/electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC/ESI-MS/MS). Deoxynivalenol (DON) was the most prevalent mycotoxin found in Chinese feedstuffs, followed by ZEA and aflatoxin B1 (AFB1). It was found that out of 357 samples, 27 (7.6%), 11 (3.1%) and 5 (1.4%) samples were positive for DON, ZEA and AFB1 at levels exceeding the Chinese regulatory limit of 1000 μg/kg, 500 μg/kg, 50 μg/kg for DON, ZEA, and AFB1, respectively. DON, ZEA, and AFB1 levels ranged from 1,005.5 to 2,893.1 μg/kg, 510.8 to 4,845.9 μg/kg, and 53.9 to 72.9 μg/kg, respectively. These samples were more easily co-contaminated by other mycotoxins, such as DON, ZEA, AFB1, AFB2, 3-acetyldeoxynivalenol (3-ADON), and 15-ADON. CSM was more easily contaminated by aflatoxins than WB and DDGS, and WB was more easily contaminated by DON and ZEA. Besides, 339 samples (95.0%, 339/357) were contaminated by at least two mycotoxins, and 16 samples (4.5%, 16/357) were only contaminated by one mycotoxin, and 2 samples (0.6%, 2/357) were not contaminated by any mycotoxin studied. There were 30, 66, and 66 different mycotoxin combination types in CSM, WB, and DDGS, respectively, but DON+3-ADON+15- ADON+ZEA was the most frequent mycotoxin combination, with a frequency of 13.16% (5/38) in CSM, 17.29% (23/133) in WB, and 18.8% (35/186) in DDGS. These results indicate that mycotoxin co-occurrence is very common in Chinese feedstuffs, and it is very important to conduct multi-mycotoxin monitoring in Chinese feedstuffs.

Risks for animal health related to the presence of fumonisins, their modified forms and hidden forms in feed

Fumonisins, mycotoxins primarily produced by Fusarium verticillioides and Fusarium proliferatum, occur predominantly in cereal grains, especially in maize. The European Commission asked EFSA for a scientific opinion on the risk to animal health related to fumonisins and their modified and hidden forms in feed. Fumonisin B1 (FB 1), FB 2 and FB 3 are the most common forms of fumonisins in feedstuffs and thus were included in the assessment. FB 1, FB 2 and FB 3 have the same mode of action and were considered as having similar toxicological profile and potencies. For fumonisins, the EFSA Panel on Contaminants in the Food Chain (CONTAM) identified no-observed-adverse-effect levels (NOAELs) for cattle, pig, poultry (chicken, ducks and turkeys), horse, and lowest-observed-adverse-effect levels (LOAELs) for fish (extrapolated from carp) and rabbits. No reference points could be identified for sheep, goats, dogs, cats and mink. The dietary exposure was estimated on 18,140 feed samples on FB 1-3 representing most of the feed commodities with potential presence of fumonisins. Samples were collected between 2003 and 2016 from 19 different European countries, but most of them from four Member States. To take into account the possible occurrence of hidden forms, an additional factor of 1.6, derived from the literature, was applied to the occurrence data. Modified forms of fumonisins, for which no data were identified concerning both the occurrence and the toxicity, were not included in the assessment. Based on mean exposure estimates, the risk of adverse health effects of feeds containing FB 1-3 was considered very low for ruminants, low for poultry, horse, rabbits, fish and of potential concern for pigs. The same conclusions apply to the sum of FB 1-3 and their hidden forms, except for pigs for which the risk of adverse health effect was considered of concern.

A review of the mycotoxin adsorbing agents, with an emphasis on their multi-binding capacity, for animal feed decontamination

Contamination of animal feed with mycotoxins still occurs very often, despite great efforts in preventing it. Animal feeds are contaminated, at low levels, with several mycotoxins, particularly with those produced by Aspergillus and Fusarium genera (Aflatoxin B_1, Ochratoxin A, Zearalenone, Deoxynivalenol and Fumonisina B₁). In animal feed, to date, only Aflatoxin B₁ is limited through EU regulation. Consequently, mycotoxins cause serious disorders and diseases in farm animals. In 2009, the European Union (386/2009/EC) approved the use of mycotoxin-detoxifying agents, as feed additives, to prevent mycotoxicoses in farm animals. The present review gives an overview of the problem of multi-mycotoxin contamination of feed, and aims to classify mycotoxin adsorbing agents (minerals, organic, and synthetic) for feed decontamination, focusing on adsorbents with the ability to bind to multiple mycotoxins, which should have a more effective application in farms but they are still little studied in scientific literature.

