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Kocher D, Cao L, Guiho R, Langhammer M, Lai YL, Becker P, Hamdi H, Friedel D, Selt F, Vonhören D, Zaman J, Valinciute G, Herter S, Picard D, Rettenmeier J, Maass KK, Pajtler KW, Remke M, von Deimling A, Pusch S, Pfister SM, Oehme I, Jones DTW, Halbach S, Brummer T, Martinez-Barbera JP, Witt O, Milde T, Sigaud R. Rebound growth of BRAF mutant pediatric glioma cells after MAPKi withdrawal is associated with MAPK reactivation and secretion of microglia-recruiting cytokines. J Neurooncol 2024; 168:317-332. [PMID: 38630384 PMCID: PMC11147834 DOI: 10.1007/s11060-024-04672-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2024] [Accepted: 03/28/2024] [Indexed: 06/04/2024]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Patients with pediatric low-grade gliomas (pLGGs), the most common primary brain tumors in children, can often benefit from MAPK inhibitor (MAPKi) treatment. However, rapid tumor regrowth, also referred to as rebound growth, may occur once treatment is stopped, constituting a significant clinical challenge. METHODS Four patient-derived pediatric glioma models were investigated to model rebound growth in vitro based on viable cell counts in response to MAPKi treatment and withdrawal. A multi-omics dataset (RNA sequencing and LC-MS/MS based phospho-/proteomics) was generated to investigate possible rebound-driving mechanisms. Following in vitro validation, putative rebound-driving mechanisms were validated in vivo using the BT-40 orthotopic xenograft model. RESULTS Of the tested models, only a BRAFV600E-driven model (BT-40, with additional CDKN2A/Bdel) showed rebound growth upon MAPKi withdrawal. Using this model, we identified a rapid reactivation of the MAPK pathway upon MAPKi withdrawal in vitro, also confirmed in vivo. Furthermore, transient overactivation of key MAPK molecules at transcriptional (e.g. FOS) and phosphorylation (e.g. pMEK) levels, was observed in vitro. Additionally, we detected increased expression and secretion of cytokines (CCL2, CX3CL1, CXCL10 and CCL7) upon MAPKi treatment, maintained during early withdrawal. While increased cytokine expression did not have tumor cell intrinsic effects, presence of these cytokines in conditioned media led to increased attraction of microglia cells in vitro. CONCLUSION Taken together, these data indicate rapid MAPK reactivation upon MAPKi withdrawal as a tumor cell intrinsic rebound-driving mechanism. Furthermore, increased secretion of microglia-recruiting cytokines may play a role in treatment response and rebound growth upon withdrawal, warranting further evaluation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniela Kocher
- Hopp Children's Cancer Center Heidelberg (KiTZ), Heidelberg, Germany
- National Center for Tumor Diseases (NCT), NCT Heidelberg, a partnership between DKFZ and Heidelberg University Hospital, Heidelberg, Germany
- German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ) Heidelberg, Clinical Cooperation Unit Pediatric Oncology, Heidelberg, Germany
- Faculty of Biosciences, Heidelberg University, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Lei Cao
- Developmental Biology and Cancer Programme, Birth Defects Research Centre, Great Ormond Street Institute of Child Health, University College London, 30 Guilford Street, WC1N 1EH, London, UK
- Department of Neurosurgery, Beijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Romain Guiho
- Developmental Biology and Cancer Programme, Birth Defects Research Centre, Great Ormond Street Institute of Child Health, University College London, 30 Guilford Street, WC1N 1EH, London, UK
- Nantes Université, Oniris, INSERM, Regenerative Medicine and Skeleton, RMeS, UMR 1229, F-44000 Nantes, France
| | - Melanie Langhammer
- Institute of Molecular Medicine and Cell Research (IMMZ), Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
- Faculty of Biology, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Yun-Lu Lai
- Hopp Children's Cancer Center Heidelberg (KiTZ), Heidelberg, Germany
- National Center for Tumor Diseases (NCT), NCT Heidelberg, a partnership between DKFZ and Heidelberg University Hospital, Heidelberg, Germany
- German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ) Heidelberg, Clinical Cooperation Unit Pediatric Oncology, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Pauline Becker
- Hopp Children's Cancer Center Heidelberg (KiTZ), Heidelberg, Germany
- National Center for Tumor Diseases (NCT), NCT Heidelberg, a partnership between DKFZ and Heidelberg University Hospital, Heidelberg, Germany
- German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ) Heidelberg, Clinical Cooperation Unit Pediatric Oncology, Heidelberg, Germany
- Faculty of Medicine, Heidelberg University, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Hiba Hamdi
- Developmental Biology and Cancer Programme, Birth Defects Research Centre, Great Ormond Street Institute of Child Health, University College London, 30 Guilford Street, WC1N 1EH, London, UK
| | - Dennis Friedel
- Faculty of Biosciences, Heidelberg University, Heidelberg, Germany
- Department of Neuropathology, Heidelberg University Hospital, Heidelberg, Germany
- German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Clinical Cooperation Unit Neuropathology, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Florian Selt
- Hopp Children's Cancer Center Heidelberg (KiTZ), Heidelberg, Germany
- National Center for Tumor Diseases (NCT), NCT Heidelberg, a partnership between DKFZ and Heidelberg University Hospital, Heidelberg, Germany
- German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ) Heidelberg, Clinical Cooperation Unit Pediatric Oncology, Heidelberg, Germany
- KiTZ Clinical Trial Unit (ZIPO), Department of Pediatric Hematology and Oncology, Heidelberg University Hospital, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - David Vonhören
- Faculty of Biosciences, Heidelberg University, Heidelberg, Germany
- Department of Neuropathology, Heidelberg University Hospital, Heidelberg, Germany
- German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Clinical Cooperation Unit Neuropathology, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Julia Zaman
- Faculty of Biosciences, Heidelberg University, Heidelberg, Germany
- Department of Neuropathology, Heidelberg University Hospital, Heidelberg, Germany
- German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Clinical Cooperation Unit Neuropathology, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Gintvile Valinciute
- Hopp Children's Cancer Center Heidelberg (KiTZ), Heidelberg, Germany
- National Center for Tumor Diseases (NCT), NCT Heidelberg, a partnership between DKFZ and Heidelberg University Hospital, Heidelberg, Germany
- German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ) Heidelberg, Clinical Cooperation Unit Pediatric Oncology, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Sonja Herter
- Hopp Children's Cancer Center Heidelberg (KiTZ), Heidelberg, Germany
- National Center for Tumor Diseases (NCT), NCT Heidelberg, a partnership between DKFZ and Heidelberg University Hospital, Heidelberg, Germany
- German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ) Heidelberg, Clinical Cooperation Unit Pediatric Oncology, Heidelberg, Germany
- Faculty of Biosciences, Heidelberg University, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Daniel Picard
- Department of Pediatric Oncology, Hematology, and Clinical Immunology, Medical Faculty, and University Hospital Düsseldorf, Heinrich Heine University, Düsseldorf, Germany
- German Cancer Consortium (DKTK), Partner site Essen/Düsseldorf, Düsseldorf, Germany
- Institute of Neuropathology, Medical Faculty and University Hospital Düsseldorf, Heinrich Heine University, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Johanna Rettenmeier
- Hopp Children's Cancer Center Heidelberg (KiTZ), Heidelberg, Germany
- National Center for Tumor Diseases (NCT), NCT Heidelberg, a partnership between DKFZ and Heidelberg University Hospital, Heidelberg, Germany
- Faculty of Medicine, Heidelberg University, Heidelberg, Germany
- German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Division of Pediatric Neurooncology, Heidelberg, Germany
- Department of Pediatric Oncology, Hematology, Immunology and Pulmonology, Heidelberg University Hospital, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Kendra K Maass
- Hopp Children's Cancer Center Heidelberg (KiTZ), Heidelberg, Germany
- National Center for Tumor Diseases (NCT), NCT Heidelberg, a partnership between DKFZ and Heidelberg University Hospital, Heidelberg, Germany
- German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Division of Pediatric Neurooncology, Heidelberg, Germany
- Department of Pediatric Oncology, Hematology, Immunology and Pulmonology, Heidelberg University Hospital, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Kristian W Pajtler
- Hopp Children's Cancer Center Heidelberg (KiTZ), Heidelberg, Germany
- National Center for Tumor Diseases (NCT), NCT Heidelberg, a partnership between DKFZ and Heidelberg University Hospital, Heidelberg, Germany
- KiTZ Clinical Trial Unit (ZIPO), Department of Pediatric Hematology and Oncology, Heidelberg University Hospital, Heidelberg, Germany
- German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Division of Pediatric Neurooncology, Heidelberg, Germany
- Department of Pediatric Oncology, Hematology, Immunology and Pulmonology, Heidelberg University Hospital, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Marc Remke
- Pediatric Hematology and Oncology, University Children's Hospital, Saarland University, Homburg, Germany
| | - Andreas von Deimling
- Department of Neuropathology, Heidelberg University Hospital, Heidelberg, Germany
- German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Clinical Cooperation Unit Neuropathology, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Stefan Pusch
- Department of Neuropathology, Heidelberg University Hospital, Heidelberg, Germany
- German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Clinical Cooperation Unit Neuropathology, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Stefan M Pfister
- Hopp Children's Cancer Center Heidelberg (KiTZ), Heidelberg, Germany
- National Center for Tumor Diseases (NCT), NCT Heidelberg, a partnership between DKFZ and Heidelberg University Hospital, Heidelberg, Germany
- KiTZ Clinical Trial Unit (ZIPO), Department of Pediatric Hematology and Oncology, Heidelberg University Hospital, Heidelberg, Germany
- German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Division of Pediatric Neurooncology, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Ina Oehme
- Hopp Children's Cancer Center Heidelberg (KiTZ), Heidelberg, Germany
- National Center for Tumor Diseases (NCT), NCT Heidelberg, a partnership between DKFZ and Heidelberg University Hospital, Heidelberg, Germany
- German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ) Heidelberg, Clinical Cooperation Unit Pediatric Oncology, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - David T W Jones
- Hopp Children's Cancer Center Heidelberg (KiTZ), Heidelberg, Germany
- National Center for Tumor Diseases (NCT), NCT Heidelberg, a partnership between DKFZ and Heidelberg University Hospital, Heidelberg, Germany
- German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ) Heidelberg, Division of Pediatric Glioma Research, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Sebastian Halbach
- Institute of Molecular Medicine and Cell Research (IMMZ), Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
- German Consortium for Translational Cancer Research (DKTK), Freiburg, Germany, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany
- German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Tilman Brummer
- Institute of Molecular Medicine and Cell Research (IMMZ), Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
- German Consortium for Translational Cancer Research (DKTK), Freiburg, Germany, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany
- Centre for Biological Signaling Studies BIOSS, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Juan Pedro Martinez-Barbera
- Developmental Biology and Cancer Programme, Birth Defects Research Centre, Great Ormond Street Institute of Child Health, University College London, 30 Guilford Street, WC1N 1EH, London, UK
| | - Olaf Witt
- Hopp Children's Cancer Center Heidelberg (KiTZ), Heidelberg, Germany
- National Center for Tumor Diseases (NCT), NCT Heidelberg, a partnership between DKFZ and Heidelberg University Hospital, Heidelberg, Germany
- German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ) Heidelberg, Clinical Cooperation Unit Pediatric Oncology, Heidelberg, Germany
- KiTZ Clinical Trial Unit (ZIPO), Department of Pediatric Hematology and Oncology, Heidelberg University Hospital, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Till Milde
- Hopp Children's Cancer Center Heidelberg (KiTZ), Heidelberg, Germany.
- National Center for Tumor Diseases (NCT), NCT Heidelberg, a partnership between DKFZ and Heidelberg University Hospital, Heidelberg, Germany.
- German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ) Heidelberg, Clinical Cooperation Unit Pediatric Oncology, Heidelberg, Germany.
- KiTZ Clinical Trial Unit (ZIPO), Department of Pediatric Hematology and Oncology, Heidelberg University Hospital, Heidelberg, Germany.
| | - Romain Sigaud
- Hopp Children's Cancer Center Heidelberg (KiTZ), Heidelberg, Germany.
- National Center for Tumor Diseases (NCT), NCT Heidelberg, a partnership between DKFZ and Heidelberg University Hospital, Heidelberg, Germany.
- German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ) Heidelberg, Clinical Cooperation Unit Pediatric Oncology, Heidelberg, Germany.
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Pfaffenbach M, Bolduc PN, Xin Z, Gao F, Evans R, Fang T, Chodaparambil JV, Henry KL, Li P, Mathieu S, Metrick C, Vera Rebollar JA, Gu RF, Mccarl CA, Silbereis J, Peterson EA. Discovery of BIO-8169─A Highly Potent, Selective, and Brain-Penetrant IRAK4 Inhibitor for the Treatment of Neuroinflammation. J Med Chem 2024; 67:8383-8395. [PMID: 38695469 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.4c00560] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2024]
Abstract
Interleukin receptor associated kinase 4 (IRAK4) plays an important role in innate immune signaling through Toll-like and interleukin-1 receptors and represents an attractive target for the treatment of inflammatory diseases and cancer. We previously reported the development of a potent, selective, and brain-penetrant imidazopyrimidine series of IRAK4 inhibitors. However, lead molecule BIO-7488 (1) suffered from low solubility which led to variable PK, compound accumulation, and poor in vivo tolerability. Herein, we describe the discovery of a series of pyridone analogs with improved solubility which are highly potent, selective and demonstrate desirable PK profiles including good oral bioavailability and excellent brain penetration. BIO-8169 (2) reduced the in vivo production of pro-inflammatory cytokines, was well tolerated in safety studies in rodents and dog at margins well above the predicted efficacious exposure and showed promising results in a mouse model for multiple sclerosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Magnus Pfaffenbach
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Biogen Inc., 225 Binney Street, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02142, United States
| | - Philippe N Bolduc
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Biogen Inc., 225 Binney Street, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02142, United States
| | - Zhili Xin
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Biogen Inc., 225 Binney Street, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02142, United States
| | - Fang Gao
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Biogen Inc., 225 Binney Street, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02142, United States
| | - Ryan Evans
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Biogen Inc., 225 Binney Street, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02142, United States
| | - Terry Fang
- Department of Acute Neurology, Biogen Inc., 225 Binney Street, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02142, United States
| | - Jayanth V Chodaparambil
- Physical Biochemistry, Biogen Inc., 225 Binney Street, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02142, United States
| | - Kate L Henry
- Department of Acute Neurology, Biogen Inc., 225 Binney Street, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02142, United States
| | - Pei Li
- Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Biogen Inc., 225 Binney Street, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02142, United States
| | - Steven Mathieu
- Pharmaceutical Operations & Technology, Biogen Inc., 225 Binney Street, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02142, United States
| | - Claire Metrick
- Physical Biochemistry, Biogen Inc., 225 Binney Street, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02142, United States
| | - Jorge A Vera Rebollar
- Department of Multiple Sclerosis and Immunology, Biogen Inc., 225 Binney Street, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02142, United States
| | - Rong-Fang Gu
- Chemical Biology and Proteomics, Biogen Inc., Cambridge, Massachusetts 02142, United States
| | - Christie-Ann Mccarl
- Department of Multiple Sclerosis and Immunology, Biogen Inc., 225 Binney Street, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02142, United States
| | - John Silbereis
- Department of Multiple Sclerosis and Immunology, Biogen Inc., 225 Binney Street, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02142, United States
| | - Emily A Peterson
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Biogen Inc., 225 Binney Street, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02142, United States
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Da Silva DE, Richards CM, McRae SA, Riar I, Yang S(S, Zurfluh NE, Gibon J, Klegeris A. Extracellular mixed histones are neurotoxic and modulate select neuroimmune responses of glial cells. PLoS One 2024; 19:e0298748. [PMID: 38630734 PMCID: PMC11023449 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0298748] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2023] [Accepted: 01/29/2024] [Indexed: 04/19/2024] Open
Abstract
Although histone proteins are widely known for their intranuclear functions where they organize DNA, all five histone types can also be released into the extracellular space from damaged cells. Extracellular histones can interact with pattern recognition receptors of peripheral immune cells, including toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4), causing pro-inflammatory activation, which indicates they may act as damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) in peripheral tissues. Very limited information is available about functions of extracellular histones in the central nervous system (CNS). To address this knowledge gap, we applied mixed histones (MH) to cultured cells modeling neurons, microglia, and astrocytes. Microglia are the professional CNS immunocytes, while astrocytes are the main support cells for neurons. Both these cell types are critical for neuroimmune responses and their dysregulated activity contributes to neurodegenerative diseases. We measured effects of extracellular MH on cell viability and select neuroimmune functions of microglia and astrocytes. MH were toxic to cultured primary murine neurons and also reduced viability of NSC-34 murine and SH-SY5Y human neuron-like cells in TLR4-dependent manner. MH did not affect the viability of resting or immune-stimulated BV-2 murine microglia or U118 MG human astrocytic cells. When applied to BV-2 cells, MH enhanced secretion of the potential neurotoxin glutamate, but did not modulate the release of nitric oxide (NO), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF), C-X-C motif chemokine ligand 10 (CXCL10), or the overall cytotoxicity of lipopolysaccharide (LPS)- and/or interferon (IFN)-γ-stimulated BV-2 microglial cells towards NSC-34 neuron-like cells. We demonstrated, for the first time, that MH downregulated phagocytic activity of LPS-stimulated BV-2 microglia. However, MH also exhibited protective effect by ameliorating the cytotoxicity of LPS-stimulated U118 MG astrocytic cells towards SH-SY5Y neuron-like cells. Our data demonstrate extracellular MH could both damage neurons and alter neuroimmune functions of glial cells. These actions of MH could be targeted for treatment of neurodegenerative diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dylan E. Da Silva
- Department of Biology, University of British Columbia Okanagan Campus, University Way, Kelowna, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Christy M. Richards
- Department of Biology, University of British Columbia Okanagan Campus, University Way, Kelowna, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Seamus A. McRae
- Department of Biology, University of British Columbia Okanagan Campus, University Way, Kelowna, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Ishvin Riar
- Department of Biology, University of British Columbia Okanagan Campus, University Way, Kelowna, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Sijie (Shirley) Yang
- Department of Biology, University of British Columbia Okanagan Campus, University Way, Kelowna, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Noah E. Zurfluh
- Department of Biology, University of British Columbia Okanagan Campus, University Way, Kelowna, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Julien Gibon
- Department of Biology, University of British Columbia Okanagan Campus, University Way, Kelowna, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Andis Klegeris
- Department of Biology, University of British Columbia Okanagan Campus, University Way, Kelowna, British Columbia, Canada
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Kim H, Le B, Goshi N, Zhu K, Grodzki AC, Lein PJ, Zhao M, Seker E. Rat primary cortical cell tri-culture to study effects of amyloid-beta on microglia function. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2024.03.15.584736. [PMID: 38558989 PMCID: PMC10979983 DOI: 10.1101/2024.03.15.584736] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/04/2024]
Abstract
Introduction The etiology and progression of sporadic Alzheimer's Disease (AD) have been studied for decades. One proposed mechanism is that amyloid-beta (Aβ) proteins induce neuroinflammation, synapse loss, and neuronal cell death. Microglia play an especially important role in Aβ clearance, and alterations in microglial function due to aging or disease may result in Aβ accumulation and deleterious effects on neuronal function. However, studying these complex factors in vivo , where numerous confounding processes exist, is challenging, and until recently, in vitro models have not allowed sustained culture of microglia, astrocytes and neurons in the same culture. Here, we employ a tri-culture model of rat primary neurons, astrocytes, and microglia and compare it to co-culture (neurons and astrocytes) and mono-culture enriched for microglia to study microglial function (i.e., motility and Aβ clearance) and proteomic response to exogenous Aβ. Methods We established cortical co-culture (neurons and astrocytes), tri-culture (neurons, astrocytes, and microglia), and mono-culture (microglia) from perinatal rat pups. On days in vitro (DIV) 7 - 14, the cultures were exposed to fluorescently-labeled Aβ (FITC-Aβ) particles for varying durations. Images were analyzed to determine the number of FITC-Aβ particles after specific lengths of exposure. A group of cells were stained for βIII-tubulin, GFAP, and Iba1 for morphological analysis via quantitative fluorescence microscopy. Cytokine profiles from conditioned media were obtained. Live-cell imaging with images acquired every 5 minutes for 4 hours was employed to extract microglia motility parameters (e.g., Euclidean distance, migration speed, directionality ratio). Results and discussion FITC-Aβ particles were more effectively cleared in the tri-culture compared to the co-culture. This was attributed to microglia engulfing FITC-Aβ particles, as confirmed via epifluorescence and confocal microscopy. Adding FITC-Aβ significantly increased the size of microglia, but had no significant effect on neuronal surface coverage or astrocyte size. Analysis of the cytokine profile upon FITC-Aβ addition revealed a significant increase in proinflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-1α, IL-1β, IL-6) in tri-culture, but not co-culture. In addition, Aβ addition altered microglia motility marked by swarming-like motion with decreased Euclidean distance yet unaltered speed. These results highlight the importance of cell-cell communication in microglia function (e.g., motility and Aβ clearance) and the utility of the tri-culture model to further investigate microglia dysfunction in AD.
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Wang Y, Cheng W, Chen X, Cheng C, Zhang L, Huang W. Serum Proteomics Identified TAFI as a Potential Molecule Facilitating the Migration of Peripheral Monocytes to Damaged White Matter During Chronic Cerebral Hypoperfusion. Neurochem Res 2024; 49:597-616. [PMID: 37978153 DOI: 10.1007/s11064-023-04050-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2023] [Revised: 10/15/2023] [Accepted: 10/17/2023] [Indexed: 11/19/2023]
Abstract
Neuroinflammation is assumed as the critical pathophysiologic mechanism of white matter lesions (WMLs), and infiltrated peripheral monocyte-derived macrophages are implicated in the development of neuroinflammation. This study sought to explore the blood molecules that promote the migration of peripheral monocytes to the sites of WMLs. The serum protein expression profiles of patients and Sprague-Dawley rat models with WMLs were detected by data-independent acquisition (DIA) proteomics technique. Compared with corresponding control groups, we acquired 62 and 41 differentially expressed proteins (DEPs) in the serum of patients and model rats with WMLs respectively. Bioinformatics investigations demonstrated that these DEPs were linked to various Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathways and Gene Ontology (GO) terms involved in neuroinflammation. Afterward, we identified thrombin-activatable fibrinolysis inhibitor (TAFI) as a shared and overexpressed protein in clinical and animal serum samples, which was further verified by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Additionally, an upregulation of TAFI was also observed in the white matter of rat models, and the inhibition of TAFI impeded the migration of peripheral monocytes to the area of WMLs. In vitro experiments suggested that TAFI could enhance the migration ability of RAW264.7 cells and increase the expression of Ccr2. Our study demonstrates that neuroinflammatory signals can be detected in the peripheral blood of WMLs patients and model rats. TAFI may serve as a potential protein that promotes the migration of peripheral monocytes to WMLs regions, thereby providing a novel molecular target for further investigation into the interaction between the central and peripheral immune systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuhan Wang
- Department of Neurology, Xinqiao Hospital, The Army Medical University (Third Military Medical University), Chongqing, China
| | - Wenchao Cheng
- Department of Neurology, Xinqiao Hospital, The Army Medical University (Third Military Medical University), Chongqing, China
| | - Xiuying Chen
- Department of Neurology, Chongqing Emergency Medical Center, Chongqing University Central Hospital, Chongqing University, Chongqing, China
| | - Chang Cheng
- Department of Neurology, Xinqiao Hospital, The Army Medical University (Third Military Medical University), Chongqing, China
| | - Lan Zhang
- Department of Neurology, Xinqiao Hospital, The Army Medical University (Third Military Medical University), Chongqing, China
| | - Wen Huang
- Department of Neurology, Xinqiao Hospital, The Army Medical University (Third Military Medical University), Chongqing, China.
- Department of Neurology, Chongqing Emergency Medical Center, Chongqing University Central Hospital, Chongqing University, Chongqing, China.
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Mwema A, Gratpain V, Ucakar B, Vanvarenberg K, Perdaens O, van Pesch V, Muccioli GG, des Rieux A. Impact of calcitriol and PGD 2-G-loaded lipid nanocapsules on oligodendrocyte progenitor cell differentiation and remyelination. Drug Deliv Transl Res 2024:10.1007/s13346-024-01535-8. [PMID: 38366115 DOI: 10.1007/s13346-024-01535-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 01/26/2024] [Indexed: 02/18/2024]
Abstract
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a demyelinating and inflammatory disease of the central nervous system (CNS) in need of a curative treatment. MS research has recently focused on the development of pro-remyelinating treatments and neuroprotective therapies. Here, we aimed at favoring remyelination and reducing neuro-inflammation in a cuprizone mouse model of brain demyelination using nanomedicines. We have selected lipid nanocapsules (LNC) coated with the cell-penetrating peptide transactivator of translation (TAT), loaded with either a pro-remyelinating compound, calcitriol (Cal-LNC TAT), or an anti-inflammatory bioactive lipid, prostaglandin D2-glycerol ester (PGD2-G) (PGD2-G-LNC TAT). Following the characterization of these formulations, we showed that Cal-LNC TAT in combination with PGD2-G-LNC TAT increased the mRNA expression of oligodendrocyte differentiation markers both in the CG-4 cell line and in primary mixed glial cell (MGC) cultures. However, while the combination of Cal-LNC TAT and PGD2-G-LNC TAT showed promising results in vitro, no significant impact, in terms of remyelination, astrogliosis, and microgliosis, was observed in vivo in the corpus callosum of cuprizone-treated mice following intranasal administration. Thus, although calcitriol's beneficial effects have been abundantly described in the literature in the context of MS, here, we show that the different doses of calcitriol tested had a negative impact on the mice well-being and showed no beneficial effect in the cuprizone model in terms of remyelination and neuro-inflammation, alone and when combined with PGD2-G-LNC TAT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ariane Mwema
- Advanced Drug Delivery and Biomaterials, Louvain Drug Research Institute, Université catholique de Louvain, UCLouvain, Avenue E. Mounier 73, 1200, Brussels, Belgium
- Bioanalysis and Pharmacology of Bioactive Lipids, Louvain Drug Research Institute, Université catholique de Louvain, UCLouvain, Avenue E. Mounier 73, 1200, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Viridiane Gratpain
- Advanced Drug Delivery and Biomaterials, Louvain Drug Research Institute, Université catholique de Louvain, UCLouvain, Avenue E. Mounier 73, 1200, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Bernard Ucakar
- Advanced Drug Delivery and Biomaterials, Louvain Drug Research Institute, Université catholique de Louvain, UCLouvain, Avenue E. Mounier 73, 1200, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Kevin Vanvarenberg
- Advanced Drug Delivery and Biomaterials, Louvain Drug Research Institute, Université catholique de Louvain, UCLouvain, Avenue E. Mounier 73, 1200, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Océane Perdaens
- Cellular and Molecular Division, Institute of Neuroscience, Université catholique de Louvain, UCLouvain, Avenue E. Mounier 53, 1200, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Vincent van Pesch
- Cellular and Molecular Division, Institute of Neuroscience, Université catholique de Louvain, UCLouvain, Avenue E. Mounier 53, 1200, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Giulio G Muccioli
- Bioanalysis and Pharmacology of Bioactive Lipids, Louvain Drug Research Institute, Université catholique de Louvain, UCLouvain, Avenue E. Mounier 73, 1200, Brussels, Belgium.
| | - Anne des Rieux
- Advanced Drug Delivery and Biomaterials, Louvain Drug Research Institute, Université catholique de Louvain, UCLouvain, Avenue E. Mounier 73, 1200, Brussels, Belgium.