Individual and Combined Effects of Fumonisin B₁, Deoxynivalenol and Zearalenone on the Hepatic and Renal Membrane Lipid Integrity of Rats

(1) Background and (2) Methods: A 14-day in vivo, multitoxic (pure mycotoxins) rat experiment was conducted with zearalenone (ZEA; 15 μg/animal/day), deoxynivalenol (DON; 30 μg/animal/day) and fumonisin B₁ (FB₁; 150 μg/animal/day), as individual mycotoxins, binary (FD, FZ and DZ) and ternary combinations (FDZ), via gavage in 1 mL water boluses. (3) Results: Body weight was unaffected, while liver (ZEA↑ vs. DON) and kidney weight (ZEA↑ vs. FDZ) increased. Hepatocellular membrane lipid fatty acids (FAs) referred to ceramide synthesis disturbance (C20:0, C22:0), and decreased unsaturation (C22:5 n3 and unsat. index), mainly induced by DON and to a lesser extent by ZEA. The DON-FB₁ interaction was additive on C20:0 in liver lipids. In renal phospholipids, ZEA had the strongest effect on the FA profile, affecting the saturated (C18:0) and many n6 FAs; ZEA was in an antagonistic relationship with FB₁ (C18:0) or DON (C18:2 n6, C20:1 n9). Hepatic oxidative stress was the most expressed in FD (reduced glutathione and glutathione peroxidase), while the nephrotoxic effect was further supported by lipid peroxidation (malondialdehyde) in the DON treatment. (4) Conclusions: In vivo study results refer to multiple mycotoxin interactions on membrane FAs, antioxidants and lipid peroxidation compounds, needing further testing.

Detection of Fumonisins in Fresh and Dehydrated Commercial Garlic

An epidemic fungal disease caused by Fusarium proliferatum, responsible for fumonisin production (FB1, FB2, and FB3), has been reported in the main garlic-producing countries in recent years. Fumonisins are a group of structurally related toxic metabolites produced by this pathogen. The aim of this work was to establish an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) procedure, mostly applied to cereals, that is suitable for fumonisin detection in garlic and compare these results to those obtained by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and screening of fresh and dehydrated garlic for toxicological risk. The results show good correlation between the two analytical methods. In fresh symptomatic garlic, fumonisin levels were higher in the basal plates than those in the portions with necrotic spots. Among the 56 commercially dehydrated garlic samples screened, three were positive by ELISA test and only one was above the limit of quantitation. The same samples analyzed by HPLC showed the presence of FB1 in trace amounts that was below the limit of quantitation; FB2 and FB3 were absent. The results are reassuring, because no substantial contamination by fumonisins was found in commercial garlic.

T-2 mycotoxin: toxicological effects and decontamination strategies

Mycotoxins are highly diverse secondary metabolites produced in nature by a wide variety of fungus which causes food contamination, resulting in mycotoxicosis in animals and humans. In particular, trichothecenes mycotoxin produced by genus fusarium is agriculturally more important worldwide due to the potential health hazards they pose. It is mainly metabolized and eliminated after ingestion, yielding more than 20 metabolites with the hydroxy trichothecenes-2 toxin being the major metabolite. Trichothecene is hazardously intoxicating due to their additional potential to be topically absorbed, and their metabolites affect the gastrointestinal tract, skin, kidney, liver, and immune and hematopoietic progenitor cellular systems. Sensitivity to this type of toxin varying from dairy cattle to pigs, with the most sensitive endpoints being neural, reproductive, immunological and hematological effects. The mechanism of action mainly consists of the inhibition of protein synthesis and oxidative damage to cells followed by the disruption of nucleic acid synthesis and ensuing apoptosis. In this review, the possible hazards, historical significance, toxicokinetics, and the genotoxic and cytotoxic effects along with regulatory guidelines and recommendations pertaining to the trichothecene mycotoxin are discussed. Furthermore, various techniques utilized for toxin determination, pathophysiology, prophylaxis and treatment using herbal antioxidant compounds and regulatory guidelines and recommendations are reviewed. The prospects of the trichothecene as potential hazardous agents, decontamination strategies and future perspectives along with plausible therapeutic uses are comprehensively described.