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Alavi O, Alizadeh A, Dehghani F, Alipour H, Tanideh N. Anti-inflammatory Effects of Umbilical Cord Mesenchymal Stem Cell and Autologous Conditioned Serum on Oligodendrocyte, Astrocyte, and Microglial Specific Gene in Cuprizone Animal Model. Curr Stem Cell Res Ther 2024; 19:71-82. [PMID: 36852798 DOI: 10.2174/1574888x18666230228102731] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2022] [Revised: 11/23/2022] [Accepted: 12/29/2022] [Indexed: 03/01/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Inflammation, myelin loss, astrocytosis, and microgliosis are pathological signs of the autoimmune and demyelinating disease known as multiple sclerosis (MS). Axonal and neuronal degenerations have basic molecular pathways. The remyelination process can be influenced by the secretome of mesenchymal stem cells due to their capacity for immunomodulation, differentiation, and neuroprotection. Microglial cells are divided into two subgroups: M1 and M2 phenotypes. A crucial component of the microglial function is the colony stimulating factor 1 receptor (CSF1R). We aimed to evaluate the immunomodulating effects of secretome and conditioned serum on the microglial phenotypes and improvement of demyelination in a cuprizone model of MS. METHODS The study used 48 male C57BL/6 mice, which were randomly distributed into 6 subgroups (n = 8), i.e., control, cuprizone, MSC (confluency 40% and 80%) secretome group, and blood derived conditioned serum (autologous and humanized). The animals were fed with 0.2% cuprizone diet for 12 weeks. Supplements were injected into the lateral tail vein using a 27-gauge needle every 3 days 500 μl per injection. RESULTS At 14 days after transplantation, animals from each group were sacrificed and analyzed by Real time PCR. The results showed that the administration of MSC secretome can efficiently reduce expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-1, IL6 and TNF-α) in the corpus callosum; also, conditioned serum downregulated IL-1. Moreover, the oligodendrocyte-specific gene was upregulated by secretome and conditioned serum treatment. Also, the expression of microglial- specific gene was reduced after treatment. CONCLUSION These findings demonstrated that the secretome isolated from MSCs used as a therapy decreased and increased the M1 and M2 levels, respectively, to control neuroinflammation in CPZ mice. In conclusion, the current study showed the viability of devising a method to prepare suitable MSCs and secreted factor to cure neurodegenerative diseases, as well as the capability of regulating MSC secretome patterns by manipulating the cell density.
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Affiliation(s)
- Omid Alavi
- Department of Tissue Engineering, School of Advanced Medical Sciences and Technologies, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran
- Student Research Committee, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran
| | - Aliakbar Alizadeh
- Department of Tissue Engineering, School of Advanced Medical Sciences and Technologies, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran
| | - Farzaneh Dehghani
- Department of Tissue Engineering, School of Advanced Medical Sciences and Technologies, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran
- Histomorphometry and Stereology Research Center, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran
- Department of Anatomical Sciences, School of Medicine, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran
| | - Hamed Alipour
- Department of Tissue Engineering, School of Advanced Medical Sciences and Technologies, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran
- Student Research Committee, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran
| | - Nader Tanideh
- Stem Cells Technology Research Center, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iranaz Iran
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran
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8
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McFleder RL, Makhotkina A, Groh J, Keber U, Imdahl F, Peña Mosca J, Peteranderl A, Wu J, Tabuchi S, Hoffmann J, Karl AK, Pagenstecher A, Vogel J, Beilhack A, Koprich JB, Brotchie JM, Saliba AE, Volkmann J, Ip CW. Brain-to-gut trafficking of alpha-synuclein by CD11c + cells in a mouse model of Parkinson's disease. Nat Commun 2023; 14:7529. [PMID: 37981650 PMCID: PMC10658151 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-43224-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2023] [Accepted: 11/03/2023] [Indexed: 11/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Inflammation in the brain and gut is a critical component of several neurological diseases, such as Parkinson's disease (PD). One trigger of the immune system in PD is aggregation of the pre-synaptic protein, α-synuclein (αSyn). Understanding the mechanism of propagation of αSyn aggregates is essential to developing disease-modifying therapeutics. Using a brain-first mouse model of PD, we demonstrate αSyn trafficking from the brain to the ileum of male mice. Immunohistochemistry revealed that the ileal αSyn aggregations are contained within CD11c+ cells. Using single-cell RNA sequencing, we demonstrate that ileal CD11c+ cells are microglia-like and the same subtype of cells is activated in the brain and ileum of PD mice. Moreover, by utilizing mice expressing the photo-convertible protein, Dendra2, we show that CD11c+ cells traffic from the brain to the ileum. Together these data provide a mechanism of αSyn trafficking between the brain and gut.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rhonda L McFleder
- Department of Neurology, University Hospital of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | | | - Janos Groh
- Institute of Neuronal Cell Biology, Technical University Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Ursula Keber
- Department of Neuropathology, Philipps University of Marburg, Marburg, Germany
| | - Fabian Imdahl
- Helmholtz Institute for RNA-based Infection Research (HIRI), Helmholtz-Center for Infection Research (HZI), Würzburg, Germany
| | - Josefina Peña Mosca
- Department of Internal Medicine II, Center for Experimental Molecular Medicine (ZEMM), Würzburg University Hospital, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Alina Peteranderl
- Department of Neurology, University Hospital of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Jingjing Wu
- Department of Neurology, University Hospital of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Sawako Tabuchi
- Department of Neurology, University Hospital of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Jan Hoffmann
- Department of Neurology, University Hospital of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Ann-Kathrin Karl
- Department of Neurology, University Hospital of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Axel Pagenstecher
- Department of Neuropathology, Philipps University of Marburg, Marburg, Germany
| | - Jörg Vogel
- Helmholtz Institute for RNA-based Infection Research (HIRI), Helmholtz-Center for Infection Research (HZI), Würzburg, Germany
| | - Andreas Beilhack
- Department of Internal Medicine II, Center for Experimental Molecular Medicine (ZEMM), Würzburg University Hospital, Würzburg, Germany
| | - James B Koprich
- Atuka Inc., Toronto, ON, Canada
- Krembil Research Institute, Toronto Western Hospital, University Health Network, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Jonathan M Brotchie
- Atuka Inc., Toronto, ON, Canada
- Krembil Research Institute, Toronto Western Hospital, University Health Network, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Antoine-Emmanuel Saliba
- Helmholtz Institute for RNA-based Infection Research (HIRI), Helmholtz-Center for Infection Research (HZI), Würzburg, Germany
- Faculty of Medicine, Institute of Molecular Infection Biology (IMIB), University of Würzburg, Josef-Schneider-Str. 2, 97080, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Jens Volkmann
- Department of Neurology, University Hospital of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Chi Wang Ip
- Department of Neurology, University Hospital of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany.
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9
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Kipp M. Astrocytes: Lessons Learned from the Cuprizone Model. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:16420. [PMID: 38003609 PMCID: PMC10671869 DOI: 10.3390/ijms242216420] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2023] [Revised: 11/06/2023] [Accepted: 11/14/2023] [Indexed: 11/26/2023] Open
Abstract
A diverse array of neurological and psychiatric disorders, including multiple sclerosis, Alzheimer's disease, and schizophrenia, exhibit distinct myelin abnormalities at both the molecular and histological levels. These aberrations are closely linked to dysfunction of oligodendrocytes and alterations in myelin structure, which may be pivotal factors contributing to the disconnection of brain regions and the resulting characteristic clinical impairments observed in these conditions. Astrocytes, which significantly outnumber neurons in the central nervous system by a five-to-one ratio, play indispensable roles in the development, maintenance, and overall well-being of neurons and oligodendrocytes. Consequently, they emerge as potential key players in the onset and progression of a myriad of neurological and psychiatric disorders. Furthermore, targeting astrocytes represents a promising avenue for therapeutic intervention in such disorders. To gain deeper insights into the functions of astrocytes in the context of myelin-related disorders, it is imperative to employ appropriate in vivo models that faithfully recapitulate specific aspects of complex human diseases in a reliable and reproducible manner. One such model is the cuprizone model, wherein metabolic dysfunction in oligodendrocytes initiates an early response involving microglia and astrocyte activation, culminating in multifocal demyelination. Remarkably, following the cessation of cuprizone intoxication, a spontaneous process of endogenous remyelination occurs. In this review article, we provide a historical overview of studies investigating the responses and putative functions of astrocytes in the cuprizone model. Following that, we list previously published works that illuminate various aspects of the biology and function of astrocytes in this multiple sclerosis model. Some of the studies are discussed in more detail in the context of astrocyte biology and pathology. Our objective is twofold: to provide an invaluable overview of this burgeoning field, and, more importantly, to inspire fellow researchers to embark on experimental investigations to elucidate the multifaceted functions of this pivotal glial cell subpopulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Markus Kipp
- Institute of Anatomy, Rostock University Medical Center, 18057 Rostock, Germany
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10
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Elbaz-Hayoun S, Rinsky B, Hagbi-Levi S, Grunin M, Chowers I. CCR1 mediates Müller cell activation and photoreceptor cell death in macular and retinal degeneration. eLife 2023; 12:e81208. [PMID: 37903056 PMCID: PMC10615370 DOI: 10.7554/elife.81208] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2022] [Accepted: 10/04/2023] [Indexed: 11/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Mononuclear cells are involved in the pathogenesis of retinal diseases, including age-related macular degeneration (AMD). Here, we examined the mechanisms that underlie macrophage-driven retinal cell death. Monocytes were extracted from patients with AMD and differentiated into macrophages (hMdɸs), which were characterized based on proteomics, gene expression, and ex vivo and in vivo properties. Using bioinformatics, we identified the signaling pathway involved in macrophage-driven retinal cell death, and we assessed the therapeutic potential of targeting this pathway. We found that M2a hMdɸs were associated with retinal cell death in retinal explants and following adoptive transfer in a photic injury model. Moreover, M2a hMdɸs express several CCRI (C-C chemokine receptor type 1) ligands. Importantly, CCR1 was upregulated in Müller cells in models of retinal injury and aging, and CCR1 expression was correlated with retinal damage. Lastly, inhibiting CCR1 reduced photic-induced retinal damage, photoreceptor cell apoptosis, and retinal inflammation. These data suggest that hMdɸs, CCR1, and Müller cells work together to drive retinal and macular degeneration, suggesting that CCR1 may serve as a target for treating these sight-threatening conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah Elbaz-Hayoun
- Department of Ophthalmology, Hadassah Medical Center, Faculty of Medicine, The Hebrew University of JerusalemJerusalemIsrael
| | - Batya Rinsky
- Department of Ophthalmology, Hadassah Medical Center, Faculty of Medicine, The Hebrew University of JerusalemJerusalemIsrael
| | - Shira Hagbi-Levi
- Department of Ophthalmology, Hadassah Medical Center, Faculty of Medicine, The Hebrew University of JerusalemJerusalemIsrael
| | - Michelle Grunin
- Department of Ophthalmology, Hadassah Medical Center, Faculty of Medicine, The Hebrew University of JerusalemJerusalemIsrael
| | - Itay Chowers
- Department of Ophthalmology, Hadassah Medical Center, Faculty of Medicine, The Hebrew University of JerusalemJerusalemIsrael
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11
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Grabarczyk M, Ksiazek-Winiarek D, Glabinski A, Szpakowski P. Dietary Polyphenols Decrease Chemokine Release by Human Primary Astrocytes Responding to Pro-Inflammatory Cytokines. Pharmaceutics 2023; 15:2294. [PMID: 37765263 PMCID: PMC10537369 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics15092294] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2023] [Revised: 08/26/2023] [Accepted: 09/01/2023] [Indexed: 09/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Astrocytes are considered to be the dominant cell fraction of the central nervous system. They play a supportive and protective role towards neurons, and regulate inflammatory processes; they thus make suitable targets for drugs and supplements, such as polyphenolic compounds. However, due to their wide range, knowledge of their anti-inflammatory potential remains relatively incomplete. The aim of this study was therefore to determine whether myricetin and chrysin are able to decrease chemokine release in reactive astrocytes. To assess the antioxidant and anti-inflammatory potential of polyphenols, human primary astrocytes were cultured in the presence of a reactive and neurotoxic astrocyte-inducing cytokine mixture (TNF-α, IL-1a, C1q), either alone or in the presence of myricetin or chrysin. The examined polyphenols were able to modify the secretion of chemokines by human cortical astrocytes, especially CCL5 (chrysin), CCL1 (myricetin) and CCL2 (both), while cell viability was not affected. Surprisingly, the compounds did not demonstrate any antioxidant properties in the astrocyte cultures.
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12
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Rowhanirad S, Taherianfard M. The neuroprotective effects of Chalcones from Ashitaba on cuprizone-induced demyelination via modulation of brain-derived neurotrophic factor and tumor necrosis factor α. Brain Behav 2023; 13:e3144. [PMID: 37403256 PMCID: PMC10498084 DOI: 10.1002/brb3.3144] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2022] [Revised: 06/04/2023] [Accepted: 06/21/2023] [Indexed: 07/06/2023] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Multiple sclerosis (MS) is the most common demyelinating disease of the central nervous system. However, the limitations of available therapeutic strategies are frustrating, both in terms of their low efficacy and multiple side effects. Previous studies showed that natural compounds such as Chalcones possess neuroprotective effects on neurodegenerative disorders. However, few studies have so far been published on the potential effects of Chalcones on treating demyelinating disease. The present study was designed to investigate the effects of Chalcones from Ashitaba (ChA) on cuprizone-induced noxious changes in the C57BL6 mice model of MS. METHODS The mice received normal diets (Control group: CNT), or Cuprizone-supplemented diets either without ChA (Cuprizone group: CPZ) or with low or high (300, 600 mg/kg/day) doses of ChA (ChA-treated groups: CPZ+ChA300/600). Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFα) levels, demyelination scores in the corpus callosum (CC), and cognitive impairment were evaluated using the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, histological, and Y-maze tests, respectively. RESULTS The findings showed that ChA Co-treatment significantly reduced the extent of demyelination in the CC and the serum and brain levels of TNFα in the ChA-treated groups compared to the CPZ group. Besides, treatment with a higher dose of ChA significantly improved the behavioral responses and BDNF levels in the serum and brain of the CPZ+ChA600 group when compared with the CPZ group. CONCLUSION The present study provided evidence for the neuroprotective effects of ChA on cuprizone-induced demyelination and behavioral dysfunction in C57BL/6 mice, possibly by modulating TNFα secretion and BDNF expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Soodeh Rowhanirad
- Division of Physiology, Department of Basic Science, School of Veterinary MedicineShiraz UniversityShirazIran
| | - Mahnaz Taherianfard
- Division of Physiology, Department of Basic Science, School of Veterinary MedicineShiraz UniversityShirazIran
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13
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Chiang W, Urban JM, Yanchik-Slade F, Stout A, Nilsson BL, Gelbard HA, Krauss TD. Hybrid Amyloid Quantum Dot Nanoassemblies to Probe Neuroinflammatory Damage. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.08.30.555592. [PMID: 37693630 PMCID: PMC10491264 DOI: 10.1101/2023.08.30.555592] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/12/2023]
Abstract
Various oligomeric species of amyloid-beta have been proposed to play different immunogenic roles in the cellular pathology of Alzheimer's Disease. However, investigating the role of a homogenous single oligomeric species has been difficult due to highly dynamic oligomerization and fibril formation kinetics that convert between many species. Here we report the design and construction of a quantum dot mimetic for larger spherical oligomeric amyloid species as an "endogenously" fluorescent proxy for this cytotoxic species to investigate its role in inducing inflammatory and stress response states in neuronal and glial cell types.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wesley Chiang
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY, 14642
| | - Jennifer M. Urban
- Department of Chemistry, Rochester, New York 14627-0216, United States
| | | | - Angela Stout
- Center for Neurotherapeutics Discovery and Department of Neurology, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY, 14642
| | | | - Harris A. Gelbard
- Center for Neurotherapeutics Discovery and Department of Neurology, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY, 14642
- Departments of Pediatrics, Neuroscience, and Microbiology and Immunology, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY, 14642
| | - Todd D. Krauss
- Department of Chemistry, Rochester, New York 14627-0216, United States
- The Institute of Optics, Rochester, New York 14627-0216, United States
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14
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Todd BP, Luo Z, Gilkes N, Chimenti MS, Peterson Z, Mix MR, Harty JT, Nickl-Jockschat T, Ferguson PJ, Bassuk AG, Newell EA. Selective neuroimmune modulation by type I interferon drives neuropathology and neurologic dysfunction following traumatic brain injury. Acta Neuropathol Commun 2023; 11:134. [PMID: 37596685 PMCID: PMC10436463 DOI: 10.1186/s40478-023-01635-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2023] [Accepted: 08/05/2023] [Indexed: 08/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Accumulating evidence suggests that type I interferon (IFN-I) signaling is a key contributor to immune cell-mediated neuropathology in neurodegenerative diseases. Recently, we demonstrated a robust upregulation of type I interferon-stimulated genes in microglia and astrocytes following experimental traumatic brain injury (TBI). The specific molecular and cellular mechanisms by which IFN-I signaling impacts the neuroimmune response and neuropathology following TBI remains unknown. Using the lateral fluid percussion injury model (FPI) in adult male mice, we demonstrated that IFN α/β receptor (IFNAR) deficiency resulted in selective and sustained blockade of type I interferon-stimulated genes following TBI as well as decreased microgliosis and monocyte infiltration. Molecular alteration of reactive microglia also occurred with diminished expression of genes needed for MHC class I antigen processing and presentation following TBI. This was associated with decreased accumulation of cytotoxic T cells in the brain. The IFNAR-dependent modulation of the neuroimmune response was accompanied by protection from secondary neuronal death, white matter disruption, and neurobehavioral dysfunction. These data support further efforts to leverage the IFN-I pathway for novel, targeted therapy of TBI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brittany P Todd
- Medical Scientist Training Program, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, USA
- Interdisciplinary Graduate Program in Neuroscience, University of Iowa, Iowa City, USA
| | - Zili Luo
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Iowa, 200 Hawkins Drive, Iowa City, IA, 52242, USA
| | - Noah Gilkes
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Iowa, 200 Hawkins Drive, Iowa City, IA, 52242, USA
| | - Michael S Chimenti
- Bioinformatics Division, Iowa Institute of Human Genetics, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, USA
| | - Zeru Peterson
- Department of Neuroscience and Pharmacology, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, USA
| | - Madison R Mix
- Medical Scientist Training Program, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, USA
- Department of Pathology and Interdisciplinary Graduate Program in Immunology, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, USA
| | - John T Harty
- Department of Pathology and Interdisciplinary Graduate Program in Immunology, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, USA
| | - Thomas Nickl-Jockschat
- Department of Neuroscience and Pharmacology, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, USA
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, USA
| | - Polly J Ferguson
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Iowa, 200 Hawkins Drive, Iowa City, IA, 52242, USA
| | - Alexander G Bassuk
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Iowa, 200 Hawkins Drive, Iowa City, IA, 52242, USA
| | - Elizabeth A Newell
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Iowa, 200 Hawkins Drive, Iowa City, IA, 52242, USA.
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15
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Todd BP, Luo Z, Gilkes N, Chimenti MS, Peterson Z, Mix M, Harty JT, Nickl-Jockschat T, Ferguson PJ, Bassuk AG, Newell EA. Selective neuroimmune modulation by type I interferon drives neuropathology and neurologic dysfunction following traumatic brain injury. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.06.06.543774. [PMID: 37333385 PMCID: PMC10274693 DOI: 10.1101/2023.06.06.543774] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/20/2023]
Abstract
Accumulating evidence suggests that type I interferon (IFN-I) signaling is a key contributor to immune cell-mediated neuropathology in neurodegenerative diseases. Recently, we demonstrated a robust upregulation of type I interferon-stimulated genes in microglia and astrocytes following experimental traumatic brain injury (TBI). The specific molecular and cellular mechanisms by which IFN-I signaling impacts the neuroimmune response and neuropathology following TBI remains unknown. Using the lateral fluid percussion injury model (FPI) in adult male mice, we demonstrated that IFN α/β receptor (IFNAR) deficiency resulted in selective and sustained blockade of type I interferon-stimulated genes following TBI as well as decreased microgliosis and monocyte infiltration. Phenotypic alteration of reactive microglia also occurred with diminished expression of molecules needed for MHC class I antigen processing and presentation following TBI. This was associated with decreased accumulation of cytotoxic T cells in the brain. The IFNAR-dependent modulation of the neuroimmune response was accompanied by protection from secondary neuronal death, white matter disruption, and neurobehavioral dysfunction. These data support further efforts to leverage the IFN-I pathway for novel, targeted therapy of TBI.
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16
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Cordner R, Jhun M, Panwar A, Wang H, Gull N, Murali R, McAbee JH, Mardiros A, Sanchez-Takei A, Mazer MW, Fan X, Jouanneau E, Yu JS, Black KL, Wheeler CJ. Glioma immunotherapy enhancement and CD8-specific sialic acid cleavage by isocitrate dehydrogenase (IDH)-1. Oncogene 2023:10.1038/s41388-023-02713-7. [PMID: 37161052 DOI: 10.1038/s41388-023-02713-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2017] [Revised: 04/26/2023] [Accepted: 04/28/2023] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
The promise of adaptive cancer immunotherapy in treating highly malignant tumors such as glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) can only be realized through expanding its benefits to more patients. Alleviating various modes of immune suppression has so far failed to achieve such expansion, but exploiting endogenous immune enhancers among mutated cancer genes could represent a more direct approach to immunotherapy improvement. We found that Isocitrate Dehydrogenase-1 (IDH1), which is commonly mutated in gliomas, enhances glioma vaccine efficacy in mice and discerns long from short survivors after vaccine therapy in GBM patients. Extracellular IDH1 directly enhanced T cell responses to multiple tumor antigens, and prolonged experimental glioma cell lysis. Moreover, IDH1 specifically bound to and exhibited sialidase activity against CD8. By contrast, mutant IDH1R132H lacked sialidase activity, delayed killing in glioma cells, and decreased host survival after immunotherapy. Overall, our findings identify IDH1 as an immunotherapeutic enhancer that mediates the known T cell-enhancing reaction of CD8 desialylation. This uncovers a new axis for immunotherapeutic improvement in GBM and other cancers, reveals novel physiological and molecular functions of IDH1, and hints at an unexpectedly direct link between lytic T cell function and metabolic activity in target cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryan Cordner
- Department of Neurosurgery, Maxine Dunitz Neurosurgical Institute, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA, USA
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Biology, Brigham Young University, UT, Provo, USA
| | - Michelle Jhun
- Department of Neurosurgery, Maxine Dunitz Neurosurgical Institute, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Akanksha Panwar
- Department of Neurosurgery, Maxine Dunitz Neurosurgical Institute, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - HongQiang Wang
- Department of Neurosurgery, Maxine Dunitz Neurosurgical Institute, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Nicole Gull
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Center for Bioinformatics and Functional Genomics, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Ramachandran Murali
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Research Division of Immunology, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Joseph H McAbee
- Department of Neurosurgery, Maxine Dunitz Neurosurgical Institute, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA, USA
- Surgical Neurology Branch, National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, NIH, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Armen Mardiros
- Department of Neurosurgery, Maxine Dunitz Neurosurgical Institute, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA, USA
- A2 Biotherapeutics, Agoura Hills, CA, USA
| | - Akane Sanchez-Takei
- Department of Neurosurgery, Maxine Dunitz Neurosurgical Institute, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Mia W Mazer
- Department of Neurosurgery, Maxine Dunitz Neurosurgical Institute, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Xuemo Fan
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, 8700 Beverly Blvd., Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Emmanuel Jouanneau
- Department of Neurosurgery, Maxine Dunitz Neurosurgical Institute, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA, USA
- Department of Neurosurgery, Neurological Hospital and INSERM 842 Research Unit, Claude Bernard University, Lyon, France
| | - John S Yu
- Department of Neurosurgery, Maxine Dunitz Neurosurgical Institute, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Keith L Black
- Department of Neurosurgery, Maxine Dunitz Neurosurgical Institute, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Christopher J Wheeler
- Department of Neurosurgery, Maxine Dunitz Neurosurgical Institute, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA, USA.
- International Brain Mapping Foundation, Society for Brain Mapping & Therapeutics, 860 Via De La Paz, Suite E-1, Pacific Palisades, CA, USA.
- StemVax Therapeutics (subsidiary of NovAccess Global), 8584 E. Washington St. #127, Chagrin Falls, OH, USA.
- T-Neuro Pharma, PO Box 781, Aptos, CA, USA.
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17
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ELBini I, Neili NE. Potassium channels at the crossroads of neuroinflammation and myelination in experimental models of multiple sclerosis. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2023; 653:140-146. [PMID: 36870238 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2023.02.066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2023] [Revised: 02/16/2023] [Accepted: 02/23/2023] [Indexed: 03/06/2023]
Abstract
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic demyelinating disease of the central nervous system (CNS), characterized by the presence of localized demyelinating lesions accompanied by an inflammatory reaction, evidently leading to neurodegeneration. A number of ion channels have been implicated in the progression of MS, most notably in cell types involved in the immune response. In the present study, we investigated the implication of two ion channel isoforms, Kv1.1 and Kv1.3, in experimental models of neuroinflammation and demyelination. Immunohistochemical staining of brain sections from the mouse cuprizone model displayed high levels Kv1.3 expression. In an astroglial cellular model of inflammation, stimulation with LPS resulted also in a higher expression of Kv1.1 and Kv1.3, while the introduction of 4-Aminopyridine (4-AP) exacerbated the release of pro-inflammatory chemokine CXCL10. In the oligodendroglial cellular model of demyelination, the alteration in expression levels of Kv1.1 and Kv1.3 may be correlated with that of MBP levels. Indirect co-culture was attempted to further understand the communication between astrocytes and oligodendrocytes, The addition of reactive astrocytes' secretome significantly inhibited the production of MBP, this inhibition was accompanied by an alteration in the expression of Kv1.1 and Kv1.3. The addition of 4-AP in this case did not alleviate the decrease in MBP production. In conclusion, the use of 4-AP generated controversial results, suggesting 4-AP may be used in the early stages of the disease or in the remission phases to stimulate myelination, yet in induced toxic inflammatory environment, 4-AP exacerbated this effect.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ines ELBini
- Laboratoire des Biomolécules, Venins et Applications Théranostiques (LR20IPT01), Institut Pasteur de Tunis, Université de Tunis El Manar, Tunis, 1002, Tunisia.
| | - Nour-Elhouda Neili
- Laboratoire des Biomolécules, Venins et Applications Théranostiques (LR20IPT01), Institut Pasteur de Tunis, Université de Tunis El Manar, Tunis, 1002, Tunisia.