Fusarium diseases of maize associated with mycotoxin contamination of agricultural products intended to be used for food and feed

Infections of maize with phytopathogenic and toxinogenic Fusarium spp. may occur throughout the cultivation period. This can cause different types of diseases in vegetative and generative organs of the plant. Along with these infections, mycotoxins are often produced and accumulated in affected tissues, which could pose a significant risk on human and animal health when entering the food and feed chain. Most important fungal species infecting European maize belong to the Fusarium sections Discolour and Liseola, the first being more prevalent in cooler and humid climate regions than the second predominating in warmer and dryer areas. Coexistence of several Fusarium spp. pathogens in growing maize under field conditions is the usual case and may lead to multi-contamination with mycotoxins like trichothecenes, zearalenone and fumonisins. The pathways how the fungi gain access to the target organs of the plant are extensively described in relation to specific symptoms of typical rot diseases regarding ears, kernels, rudimentary ears, roots, stem, leaves, seed and seedlings. Both Gibberella and Fusarium ear rots are of major importance in affecting the toxinogenic quality of grain or ear-based products as well as forage maize used for human or animal nutrition. Although rudimentary ears may contain high amounts of Fusarium toxins, the contribution to the contamination of forage maize is minor due to their small proportion on the whole plant dry matter yield. The impact of foliar diseases on forage maize contamination is regarded to be low, as Fusarium infections are restricted to some parts on the leaf sheaths and husks. Mycotoxins produced in rotted basal part of the stem may contribute to forage maize contamination, but usually remain in the stubbles after harvest. As the probability of a more severe disease progression is increasing with a prolonged cultivation period, maize should be harvested at the appropriate maturity stage to keep Fusarium toxin contamination as low as possible. Ongoing surveillance and research is needed to recognise changes in the spectrum of dominating Fusarium pathogens involved in mycotoxin contamination of maize to ensure safety in the food and feed chain.

Multi-Mycotoxin Analysis in Durum Wheat Pasta by Liquid Chromatography Coupled to Quadrupole Orbitrap Mass Spectrometry

A simple and rapid multi-mycotoxin method for the determination of 17 mycotoxins simultaneously is described in the present survey on durum and soft wheat pasta samples. Mycotoxins included in the study were those mainly reported in cereal samples: ochratoxin-A (OTA), aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁), zearalenone (ZON), deoxynivalenol (DON), 3-and 15-acetyl-deoxynivalenol (3-AcDON and 15-AcDON), nivalenol (NIV), neosolaniol (NEO), fusarenon-X, (FUS-X), T-2 toxin (T-2) and HT-2 toxin (HT-2), fumonisin B₁ and B₂ (FB₁ and FB₂), and four emerging mycotoxins: three enniatins (ENA, ENA₁, and ENB), and beauvericin (BEA). Twenty-nine samples were analyzed to provide an overview on mycotoxin presence: 27 samples of durum wheat pasta, and two samples of baby food. Analytical results concluded that trichothecenes showed the highest incidence, mainly DON, NIV, and HT-2 toxin, followed by ZON and ENB, while NEO, FUS-X, OTA, AFB₁, and FUM were not detected in any sample. The highest contents corresponded to ENB and ranged from 91.15 µg/kg to 710.90 µg/kg.

Fusarium Species and Their Associated Mycotoxins

The genus Fusarium includes numerous toxigenic species that are pathogenic to plants or humans, and are able to colonize a wide range of environments on earth. The genus comprises around 70 well-known species, identified by using a polyphasic approach, and as many as 300 putative species, according to phylogenetic species concepts; many putative species do not yet have formal names. Fusarium is one of the most economically important fungal genera because of yield loss due to plant pathogenic activity; mycotoxin contamination of food and feed products which often render them unaccep for marketing; and health impacts to humans and livestock, due to consumption of mycotoxins. Among the most important mycotoxins produced by species of Fusarium are the trichothecenes and the fumonisins. Fumonisins cause fatal livestock diseases and are considered potentially carcinogenic mycotoxins for humans, while trichothecenes are potent inhibitors of protein synthesis. This chapter summarizes the main aspects of morphology, pathology, and toxigenicity of the main Fusarium species that colonize different agricultural crops and environments worldwide, and cause mycotoxin contamination of food and feed.

Aflatoxin B1 contamination in feed from Puglia and Basilicata regions (Italy): 5 years monitoring data

During a 5-year period from 2010 to 2014, n = 919 samples of feed and raw materials were analyzed for aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁) contamination using accredited ELISA screening methods. Only 0.76 % of these samples were non-compliant with maximum levels set by the European Union Regulation 32/2002. Non-compliant samples were mainly from the province of Bari (n = 3 samples, mean AFB₁ value 7.03 μg/kg), although the highest AFB₁ levels were found in two samples from the provinces of Foggia and Brindisi, at 32.6 ± 3.6 μg/kg and 31.0 ± 4.0 μg/kg, respectively. Mean AFB₁ levels in samples contaminated but compliant with the limits ranged from 1.4 to 2.2 μg/kg. Considering the great importance of climate conditions in mycotoxins production, during crops production and during the critical phases of materials storage and/or transport, to better understand the variability in contamination levels, the analytical results were reviewed in term of temperature and relative environmental humidity in the sampling areas. Correlations between aflatoxin B₁ levels in feed and these climate factors might explain seasonal and annual variations in contamination levels. The data from the present study provide useful suggestions for the organization of targeted monitoring plans and the protection of consumers, as well as for improvement in the quality standards of zootechnological activities and feed industry.

Prevalence and effects of mycotoxins on poultry health and performance, and recent development in mycotoxin counteracting strategies

Extensive research over the last couple of decades has made it obvious that mycotoxins are commonly prevalent in majority of feed ingredients. A worldwide mycotoxin survey in 2013 revealed 81% of around 3,000 grain and feed samples analyzed had at least 1 mycotoxin, which was higher than the 10-year average (from 2004 to 2013) of 76% in a total of 25,944 samples. The considerable increase in the number of positive samples in 2013 may be due to the improvements in detection methods and their sensitivity. The recently developed liquid chromatography coupled to (tandem) mass spectrometry allows the inclusion of a high number of analytes and is the most selective, sensitive, and accurate of all the mycotoxin analytical methods. Mycotoxins can affect the animals either individually or additively in the presence of more than 1 mycotoxin, and may affect various organs such as gastrointestinal tract, liver, and immune system, essentially resulting in reduced productivity of the birds and mortality in extreme cases. While the use of mycotoxin binding agents has been a commonly used counteracting strategy, considering the great diversity in the chemical structures of mycotoxins, it is very obvious that there is no single method that can be used to deactivate mycotoxins in feed. Therefore, different strategies have to be combined in order to specifically target individual mycotoxins without impacting the quality of feed. Enzymatic or microbial detoxification, referred to as "biotransformation" or "biodetoxification," utilizes microorganisms or purified enzymes thereof to catabolize the entire mycotoxin or transform or cleave it to less or non-toxic compounds. However, the awareness on the prevalence of mycotoxins, available modern techniques to analyze them, the effects of mycotoxicoses, and the recent developments in the ways to safely eliminate the mycotoxins from the feed are very minimal among the producers. This symposium review paper comprehensively discusses the above mentioned aspects.

Mycotoxin occurrence in feed and feed raw materials worldwide: long-term analysis with special focus on Europe and Asia

During an 8-year period, 17 316 samples of feed and feed raw materials from all over the world were analysed for contamination with aflatoxins, ochratoxin A, zearalenone, deoxynivalenol and fumonisins. Overall, 72% of the samples tested positive for at least one mycotoxin and 38% were found to be co-contaminated. Mycotoxin concentrations were generally low and the majority of the samples were compliant with the most stringent EU guidance values or maximum levels for mycotoxins in feed. However, in their present state these regulations do not address co-contamination and associated risks. Long-term trends are difficult to establish as strong yearly variations were observed regarding mycotoxin prevalence and contamination levels. In some cases unusual weather conditions can be linked with high observed mycotoxin loads. An exception to this rule is South-East Asia, where a steady increase of aflatoxin prevalence has been observed. The percentage of aflatoxin-positive samples in this region rose from 32% in 2005 to 71% in 2011.

Cultivable microorganisms associated with honeys of different geographical and botanical origin

In this study, the composition of the cultivable microbial populations of 38 nectar honey and honeydew honey samples of different botanical and geographical origin were assessed. After growth in specific media, various colonies with different appearance were isolated and purified before phenotypic (morphological, physiological and biochemical traits) and genotypic [randomly amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD), repetitive DNA elements-PCR (rep-PCR) and restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP)] differentiation. The identification was carried out by 16S rRNA gene sequencing for bacteria and, in addition to RFLP, by sequencing the D1/D2 region of the 26S rRNA gene for yeasts and the 5.8S-ITS rRNA region for filamentous fungi. The results showed the presence of 13 species of bacteria, 5 of yeasts and 17 of filamentous fungi; the species most frequently isolated were Bacillus amyloliquefaciens, Zygosaccharomyces mellis and Aspergillus niger for the three microbial groups, respectively. The highest microbial diversity was found in multifloral honeys. No correlation among the microbial species and the botanical/geographical origin was found, but some strains were highly adapted to these matrices since they were found in several samples of different origin.