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18
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Trageser KJ, Yang EJ, Smith C, Iban-Arias R, Oguchi T, Sebastian-Valverde M, Iqbal UH, Wu H, Estill M, Al Rahim M, Raval U, Herman FJ, Zhang YJ, Petrucelli L, Pasinetti GM. Inflammasome-Mediated Neuronal-Microglial Crosstalk: a Therapeutic Substrate for the Familial C9orf72 Variant of Frontotemporal Dementia/Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis. Mol Neurobiol 2023; 60:4004-4016. [PMID: 37010807 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-023-03315-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2023] [Accepted: 03/12/2023] [Indexed: 04/04/2023]
Abstract
Intronic G4C2 hexanucleotide repeat expansions (HRE) of C9orf72 are the most common cause of familial variants of frontotemporal dementia/amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (FTD/ALS). G4C2 HREs in C9orf72 undergo non-canonical repeat-associated translation, producing dipeptide repeat (DPR) proteins, with various deleterious impacts on cellular homeostasis. While five different DPRs are produced, poly(glycine-arginine) (GR) is amongst the most toxic and is the only DPR to accumulate in the associated clinically relevant anatomical locations of the brain. Previous work has demonstrated the profound effects of a poly (GR) model of C9orf72 FTD/ALS, including motor impairment, memory deficits, neurodegeneration, and neuroinflammation. Neuroinflammation is hypothesized to be a driving factor in the disease course; microglia activation is present prior to symptom onset and persists throughout the disease. Here, using an established mouse model of C9orf72 FTD/ALS, we investigate the contributions of the nod-like receptor pyrin-containing 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome in the pathogenesis of FTD/ALS. We find that inflammasome-mediated neuroinflammation is increased with microglial activation, cleavage of caspase-1, production of IL-1β, and upregulation of Cxcl10 in the brain of C9orf72 FTD/ALS mice. Excitingly, we find that genetic ablation of Nlrp3 significantly improved survival, protected behavioral deficits, and prevented neurodegeneration suggesting a novel mechanism involving HRE-mediated induction of innate immunity. The findings provide experimental evidence of the integral role of HRE in inflammasome-mediated innate immunity in the C9orf72 variant of FTD/ALS pathogenesis and suggest the NLRP3 inflammasome as a therapeutic target.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kyle J Trageser
- Department of Neurology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA
| | - Eun-Jeong Yang
- Department of Neurology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA
| | - Chad Smith
- Department of Neurology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA
| | - Ruth Iban-Arias
- Department of Neurology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA
| | - Tatsunori Oguchi
- Department of Neurology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA
| | | | - Umar Haris Iqbal
- Department of Neurology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA
| | - Henry Wu
- Department of Neurology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA
| | - Molly Estill
- Department of Neuroscience, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA
| | - Md Al Rahim
- Department of Neurology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA
| | - Urdhva Raval
- Department of Neurology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA
| | - Francis J Herman
- Department of Neurology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA
| | - Yong Jie Zhang
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, 32224, USA
| | | | - Giulio Maria Pasinetti
- Department of Neurology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA.
- Geriatric Research, Education and Clinical Center, James J. Peters Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Bronx, NY, 10468, USA.
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19
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Wang Q, Zheng J, Pettersson S, Reynolds R, Tan EK. The link between neuroinflammation and the neurovascular unit in synucleinopathies. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2023; 9:eabq1141. [PMID: 36791205 PMCID: PMC9931221 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.abq1141] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2022] [Accepted: 01/19/2023] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
The neurovascular unit (NVU) is composed of vascular cells, glial cells, and neurons. As a fundamental functional module in the central nervous system, the NVU maintains homeostasis in the microenvironment and the integrity of the blood-brain barrier. Disruption of the NVU and interactions among its components are involved in the pathophysiology of synucleinopathies, which are characterized by the pathological accumulation of α-synuclein. Neuroinflammation contributes to the pathophysiology of synucleinopathies, including Parkinson's disease, multiple system atrophy, and dementia with Lewy bodies. This review aims to summarize the neuroinflammatory response of glial cells and vascular cells in the NVU. We also review neuroinflammation in the context of the cross-talk between glial cells and vascular cells, between glial cells and pericytes, and between microglia and astroglia. Last, we discuss how α-synuclein affects neuroinflammation and how neuroinflammation influences the aggregation and spread of α-synuclein and analyze different properties of α-synuclein in synucleinopathies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qing Wang
- Department of Neurology, Zhujiang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510282, China
| | - Jialing Zheng
- Department of Neurology, Zhujiang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510282, China
| | - Sven Pettersson
- ASEAN Microbiome Nutrition Centre, National Neuroscience Institute, Singapore 308433, Singapore
- Karolinska Institutet, Department of Odontology, 171 77 Solna, Sweden
- Faculty of Medical Sciences, Sunway University, Subang Jaya, 47500 Selangor, Malaysia
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, National University Singapore, Singapore 117545, Singapore
| | - Richard Reynolds
- Department of Brain Sciences, Imperial College London, Hammersmith Hospital Campus, Burlington Danes Building, Du Cane Road, London W12 0NN, UK
- Centre for Molecular Neuropathology, Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore 308232, Singapore
| | - Eng-King Tan
- Department of Neurology, National Neuroscience Institute, Singapore General Hospital, Duke-NUS Medical School, Singapore, Singapore
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20
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Kelty TJ, Dashek RJ, Arnold WD, Rector RS. Emerging Links between Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease and Neurodegeneration. Semin Liver Dis 2023; 43:77-88. [PMID: 36764305 DOI: 10.1055/s-0043-1762585] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/12/2023]
Abstract
The association between liver and brain health has gained attention as biomarkers of liver function have been revealed to predict neurodegeneration. The liver is a central regulator in metabolic homeostasis. However, in nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), homeostasis is disrupted which can result in extrahepatic organ pathologies. Emerging literature provides insight into the mechanisms behind the liver-brain health axis. These include the increased production of liver-derived factors that promote insulin resistance and loss of neuroprotective factors under conditions of NAFLD that increase insulin resistance in the central nervous system. In addition, elevated proinflammatory cytokines linked to NAFLD negatively impact the blood-brain barrier and increase neuroinflammation. Furthermore, exacerbated dyslipidemia associated with NAFLD and hepatic dysfunction can promote altered brain bioenergetics and oxidative stress. In this review, we summarize the current knowledge of the crosstalk between liver and brain as it relates to the pathophysiology between NAFLD and neurodegeneration, with an emphasis on Alzheimer's disease. We also highlight knowledge gaps and future areas for investigation to strengthen the potential link between NAFLD and neurodegeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Taylor J Kelty
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Missouri - Columbia, Columbia, Missouri
- Department of Nutrition and Exercise Physiology, University of Missouri - Columbia, Columbia, Missouri
- NextGen Precision Health, University of Missouri - Columbia, Columbia, Missouri
| | - Ryan J Dashek
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Missouri - Columbia, Columbia, Missouri
- NextGen Precision Health, University of Missouri - Columbia, Columbia, Missouri
- Comparative Medicine Program, University of Missouri - Columbia, Columbia, Missouri
| | - W David Arnold
- NextGen Precision Health, University of Missouri - Columbia, Columbia, Missouri
- Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, University of Missouri - Columbia, Columbia, Missouri
| | - R Scott Rector
- Department of Nutrition and Exercise Physiology, University of Missouri - Columbia, Columbia, Missouri
- NextGen Precision Health, University of Missouri - Columbia, Columbia, Missouri
- Research Service, Harry S. Truman Memorial Veterans' Hospital, Columbia, Missouri
- Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Department of Medicine, University of Missouri - Columbia, Columbia, Missouri
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21
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Runge K, Fiebich BL, Kuzior H, Rausch J, Maier SJ, Dersch R, Nickel K, Domschke K, Tebartz van Elst L, Endres D. Altered cytokine levels in the cerebrospinal fluid of adult patients with autism spectrum disorder. J Psychiatr Res 2023; 158:134-142. [PMID: 36584491 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpsychires.2022.12.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2021] [Revised: 11/08/2022] [Accepted: 12/20/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Despite intensive research, the etiological causes of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) remain elusive. Immunological mechanisms have recently been studied more frequently in the context of maternal autoantibodies and infections, as well as altered cytokine profiles. For the detection of immunological processes in the central nervous system, analyses of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) are advantageous due to its proximity to the brain. However, cytokine studies in the CSF of ASD patients are sparse. METHODS CSF was collected from a patient sample of 24 adults (m = 16, f = 8, age: 30.3 ± 11.6 years) with ASD and compared to a previously published mentally healthy control sample of 39 neurological patients with idiopathic intracranial hypertension. A magnetic bead multiplexing immunoassay was used to measure multiple cytokines in CSF. RESULTS Significantly decreased interferon-γ-induced protein-10 (p = 0.001) and monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (p = 0.041) levels as well as significantly higher interleukin-8 levels (p = 0.041) were detected in patients with ASD compared with the control group. CONCLUSION The main finding of this study is an altered cytokine profile in adult patients with ASD compared to the control group. This may indicate immune dysregulation in a subgroup of adult ASD patients. Further studies in larger cohorts that examine a broader spectrum of chemokines and cytokines in general are needed to detect possible specific immune signatures in ASD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kimon Runge
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Medical Center - University of Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Bernd L Fiebich
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Medical Center - University of Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Hanna Kuzior
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Medical Center - University of Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Jördis Rausch
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Medical Center - University of Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Simon J Maier
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Medical Center - University of Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Rick Dersch
- Clinic of Neurology and Neurophysiology, Medical Center - University of Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Kathrin Nickel
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Medical Center - University of Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Katharina Domschke
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Medical Center - University of Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany; Center for Basics in Neuromodulation, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Ludger Tebartz van Elst
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Medical Center - University of Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany.
| | - Dominique Endres
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Medical Center - University of Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
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22
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Hashimoto S, Matsuba Y, Takahashi M, Kamano N, Watamura N, Sasaguri H, Takado Y, Yoshihara Y, Saito T, Saido TC. Neuronal glutathione loss leads to neurodegeneration involving gasdermin activation. Sci Rep 2023; 13:1109. [PMID: 36670138 PMCID: PMC9859798 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-27653-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2022] [Accepted: 01/05/2023] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Accumulating evidence suggests that glutathione loss is closely associated with the progression of neurodegenerative disorders. Here, we found that the neuronal conditional-knockout (KO) of glutamyl-cysteine-ligase catalytic-subunit (GCLC), a rate-limiting enzyme for glutathione synthesis, induced brain atrophy accompanied by neuronal loss and neuroinflammation. GCLC-KO mice showed activation of C1q, which triggers engulfment of neurons by microglia, and disease-associated-microglia (DAM), suggesting that activation of microglia is linked to the neuronal loss. Furthermore, gasdermins, which regulate inflammatory form of cell death, were upregulated in the brains of GCLC-KO mice, suggesting the contribution of pyroptosis to neuronal cell death in these animals. In particular, GSDME-deficiency significantly attenuated the hippocampal atrophy and changed levels of DAM markers in GCLC-KO mice. Finally, we found that the expression of GCLC was decreased around amyloid plaques in AppNL-G-F AD model mice. AppNL-G-F mouse also exhibited inflammatory events similar to GCLC-KO mouse. We propose a mechanism by which a vicious cycle of oxidative stress and neuroinflammation enhances neurodegenerative processes. Furthermore, GCLC-KO mouse will serve as a useful tool to investigate the molecular mechanisms underlying neurodegeneration and in the development of new treatment strategies to address neurodegenerative diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shoko Hashimoto
- Laboratory for Proteolytic Neuroscience, RIKEN Center for Brain Science, 2-1 Hirosawa, Wako, Saitama, 351-0198, Japan. .,Pioneering Research Division, Medical Innovation Research Center, Shiga University of Medical Science, Seta Tsukinowa-Cho, Otsu, Shiga, 520-2192, Japan.
| | - Yukio Matsuba
- Laboratory for Proteolytic Neuroscience, RIKEN Center for Brain Science, 2-1 Hirosawa, Wako, Saitama, 351-0198, Japan
| | - Mika Takahashi
- Laboratory for Proteolytic Neuroscience, RIKEN Center for Brain Science, 2-1 Hirosawa, Wako, Saitama, 351-0198, Japan
| | - Naoko Kamano
- Laboratory for Proteolytic Neuroscience, RIKEN Center for Brain Science, 2-1 Hirosawa, Wako, Saitama, 351-0198, Japan
| | - Naoto Watamura
- Laboratory for Proteolytic Neuroscience, RIKEN Center for Brain Science, 2-1 Hirosawa, Wako, Saitama, 351-0198, Japan
| | - Hiroki Sasaguri
- Laboratory for Proteolytic Neuroscience, RIKEN Center for Brain Science, 2-1 Hirosawa, Wako, Saitama, 351-0198, Japan.,Dementia Pathophysiology Collaboration Unit, RIKEN Center for Brain Science, 2-1 Hirosawa, Wako, Saitama, 351-0198, Japan
| | - Yuhei Takado
- Department of Functional Brain Imaging, National Institutes for Quantum Science and Technology, 4-9-1 Anagawa, Inage-Ku, Chiba, 263-8555, Japan
| | - Yoshihiro Yoshihara
- Laboratory for Systems Molecular Ethology, RIKEN Center for Brain Science, 2-1 Hirosawa, Wako, Saitama, 351-0198, Japan
| | - Takashi Saito
- Laboratory for Proteolytic Neuroscience, RIKEN Center for Brain Science, 2-1 Hirosawa, Wako, Saitama, 351-0198, Japan.,Department of Neurocognitive Science, Institute of Brain Science, Nagoya City University Graduate School of Medical Sciences, 1 Kawasumi, Mizuho-Cho, Mizuho-Ku, Nagoya, 467-8601, Japan.,Department of Neuroscience and Pathobiology, Research Institute of Environmental Medicine, Nagoya University, Furo-Cho, Chikusa-Ku, Nagoya, Aichi, 464-8601, Japan
| | - Takaomi C Saido
- Laboratory for Proteolytic Neuroscience, RIKEN Center for Brain Science, 2-1 Hirosawa, Wako, Saitama, 351-0198, Japan.
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23
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Chen Z, Hu W, Mendez MJ, Gossman ZC, Chomyk A, Boylan BT, Kidd GJ, Phares TW, Bergmann CC, Trapp BD. Neuroprotection by Preconditioning in Mice is Dependent on MyD88-Mediated CXCL10 Expression in Endothelial Cells. ASN Neuro 2023; 15:17590914221146365. [PMID: 36591943 PMCID: PMC9810995 DOI: 10.1177/17590914221146365] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2022] [Revised: 11/11/2022] [Accepted: 11/28/2022] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
The central nervous system (CNS) can be preconditioned to resist damage by peripheral pretreatment with low-dose gram-negative bacterial endotoxin lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Underlying mechanisms associated with transient protection of the cerebral cortex against traumatic brain injury include increased neuronal production of antiapoptotic and neurotrophic molecules, microglial-mediated displacement of inhibitory presynaptic terminals innervating the soma of cortical projection neurons, and synchronized firing of cortical projection neurons. However, the cell types and signaling responsible for these neuronal and microglial changes are unknown. A fundamental question is whether LPS penetrates the CNS or acts on the luminal surface of brain endothelial cells, thereby triggering an indirect parenchymal neuroprotective response. The present study shows that a low-dose intraperitoneal LPS treatment increases brain endothelial cell activation markers CD54, but does not open the blood-brain barrier or alter brain endothelial cell tight junctions as assessed by electron microscopy. NanoString nCounter transcript analyses of CD31-positive brain endothelial cells further revealed significant upregulation of Cxcl10, C3, Ccl2, Il1β, Cxcl2, and Cxcl1, consistent with identification of myeloid differentiation primary response 88 (MyD88) as a regulator of these transcripts by pathway analysis. Conditional genetic endothelial cell gene ablation approaches demonstrated that both MyD88-dependent Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) signaling and Cxcl10 expression are essential for LPS-induced neuroprotection and microglial activation. These results suggest that C-X-C motif chemokine ligand 10 (CXCL10) production by endothelial cells in response to circulating TLR ligands may directly or indirectly signal to CXCR3 on neurons and/or microglia. Targeted activation of brain endothelial receptors may thus provide an attractive approach for inducing transient neuroprotection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhihong Chen
- Department of Neurosciences, Lerner Research Institute,
Cleveland
Clinic, Cleveland, OH, USA
| | - Weiwei Hu
- Department of Neurosciences, Lerner Research Institute,
Cleveland
Clinic, Cleveland, OH, USA
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Basic Medical Sciences,
Zhejiang
University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Mynor J. Mendez
- Department of Neurosciences, Lerner Research Institute,
Cleveland
Clinic, Cleveland, OH, USA
| | - Zachary C. Gossman
- Department of Neurosciences, Lerner Research Institute,
Cleveland
Clinic, Cleveland, OH, USA
| | - Anthony Chomyk
- Department of Neurosciences, Lerner Research Institute,
Cleveland
Clinic, Cleveland, OH, USA
| | - Brendan T. Boylan
- Department of Neurosciences, Lerner Research Institute,
Cleveland
Clinic, Cleveland, OH, USA
- Department of Pathology, Case Western Reserve University School of
Medicine, Cleveland, OH, USA
| | - Grahame J. Kidd
- Department of Neurosciences, Lerner Research Institute,
Cleveland
Clinic, Cleveland, OH, USA
| | - Timothy W. Phares
- Department of Neurosciences, Lerner Research Institute,
Cleveland
Clinic, Cleveland, OH, USA
| | - Cornelia C. Bergmann
- Department of Neurosciences, Lerner Research Institute,
Cleveland
Clinic, Cleveland, OH, USA
| | - Bruce D. Trapp
- Department of Neurosciences, Lerner Research Institute,
Cleveland
Clinic, Cleveland, OH, USA
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24
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Molecular and spatial heterogeneity of microglia in Rasmussen encephalitis. Acta Neuropathol Commun 2022; 10:168. [PMID: 36411471 PMCID: PMC9677917 DOI: 10.1186/s40478-022-01472-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2022] [Accepted: 11/02/2022] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Rasmussen encephalitis (RE) is a rare childhood neurological disease characterized by progressive unilateral loss of function, hemispheric atrophy and drug-resistant epilepsy. Affected brain tissue shows signs of infiltrating cytotoxic T-cells, microglial activation, and neuronal death, implicating an inflammatory disease process. Recent studies have identified molecular correlates of inflammation in RE, but cell-type-specific mechanisms remain unclear. We used single-nucleus RNA-sequencing (snRNA-seq) to assess gene expression across multiple cell types in brain tissue resected from two children with RE. We found transcriptionally distinct microglial populations enriched in RE compared to two age-matched individuals with unaffected brain tissue and two individuals with Type I focal cortical dysplasia (FCD). Specifically, microglia in RE tissues demonstrated increased expression of genes associated with cytokine signaling, interferon-mediated pathways, and T-cell activation. We extended these findings using spatial proteomic analysis of tissue from four surgical resections to examine expression profiles of microglia within their pathological context. Microglia that were spatially aggregated into nodules had increased expression of dynamic immune regulatory markers (PD-L1, CD14, CD11c), T-cell activation markers (CD40, CD80) and were physically located near distinct CD4+ and CD8+ lymphocyte populations. These findings help elucidate the complex immune microenvironment of RE.
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25
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Savya SP, Li F, Lam S, Wellman SM, Stieger KC, Chen K, Eles JR, Kozai TDY. In vivo spatiotemporal dynamics of astrocyte reactivity following neural electrode implantation. Biomaterials 2022; 289:121784. [PMID: 36103781 PMCID: PMC10231871 DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2022.121784] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2022] [Revised: 08/24/2022] [Accepted: 08/29/2022] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
Brain computer interfaces (BCIs), including penetrating microelectrode arrays, enable both recording and stimulation of neural cells. However, device implantation inevitably causes injury to brain tissue and induces a foreign body response, leading to reduced recording performance and stimulation efficacy. Astrocytes in the healthy brain play multiple roles including regulating energy metabolism, homeostatic balance, transmission of neural signals, and neurovascular coupling. Following an insult to the brain, they are activated and gather around the site of injury. These reactive astrocytes have been regarded as one of the main contributors to the formation of a glial scar which affects the performance of microelectrode arrays. This study investigates the dynamics of astrocytes within the first 2 weeks after implantation of an intracortical microelectrode into the mouse brain using two-photon microscopy. From our observation astrocytes are highly dynamic during this period, exhibiting patterns of process extension, soma migration, morphological activation, and device encapsulation that are spatiotemporally distinct from other glial cells, such as microglia or oligodendrocyte precursor cells. This detailed characterization of astrocyte reactivity will help to better understand the tissue response to intracortical devices and lead to the development of more effective intervention strategies to improve the functional performance of neural interfacing technology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sajishnu P Savya
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA; Northwestern University, USA
| | - Fan Li
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA; Center for Neural Basis of Cognition, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA; Computational Modeling & Simulation PhD Program, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Stephanie Lam
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA; Center for Neural Basis of Cognition, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Steven M Wellman
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA; Center for Neural Basis of Cognition, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Kevin C Stieger
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA; Center for Neural Basis of Cognition, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Keying Chen
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA; Center for Neural Basis of Cognition, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - James R Eles
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA; Center for Neural Basis of Cognition, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Takashi D Y Kozai
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA; Center for Neural Basis of Cognition, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA; Center for Neuroscience, University of Pittsburgh, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA; McGowan Institute for Regenerative Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA; NeuroTech Center, University of Pittsburgh Brain Institute, Pittsburgh, PA, USA.
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26
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Britton R, Liu AT, Rege SV, Adams JM, Akrapongpisak L, Le D, Alcantara-Lee R, Estrada RA, Ray R, Ahadi S, Gallager I, Yang CF, Minami SS, Braithwaite SP, Czirr E, Campbell MK. Molecular and histological correlates of cognitive decline across age in male C57BL/6J mice. Brain Behav 2022; 12:e2736. [PMID: 35971662 PMCID: PMC9480918 DOI: 10.1002/brb3.2736] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2021] [Revised: 07/01/2022] [Accepted: 07/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Increasing age is the number one risk factor for developing cognitive decline and neurodegenerative disease. Aged humans and mice exhibit numerous molecular changes that contribute to a decline in cognitive function and increased risk of developing age-associated diseases. Here, we characterize multiple age-associated changes in male C57BL/6J mice to understand the translational utility of mouse aging. METHODS Male C57BL/6J mice from various ages between 2 and 24 months of age were used to assess behavioral, as well as, histological and molecular changes across three modalities: neuronal, microgliosis/neuroinflammation, and the neurovascular unit (NVU). Additionally, a cohort of 4- and 22-month-old mice was used to assess blood-brain barrier (BBB) breakdown. Mice in this cohort were treated with a high, acute dose of lipopolysaccharide (LPS, 10 mg/kg) or saline control 6 h prior to sacrifice followed by tail vein injection of 0.4 kDa sodium fluorescein (100 mg/kg) 2 h later. RESULTS Aged mice showed a decline in cognitive and motor abilities alongside decreased neurogenesis, proliferation, and synapse density. Further, neuroinflammation and circulating proinflammatory cytokines were increased in aged mice. Additionally, we found changes at the BBB, including increased T cell infiltration in multiple brain regions and an exacerbation in BBB leakiness following chemical insult with age. There were also a number of readouts that were unchanged with age and have limited utility as markers of aging in male C57BL/6J mice. CONCLUSIONS Here we propose that these changes may be used as molecular and histological readouts that correspond to aging-related behavioral decline. These comprehensive findings, in the context of the published literature, are an important resource toward deepening our understanding of normal aging and provide an important tool for studying aging in mice.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Angela T Liu
- Alkahest, Inc., San Carlos, California, USA.,Coda Biotherapeutics, South San Francisco, California, USA
| | | | | | - Lily Akrapongpisak
- Alkahest, Inc., San Carlos, California, USA.,University of Queensland, Herston, Queensland, Australia
| | - David Le
- Alkahest, Inc., San Carlos, California, USA.,Fountain Therapeutics, South San Francisco, California, USA
| | | | | | - Rebecca Ray
- Alkahest, Inc., San Carlos, California, USA.,202 Chives Way, Walnut Creek, California, USA
| | - Sara Ahadi
- Alkahest, Inc., San Carlos, California, USA
| | | | | | | | | | - Eva Czirr
- Alkahest, Inc., San Carlos, California, USA.,Confluence Therapeutics, South San Francisco, California, USA
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Mendiola AS, Church KA, Cardona SM, Vanegas D, Garcia SA, Macklin W, Lira SA, Ransohoff RM, Kokovay E, Lin CHA, Cardona AE. Defective fractalkine-CX3CR1 signaling aggravates neuroinflammation and affects recovery from cuprizone-induced demyelination. J Neurochem 2022; 162:430-443. [PMID: 35560167 PMCID: PMC9427683 DOI: 10.1111/jnc.15616] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2021] [Revised: 04/08/2022] [Accepted: 04/11/2022] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Microglia have been implicated in multiple sclerosis (MS) pathogenesis. The fractalkine receptor CX3CR1 limits the activation of pathogenic microglia and the human polymorphic CX3CR1I249/M280 (hCX3CR1I249/M280 ) variant increases disease progression in models of MS. However, the role of hCX3CR1I249/M280 variant on microglial activation and central nervous system repair mechanisms remains unknown. Therefore, using transgenic mice expressing the hCX3CR1I249/M280 variant, we aimed to determine the contribution of defective CX3CR1 signaling to neuroinflammation and remyelination in the cuprizone model of focal demyelination. Here, we report that mice expressing hCX3CR1I249/M280 exhibit marked demyelination and microgliosis following acute cuprizone treatment. Nanostring gene expression analysis in demyelinated lesions showed that hCX3CR1I249/M280 but not CX3CR1-deficient mice up-regulated the cuprizone-induced gene profile linked to inflammatory, oxidative stress, and phagocytic pathways. Although CX3CR1-deficient (CX3CR1-KO) and fractalkine-deficient (FKN-KO) mice displayed a comparable demyelination and microglial activation phenotype to hCX3CR1I249/M280 mice, only CX3CR1-deficient and CX3CR1-WT mice showed significant myelin recovery 1 week from cuprizone withdrawal. Confocal microscopy showed that hCX3CR1I249/M280 variant inhibits the generation of cells involved in myelin repair. Our results show that defective fractalkine signaling contributes to regional differences in demyelination, and suggest that the CX3CR1 pathway activity may be a key mechanism for limiting toxic gene responses in neuroinflammation. Cover Image for this issue: https://doi.org/10.1111/jnc.15416.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew S. Mendiola
- Department of Molecular Microbiology & Immunology, The University of Texas at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX 78249, USA
- Current address: Gladstone Institutes, San Francisco, California, 94158, USA
| | - Kaira A. Church
- Department of Molecular Microbiology & Immunology, The University of Texas at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX 78249, USA
| | - Sandra M. Cardona
- Department of Molecular Microbiology & Immunology, The University of Texas at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX 78249, USA
- South Texas Center for Emerging Infectious Diseases, The University of Texas at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX 78249, USA
| | - Difernando Vanegas
- Department of Molecular Microbiology & Immunology, The University of Texas at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX 78249, USA
| | - Shannon A. Garcia
- Department of Molecular Microbiology & Immunology, The University of Texas at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX 78249, USA
| | - Wendy Macklin
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, CO 80045, USA
| | - Sergio A. Lira
- Precision Immunology Institute Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA
| | | | - Erzsebet Kokovay
- Cell Systems and Anatomy, UT-Health Science Center San Antonio, San Antonio TX 78229, USA
- Barshop Institute of Longevity and Aging Studies, San Antonio, TX 78245, USA
| | - Chin-Hsing Annie Lin
- Department of Integrative Biology, The University of Texas at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX 78249, USA
| | - Astrid E. Cardona
- Department of Molecular Microbiology & Immunology, The University of Texas at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX 78249, USA
- South Texas Center for Emerging Infectious Diseases, The University of Texas at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX 78249, USA
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Wittekindt M, Kaddatz H, Joost S, Staffeld A, Bitar Y, Kipp M, Frintrop L. Different Methods for Evaluating Microglial Activation Using Anti-Ionized Calcium-Binding Adaptor Protein-1 Immunohistochemistry in the Cuprizone Model. Cells 2022; 11:cells11111723. [PMID: 35681418 PMCID: PMC9179561 DOI: 10.3390/cells11111723] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2022] [Revised: 05/17/2022] [Accepted: 05/19/2022] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Microglia play an important role in the pathology of various central nervous system disorders, including multiple sclerosis (MS). While different methods exist to evaluate the extent of microglia activation, comparative studies investigating the sensitivity of these methods are missing for most models. In this study, we systematically evaluated which of the three commonly used histological methods (id est, quantification of microglia density, densitometrically evaluated staining intensity, or cellular morphology based on the determination of a ramification index, all measured in anti-ionized calcium-binding adaptor protein-1 (IBA1) immunohistochemical stains) is the most sensitive method to detect subtle changes in the microglia activation status in the context of MS. To this end, we used the toxin-induced cuprizone model which allows the experimental induction of a highly reproducible demyelination in several central nervous system regions, paralleled by early microglia activation. In this study, we showed that after 3 weeks of cuprizone intoxication, all methods reveal a significant microglia activation in the white matter corpus callosum. In contrast, in the affected neocortical grey matter, the evaluation of anti-IBA1 cell morphologies was the most sensitive method to detect subtle changes of microglial activation. The results of this study provide a useful guide for future immunohistochemical evaluations in the cuprizone and other neurodegenerative models.