Multi-mycotoxin screening reveals the occurrence of 139 different secondary metabolites in feed and feed ingredients

The development of liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS)/mass spectrometry (MS) methods for the simultaneous detection and quantification of a broad spectrum of mycotoxins has facilitated the screening of a larger number of samples for contamination with a wide array of less well-known “emerging” mycotoxins and other metabolites. In this study, 83 samples of feed and feed raw materials were analysed. All of them were found to contain seven to 69 metabolites. The total number of detected metabolites amounts to 139. Fusarium mycotoxins were most common, but a number of Alternaria toxins also occurred very often. Furthermore, two so-called masked mycotoxins (i.e., mycotoxin conjugates), namely deoxynivalenol-3-glucoside (75% positives) and zearalenone-4-sulfate (49% positives), were frequently detected. Although the observed median concentrations of the individual analytes were generally in the low μg/kg range, evaluating the toxicological potential of a given sample is difficult. Toxicity data on less well-known mycotoxins and other detected metabolites are notoriously scarce, as an overview on the available information on the most commonly detected metabolites shows. Besides, the possible synergistic effects of co-occurring substances have to be considered.

Filamentous fungi transported by birds during migration across the mediterranean sea

The potential for the transport and diffusion of some pathogenic microorganisms by migratory birds is of concern. Migratory birds may be involved in the dispersal of microorganisms and may play a role of mechanical and biological vectors. The efficiency of dispersal of pathogenic microorganisms depends on a wide range of biotic and abiotic factors that influence the survival or disappearance of a given agent in a geographical area. In the present study, 349 migratory birds were captured in four sites (Mazara del Vallo, Lampedusa, Ustica and Linosa), representing the main stop-over points during spring and autumnal migration, and analyzed for the presence of filamentous fungi. A total of 2,337 filamentous fungi were isolated from 216 birds and identified by a combined phenotypic-genotypic approach to species level. Twelve species were identified in the study, with Cladosporium cladosporioides, Alternaria alternata, and Aspergillus niger as the most abundant. The transport of these fungal species isolated in this study is of considerable importance because some of these species can create dangers to human health.

Multi-mycotoxin analysis in wheat semolina using an acetonitrile-based extraction procedure and gas chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry

A new analytical method for the rapid and simultaneous determination of ten mycotoxins including patulin, zearalenone and eight trichothecenes (nivalenol, fusarenon-X, diacetoxyscirpenol, 3-acetyl-deoxynivalenol, neosolaniol, deoxynivalenol, T-2 and HT-2) in wheat semolina has been developed and optimized. Sample extraction and purification were performed with a modified QuEChERS-based (acronym of Quick, Easy, Cheap, Effective, Rugged and Safe) procedure and determined by gas chromatography (GC) coupled to triple quadrupole instrument (QqQ). This is the first paper on the application of GC-QqQ-MS/MS to analysis of mycotoxins. Careful optimization of the gas chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry parameters was achieved in order to attain a fast separation with the best sensitivity allowing a total run time of 16 min. The validation was performed by analyzing recovery samples at three different spiked concentrations, 20, 40 and 80 μg kg(-1), with four replicates (n=4) at each concentration. Recoveries ranged from 74% to 124% and the intra-day precision and inter-day precision, expressed as relative standard deviation, were lower than 13% and 17%, respectively for all studied compounds, except for zearalenone. Limits of quantification (LOQ) were lower than 10 μg kg(-1) for all studied mycotoxins. Eight concentration levels were used for constructing the calibration curves which showed good linearity between LOQ and 100 times LOQ concentration levels (linear range). Matrix-matched calibration for applying the method in routine analysis is recommended for reliable quantitative results. The method validated was successfully applied to fifteen wheat semolina samples detecting occurrence of mycotoxins at concentrations below the maximum permissible level.