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29
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Zirngibl M, Assinck P, Sizov A, Caprariello AV, Plemel JR. Oligodendrocyte death and myelin loss in the cuprizone model: an updated overview of the intrinsic and extrinsic causes of cuprizone demyelination. Mol Neurodegener 2022; 17:34. [PMID: 35526004 PMCID: PMC9077942 DOI: 10.1186/s13024-022-00538-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 26.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2021] [Accepted: 04/08/2022] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
The dietary consumption of cuprizone – a copper chelator – has long been known to induce demyelination of specific brain structures and is widely used as model of multiple sclerosis. Despite the extensive use of cuprizone, the mechanism by which it induces demyelination are still unknown. With this review we provide an updated understanding of this model, by showcasing two distinct yet overlapping modes of action for cuprizone-induced demyelination; 1) damage originating from within the oligodendrocyte, caused by mitochondrial dysfunction or reduced myelin protein synthesis. We term this mode of action ‘intrinsic cell damage’. And 2) damage to the oligodendrocyte exerted by inflammatory molecules, brain resident cells, such as oligodendrocytes, astrocytes, and microglia or peripheral immune cells – neutrophils or T-cells. We term this mode of action ‘extrinsic cellular damage’. Lastly, we summarize recent developments in research on different forms of cell death induced by cuprizone, which could add valuable insights into the mechanisms of cuprizone toxicity. With this review we hope to provide a modern understanding of cuprizone-induced demyelination to understand the causes behind the demyelination in MS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Zirngibl
- Faculty of Medicine & Dentistry, Neuroscience and Mental Health Institute, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada
| | - Peggy Assinck
- Wellcome Trust- MRC Cambridge Stem Cell Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK.,Centre for Regenerative Medicine, Institute for Regeneration and Repair, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Anastasia Sizov
- Faculty of Medicine & Dentistry, Neuroscience and Mental Health Institute, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada
| | - Andrew V Caprariello
- Department of Clinical Neurosciences, Hotchkiss Brain Institute, University of Calgary, Cumming School of Medicine, Calgary, Canada
| | - Jason R Plemel
- Faculty of Medicine & Dentistry, Neuroscience and Mental Health Institute, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada. .,Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada. .,Department of Medicine, Division of Neurology, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada.
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30
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Rg1 exerts protective effect in CPZ-induced demyelination mouse model via inhibiting CXCL10-mediated glial response. Acta Pharmacol Sin 2022; 43:563-576. [PMID: 34103690 PMCID: PMC8888649 DOI: 10.1038/s41401-021-00696-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2020] [Accepted: 05/11/2021] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Myelin damage and abnormal remyelination processes lead to central nervous system dysfunction. Glial activation-induced microenvironment changes are characteristic features of the diseases with myelin abnormalities. We previously showed that ginsenoside Rg1, a main component of ginseng, ameliorated MPTP-mediated myelin damage in mice, but the underlying mechanisms are unclear. In this study we investigated the effects of Rg1 and mechanisms in cuprizone (CPZ)-induced demyelination mouse model. Mice were treated with CPZ solution (300 mg· kg-1· d-1, ig) for 5 weeks; from week 2, the mice received Rg1 (5, 10, and 20 mg· kg-1· d-1, ig) for 4 weeks. We showed that Rg1 administration dose-dependently alleviated bradykinesia and improved CPZ-disrupted motor coordination ability in CPZ-treated mice. Furthermore, Rg1 administration significantly decreased demyelination and axonal injury in pathological assays. We further revealed that the neuroprotective effects of Rg1 were associated with inhibiting CXCL10-mediated modulation of glial response, which was mediated by NF-κB nuclear translocation and CXCL10 promoter activation. In microglial cell line BV-2, we demonstrated that the effects of Rg1 on pro-inflammatory and migratory phenotypes of microglia were related to CXCL10, while Rg1-induced phagocytosis of microglia was not directly related to CXCL10. In CPZ-induced demyelination mouse model, injection of AAV-CXCL10 shRNA into mouse lateral ventricles 3 weeks prior CPZ treatment occluded the beneficial effects of Rg1 administration in behavioral and pathological assays. In conclusion, CXCL10 mediates the protective role of Rg1 in CPZ-induced demyelination mouse model. This study provides new insight into potential disease-modifying therapies for myelin abnormalities.
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Mann CN, Devi SS, Kersting CT, Bleem AV, Karch CM, Holtzman DM, Gallardo G. Astrocytic α2-Na +/K + ATPase inhibition suppresses astrocyte reactivity and reduces neurodegeneration in a tauopathy mouse model. Sci Transl Med 2022; 14:eabm4107. [PMID: 35171651 DOI: 10.1126/scitranslmed.abm4107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most dominant form of dementia characterized by the deposition of extracellular amyloid plaques and intracellular neurofibrillary tau tangles (NFTs). In addition to these pathologies, an emerging pathophysiological mechanism that influences AD is neuroinflammation. Astrocytes are a vital type of glial cell that contribute to neuroinflammation, and reactive astrocytes, or astrogliosis, are a well-known pathological feature of AD. However, the mechanisms by which astrocytes contribute to the neurodegenerative process in AD have not been fully elucidated. Here, we showed that astrocytic α2-Na+/K+ adenosine triphosphatase (α2-NKA) is elevated in postmortem human brain tissue from AD and progressive nuclear palsy, a primary tauopathy. The increased astrocytic α2-NKA was also recapitulated in a mouse model of tauopathy. Pharmacological inhibition of α2-NKA robustly suppressed neuroinflammation and reduced brain atrophy. In addition, α2-NKA knockdown in tauopathy mice halted the accumulation of tau pathology. We also demonstrated that α2-NKA promoted tauopathy, in part, by regulating the proinflammatory protein lipocalin-2 (Lcn2). Overexpression of Lcn2 in tauopathy mice increased tau pathology, and prolonged Lcn2 exposure to primary neurons promoted tau uptake in vitro. These studies collectively highlight the contribution of reactive astrocytes to tau pathogenesis in mice and define α2-NKA as a major regulator of astrocytic-dependent neuroinflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carolyn N Mann
- Department of Neurology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA.,Hope Center for Neurological Disorders, Washington University, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Shamulailatpam Shreedarshanee Devi
- Department of Neurology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA.,Hope Center for Neurological Disorders, Washington University, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Corey T Kersting
- Department of Neurology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA.,Hope Center for Neurological Disorders, Washington University, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Amber V Bleem
- Department of Neurology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA.,Hope Center for Neurological Disorders, Washington University, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Celeste M Karch
- Hope Center for Neurological Disorders, Washington University, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA.,Department of Psychiatry, Washington University in St. Louis School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA.,Charles F. and Joanne Knight Alzheimer's Disease Research Center, Washington University, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - David M Holtzman
- Department of Neurology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA.,Hope Center for Neurological Disorders, Washington University, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA.,Charles F. and Joanne Knight Alzheimer's Disease Research Center, Washington University, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Gilbert Gallardo
- Department of Neurology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA.,Hope Center for Neurological Disorders, Washington University, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
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32
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Sen MK, Mahns DA, Coorssen JR, Shortland PJ. The roles of microglia and astrocytes in phagocytosis and myelination: Insights from the cuprizone model of multiple sclerosis. Glia 2022; 70:1215-1250. [PMID: 35107839 PMCID: PMC9302634 DOI: 10.1002/glia.24148] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2021] [Revised: 01/10/2022] [Accepted: 01/11/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
In human demyelinating diseases such as multiple sclerosis (MS), an imbalance between demyelination and remyelination can trigger progressive degenerative processes. The clearance of myelin debris (phagocytosis) from the site of demyelination by microglia is critically important to achieve adequate remyelination and to slow the progression of the disease. However, how microglia phagocytose the myelin debris, and why clearance is impaired in MS, is not fully known; likewise, the role of the microglia in remyelination remains unclear. Recent studies using cuprizone (CPZ) as an animal model of central nervous system demyelination revealed that the up‐regulation of signaling proteins in microglia facilitates effective phagocytosis of myelin debris. Moreover, during demyelination, protective mediators are released from activated microglia, resulting in the acceleration of remyelination in the CPZ model. In contrast, inadequate microglial activation or recruitment to the site of demyelination, and the production of toxic mediators, impairs remyelination resulting in progressive demyelination. In addition to the microglia‐mediated phagocytosis, astrocytes play an important role in the phagocytic process by recruiting microglia to the site of demyelination and producing regenerative mediators. The current review is an update of these emerging findings from the CPZ animal model, discussing the roles of microglia and astrocytes in phagocytosis and myelination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monokesh K Sen
- School of Medicine, Western Sydney University, Penrith, Australia
| | - David A Mahns
- School of Medicine, Western Sydney University, Penrith, Australia
| | - Jens R Coorssen
- Faculty of Applied Health Sciences and Faculty of Mathematics & Science, Brock University, St. Cathari, Canada
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Candadai AA, Liu F, Verma A, Adil MS, Alfarhan M, Fagan SC, Somanath PR, Narayanan SP. Neuroprotective Effects of Fingolimod in a Cellular Model of Optic Neuritis. Cells 2021; 10:cells10112938. [PMID: 34831161 PMCID: PMC8616192 DOI: 10.3390/cells10112938] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2021] [Revised: 10/19/2021] [Accepted: 10/21/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Visual dysfunction resulting from optic neuritis (ON) is one of the most common clinical manifestations of multiple sclerosis (MS), characterized by loss of retinal ganglion cells, thinning of the nerve fiber layer, and inflammation to the optic nerve. Current treatments available for ON or MS are only partially effective, specifically target the inflammatory phase, and have limited effects on long-term disability. Fingolimod (FTY) is an FDA-approved immunomodulatory agent for MS therapy. The objective of the current study was to evaluate the neuroprotective properties of FTY in the cellular model of ON-associated neuronal damage. R28 retinal neuronal cell damage was induced through treatment with tumor necrosis factor-α (TNFα). In our cell viability analysis, FTY treatment showed significantly reduced TNFα-induced neuronal death. Treatment with FTY attenuated the TNFα-induced changes in cell survival and cell stress signaling molecules. Furthermore, immunofluorescence studies performed using various markers indicated that FTY treatment protects the R28 cells against the TNFα-induced neurodegenerative changes by suppressing reactive oxygen species generation and promoting the expression of neuronal markers. In conclusion, our study suggests neuroprotective effects of FTY in an in vitro model of optic neuritis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amritha A. Candadai
- Clinical and Experimental Therapeutics Program, College of Pharmacy, University of Georgia, Augusta, GA 30912, USA; (A.A.C.); (F.L.); (A.V.); (M.S.A.); (M.A.); (S.C.F.); (P.R.S.)
- Charlie Norwood VA Medical Center, Augusta, GA 30912, USA
- Culver Vision Discovery Institute, Augusta University, Augusta, GA 30912, USA
| | - Fang Liu
- Clinical and Experimental Therapeutics Program, College of Pharmacy, University of Georgia, Augusta, GA 30912, USA; (A.A.C.); (F.L.); (A.V.); (M.S.A.); (M.A.); (S.C.F.); (P.R.S.)
- Charlie Norwood VA Medical Center, Augusta, GA 30912, USA
- Culver Vision Discovery Institute, Augusta University, Augusta, GA 30912, USA
| | - Arti Verma
- Clinical and Experimental Therapeutics Program, College of Pharmacy, University of Georgia, Augusta, GA 30912, USA; (A.A.C.); (F.L.); (A.V.); (M.S.A.); (M.A.); (S.C.F.); (P.R.S.)
- Charlie Norwood VA Medical Center, Augusta, GA 30912, USA
| | - Mir S. Adil
- Clinical and Experimental Therapeutics Program, College of Pharmacy, University of Georgia, Augusta, GA 30912, USA; (A.A.C.); (F.L.); (A.V.); (M.S.A.); (M.A.); (S.C.F.); (P.R.S.)