Current situation of mycotoxin contamination and co-occurrence in animal feed--focus on Europe

Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites produced by fungi especially those belonging to the genus Aspergillus, Penicillum and Fusarium. Mycotoxin contamination can occur in all agricultural commodities in the field and/or during storage, if conditions are favourable to fungal growth. Regarding animal feed, five mycotoxins (aflatoxins, deoxynivalenol, zearalenone, fumonisins and ochratoxin A) are covered by EU legislation (regulation or recommendation). Transgressions of these limits are rarely observed in official monitoring programs. However, low level contamination by Fusarium toxins is very common (e.g., deoxynivalenol (DON) is typically found in more than 50% of the samples) and co-contamination is frequently observed. Multi-mycotoxin studies reported 75%-100% of the samples to contain more than one mycotoxin which could impact animal health at already low doses. Co-occurrence of mycotoxins is likely to arise for at least three different reasons (i) most fungi are able to simultaneously produce a number of mycotoxins, (ii) commodities can be contaminated by several fungi, and (iii) completed feed is made from various commodities. In the present paper, we reviewed the data published since 2004 concerning the contamination of animal feed with single or combinations of mycotoxins and highlighted the occurrence of these co-contaminations.

Kinetics of fumonisin B₁ formation in maize ears inoculated with Fusarium verticillioides

The kinetics of fumonisin B₁ (FB₁) biosynthesis have been examined in ears of four botanical varieties Zea mays var. indentata, Zea mays var. indurata, Zea mays var. saccharata and Zea mays var. everta inoculated with F. verticillioides isolates at silking stage. The level of mycotoxin accumulated in kernels was correlated with sample harvest time (r = 0.73) and ergosterol content (r = 0.70). FB₁ biosynthesis was influenced by amylose, starch and moisture contents, which undergo dynamic changes during grain formation. A comparative analysis of ear infection rates and efficiency of FB₁ biosynthesis showed that these are separate characters and their expression could be independent.

Porcine ear necrosis syndrome: a preliminary investigation of putative infectious agents in piglets and mycotoxins in feed

The aim of this study was to identify the causative factors of porcine ear necrosis syndrome (PENS) in 72 pigs, 5.5-10 weeks in age housed on nine farms. Biopsy samples of ear pinnae were collected from all piglets for bacteriology, histopathology and in situ hybridization for porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV2). At the same time, serum samples were taken for serological analysis and viral PCR, and feed was sampled for mycotoxin analysis. The initial lesion of PENS seemed to be a focal epidermal necrosis. Streptococci were isolated from 44 and staphylococci from 36 pinnae. PCV2 could not be detected by in situ hybridization or qPCR. Seven piglets were positive for porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus, and one for Mycoplasma suis. One piglet had antibodies against Sarcoptes scabiei var. suis. No infectious agents were found in 15 samples. Positive virology and parasitology were often found alongside positive bacteriology. Deoxynivalenol, zearalenone and ergot alkaloids were detected in feed. The findings suggest that PENS is multifactorial in origin and that although infectious agents can be involved in the development of the syndrome they are not the exclusive triggering factor.

Effects of increasing dietary concentrations of corn naturally contaminated with deoxynivalenol on broiler and turkey poult performance and response to lipopolysaccharide

In this study, 2 experiments determined the effects of increasing dietary concentrations of deoxynivalenol (DON) on performance, intestinal morphology, and measures of innate immunity in broilers and turkeys. For experiment 1, the 3-wk study used 5 concentrations of DON (up to 18 or 10 mg of DON/kg of feed in broilers or turkeys, respectively) from naturally contaminated corn. The BW gains were cubically or quadratically affected by the increasing dietary concentrations of DON for broilers and turkeys, respectively; however, feed consumption was not affected. For experiment 2, the birds were subsequently injected or not injected with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) 24 h before tissue and blood sample collection. Dietary DON had no effect on intestinal crypt depth, but linearly increased the mid-ileal villus height in broilers (P = 0.04). An interaction was observed between the LPS challenge and the dietary DON with regards to heterophil to lymphocyte ratio (P < 0.05) in broilers, but not in turkeys. The cecal tonsil cell phagocytosis of microbeads was not affected by the dietary concentration of DON either with or without the subsequent LPS challenge for both broilers and turkeys. Conversely, the phagocytic capacity of cecal tonsil cells to engulf killed Staphylococcus aureus was significantly reduced (over 2.5-fold) when broilers were fed the highest concentration of dietary DON (non-LPS-challenged; P < 0.05). However, diets containing DON showed no effects on broilers when they were challenged with LPS. Antibody-dependent phagocytosis (S. aureus) was not affected in turkeys fed DON. Overall, corn naturally contaminated with up to 18 or 10 mg/kg of DON (broiler or turkey, respectively) reduced bird BW gain at 21 d of age, reduced antibody-dependent phagocytosis of previously killed S. aureus by cecal tonsil cells in non-LPS-challenged broilers, and greatly decreased heterophil to lymphocyte ratios in LPS-challenged broilers.