- Charlie Norwood VA Medical Center, Augusta, GA 30912, USA
| | - Moaddey Alfarhan
- Clinical and Experimental Therapeutics Program, College of Pharmacy, University of Georgia, Augusta, GA 30912, USA; (A.A.C.); (F.L.); (A.V.); (M.S.A.); (M.A.); (S.C.F.); (P.R.S.)
- Charlie Norwood VA Medical Center, Augusta, GA 30912, USA
- Culver Vision Discovery Institute, Augusta University, Augusta, GA 30912, USA
| | - Susan C. Fagan
- Clinical and Experimental Therapeutics Program, College of Pharmacy, University of Georgia, Augusta, GA 30912, USA; (A.A.C.); (F.L.); (A.V.); (M.S.A.); (M.A.); (S.C.F.); (P.R.S.)
- Charlie Norwood VA Medical Center, Augusta, GA 30912, USA
| | - Payaningal R. Somanath
- Clinical and Experimental Therapeutics Program, College of Pharmacy, University of Georgia, Augusta, GA 30912, USA; (A.A.C.); (F.L.); (A.V.); (M.S.A.); (M.A.); (S.C.F.); (P.R.S.)
- Charlie Norwood VA Medical Center, Augusta, GA 30912, USA
| | - S. Priya Narayanan
- Clinical and Experimental Therapeutics Program, College of Pharmacy, University of Georgia, Augusta, GA 30912, USA; (A.A.C.); (F.L.); (A.V.); (M.S.A.); (M.A.); (S.C.F.); (P.R.S.)
- Charlie Norwood VA Medical Center, Augusta, GA 30912, USA
- Culver Vision Discovery Institute, Augusta University, Augusta, GA 30912, USA
- Correspondence:
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Hua X, Ge S, Zhang M, Mo F, Zhang L, Zhang J, Yang C, Tai S, Chen X, Zhang L, Liang C. Pathogenic Roles of CXCL10 in Experimental Autoimmune Prostatitis by Modulating Macrophage Chemotaxis and Cytokine Secretion. Front Immunol 2021; 12:706027. [PMID: 34659199 PMCID: PMC8511489 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2021.706027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2021] [Accepted: 09/02/2021] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Chronic prostatitis and chronic pelvic pain syndrome (CP/CPPS) is an inflammatory immune disease characterized by intraprostatic leukocyte infiltration and pelvic or perineal pain. Macrophages play vital roles in the pathogenesis of CP/CPPS. However, the mechanisms controlling the activation and chemotaxis of macrophages in CP/CPPS remain unclear. This study aimed to investigate the roles of the CXCL10/CXCR3 pathway in the activation and chemotaxis of macrophages in CP/CPPS patients. The serums of CP/CPPS patients and healthy volunteers were collected and measured. Results showed that CXCL10 expression was significantly elevated and correlated with the severity of CP/CPPS patients. The experimental autoimmune prostatitis (EAP) model was generated, and adeno-associated virus and CXCR3 inhibitors were used to treat EAP mice. Immunofluorescence, flow cytometry, and Western blotting were used to analyze the functional phenotype and regulation mechanism of macrophages. Results showed that CXCL10 deficiency ameliorates EAP severity by inhibiting infiltration of macrophages to prostate. Moreover, CXCL10 could induce macrophage migrations and secretions of proinflammatory mediators via CXCR3, which consequently activated the downstream Erk1/2 and p38 MAPK signaling pathways. We also showed that prostatic stromal cell is a potential source of CXCL10. Our results indicated CXCL10 as an important mediator involved in inflammatory infiltration and pain symptoms of prostatitis by promoting the migration of macrophages and secretion of inflammatory mediators via CXCR3-mediated ERK and p38 MAPK activation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoliang Hua
- Department of Urology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China.,Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Genitourinary Diseases, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China.,The Institute of Urology, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China
| | - Shengdong Ge
- Department of Urology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China.,Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Genitourinary Diseases, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China.,The Institute of Urology, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China
| | - Meng Zhang
- Department of Urology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China.,Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Genitourinary Diseases, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China.,The Institute of Urology, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China
| | - Fan Mo
- Department of Urology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China.,Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Genitourinary Diseases, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China.,The Institute of Urology, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China
| | - Ligang Zhang
- Department of Urology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China.,Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Genitourinary Diseases, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China.,The Institute of Urology, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China
| | - Jiong Zhang
- Department of Urology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China.,Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Genitourinary Diseases, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China.,The Institute of Urology, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China
| | - Cheng Yang
- Department of Urology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China.,Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Genitourinary Diseases, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China.,The Institute of Urology, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China
| | - Sheng Tai
- Department of Urology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China.,Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Genitourinary Diseases, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China.,The Institute of Urology, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China
| | - Xianguo Chen
- Department of Urology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China.,Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Genitourinary Diseases, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China.,The Institute of Urology, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China
| | - Li Zhang
- Department of Urology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China.,Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Genitourinary Diseases, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China.,The Institute of Urology, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China
| | - Chaozhao Liang
- Department of Urology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China.,Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Genitourinary Diseases, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China.,The Institute of Urology, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China.,Anhui Institute of Translational Medicine, Hefei, China
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Greiner T, Kipp M. What Guides Peripheral Immune Cells into the Central Nervous System? Cells 2021; 10:cells10082041. [PMID: 34440810 PMCID: PMC8392645 DOI: 10.3390/cells10082041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2021] [Revised: 08/05/2021] [Accepted: 08/06/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Multiple sclerosis (MS), an immune-mediated demyelinating disease of the central nervous system (CNS), initially presents with a relapsing-remitting disease course. During this early stage of the disease, leukocytes cross the blood–brain barrier to drive the formation of focal demyelinating plaques. Disease-modifying agents that modulate or suppress the peripheral immune system provide a therapeutic benefit during relapsing-remitting MS (RRMS). The majority of individuals with RRMS ultimately enter a secondary progressive disease stage with a progressive accumulation of neurologic deficits. The cellular and molecular basis for this transition is unclear and the role of inflammation during the secondary progressive disease stage is a subject of intense and controversial debate. In this review article, we discuss the following main hypothesis: during both disease stages, peripheral immune cells are triggered by CNS-intrinsic stimuli to invade the brain parenchyma. Furthermore, we outline the different neuroanatomical routes by which peripheral immune cells might migrate from the periphery into the CNS.
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Zhang N, Liu C, Zhang R, Jin L, Yin X, Zheng X, Siebert HC, Li Y, Wang Z, Loers G, Petridis AK. Amelioration of clinical course and demyelination in the cuprizone mouse model in relation to ketogenic diet. Food Funct 2021; 11:5647-5663. [PMID: 32539054 DOI: 10.1039/c9fo02944c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Ketogenic diet (KD) is defined as a high-fat, low-carbohydrate diet with appropriate amounts of protein, which has broad neuroprotective effects. However, the mechanisms of ameliorating the demyelination and of the neuroprotective effects of KD have not yet been completely elucidated. Therefore, the present study investigated the protection mechanism of KD treatment in the cuprizone (bis-cyclohexanone oxalydihydrazone, CPZ)-induced demyelination mice model, with special emphasis on neuroinflammation. After the KD treatment, an increased ketone body level in the blood of mice was detected, and a significant increase in the distance traveled within the central area was observed in the open field test, which reflected the increased exploration and decreased anxiety of mice that received CPZ. The results of Luxol fast blue and myelin basic protein (MBP) immunohistochemistry staining for the evaluation of the myelin content within the corpus callosum revealed a noticeable increase in the number of myelinated fibers and myelin score after KD administration in these animals. Concomitant, the protein expressions of glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP, an astrocyte marker), ionized calcium-binding adaptor molecule 1 (Iba-1, a microglial marker), CD68 (an activated microglia marker) and CD16/32 (a M1 microglial marker) were down-regulated, while the expression of oligodendrocyte lineage transcription factor 2 (OLIG2, an oligodendrocyte precursor cells marker) was up-regulated by the KD treatment. In addition, the KD treatment not only reduced the level of the C-X-C motif chemokine 10 (CXCL10), which is correlated to the recruitment of activated microglia, but also inhibited the production of proinflammatory cytokines, including interleukin 1β (IL-1β) and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), which are closely correlated to the M1 phenotype microglia. It is noteworthy, that the expression levels of histone deacetylase 3 (HADC3) and nod-like receptor pyrin domain containing 3 (NLRP3) significantly decreased after KD administration. In conclusion, these data demonstrate that KD decreased the reactive astrocytes and activated the microglia in the corpus callosum, and that KD inhibited the HADC3 and NLRP3 inflammasome signaling pathway in CPZ-treated mice. This suggests that the inhibition of the HADC3 and NLRP3 signaling pathway may be a novel mechanism by which KD exerts its protective actions for the treatment of demyelinating diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ning Zhang
- Institute of Biopharmaceutical Research, Liaocheng University, Liaocheng, Shandong 252000, China.
| | - Chunhong Liu
- Institute of Biopharmaceutical Research, Liaocheng University, Liaocheng, Shandong 252000, China.
| | - Ruiyan Zhang
- Institute of Biopharmaceutical Research, Liaocheng University, Liaocheng, Shandong 252000, China.
| | - Li Jin
- Institute of Biopharmaceutical Research, Liaocheng University, Liaocheng, Shandong 252000, China.
| | - Xiaohan Yin
- Institute of Biopharmaceutical Research, Liaocheng University, Liaocheng, Shandong 252000, China.
| | - Xuexing Zheng
- Department of Virology, School of Public Health, Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University, Jinan 250012, China.
| | - Hans-Christian Siebert
- RI-B-NT - Research Institute of Bioinformatics and Nanotechnology, Schauenburgerstr. 116, 24118 Kiel, Germany
| | - Yubao Li
- College of agriculture, Liaocheng University, Liaocheng, Shandong 252000, China
| | - Zhengping Wang
- Institute of Biopharmaceutical Research, Liaocheng University, Liaocheng, Shandong 252000, China.
| | - Gabriele Loers
- Center for Molecular Neurobiology Hamburg, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, University of Hamburg, Falkenried 94, 20251 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Athanasios K Petridis
- Neurosurgical Department, Heinrich Heine University of Düsseldorf, Moorenstraße 5, 40255 Düsseldorf, Germany
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Sun Y, Ji J, Zha Z, Zhao H, Xue B, Jin L, Wang L. Effect and Mechanism of Catalpol on Remyelination via Regulation of the NOTCH1 Signaling Pathway. Front Pharmacol 2021; 12:628209. [PMID: 33708131 PMCID: PMC7940842 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2021.628209] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2020] [Accepted: 01/21/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Promoting the differentiation of oligodendrocyte precursor cells (OPCs) is important for fostering remyelination in multiple sclerosis. Catalpol has the potential to promote remyelination and exert neuroprotective effects, but its specific mechanism is still unclear. Recent studies have shown that the NOTCH1 signaling pathway is involved in mediating OPC proliferation and differentiation. In this study, we elucidated that catalpol promoted OPC differentiation in vivo and vitro and explored the regulatory role of catalpol in specific biomolecular processes. Following catalpol administration, better and faster recovery of body weight and motor balance was observed in mice with cuprizone (CPZ)-induced demyelination. Luxol fast blue staining (LFB) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) showed that catalpol increased the myelinated area and improved myelin ultrastructure in the corpus callosum in demyelinated mice. In addition, catalpol enhanced the expression of CNPase and MBP, indicating that it increased OPC differentiation. Additionally, catalpol downregulated the expression of NOTCH1 signaling pathway-related molecules, such as JAGGED1, NOTCH1, NICD1, RBPJ, HES5, and HES1. We further demonstrated that in vitro, catalpol enhanced the differentiation of OPCs into OLs and inhibited NOTCH1 signaling pathway activity. Our data suggested that catalpol may promote OPC differentiation and remyelination through modulation of the NOTCH1 pathway. This study provides new insight into the mechanism of action of catalpol in the treatment of multiple sclerosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yaqin Sun
- School of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Beijing Key Lab of TCM Collateral Disease Theory Research, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Jing Ji
- School of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Beijing Key Lab of TCM Collateral Disease Theory Research, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Zheng Zha
- School of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Beijing Key Lab of TCM Collateral Disease Theory Research, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Hui Zhao
- School of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Beijing Key Lab of TCM Collateral Disease Theory Research, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Bing Xue
- Core Facility Center, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Liangyun Jin
- Core Facility Center, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Lei Wang
- School of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Beijing Key Lab of TCM Collateral Disease Theory Research, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
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38
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Ogunlade B, Fidelis OP, Afolayan OO, Agie JA. Neurotherapeutic and antioxidant response of D-ribose-L-Cysteine nutritional dietary supplements on Alzheimer-type hippocampal neurodegeneration induced by cuprizone in adult male wistar rat model. Food Chem Toxicol 2020; 147:111862. [PMID: 33217524 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2020.111862] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2020] [Revised: 11/04/2020] [Accepted: 11/11/2020] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Cuprizone is a neurotoxicant causing neurodegeneration through enzymes inhibition and oxidative stress. D-Ribose-L-Cysteine (DRLC) is a powerful antioxidant with neuroprotective properties. This study explored the antioxidant response of DRLC against cuprizone-induced behavioral alterations, biochemical imbalance and hippocampal neuronal damage in adult wistar rats. MATERIALS AND METHODS Thirty two (32) adult male wistar rats (150-200g) were divided into four groups (n = 8). Group A received normal saline only as placebo; Group B received 0.5% cuprizone diet only; Group C received a combination of 0.5% cuprizone diet and 100 mg/kg bw of DRLC and Group D received 100 mg/kg bw of DRLC only. The administration was done through oral gavage once daily for 45 days. After the last treatment, neurobehavioral tests (Morris Water Maze and Y maze) was conducted; animals sacrificed and brain harvested for histological analysis and biochemical estimations of levels of antioxidants, oxidative stress markers, neurotransmitters and enzyme activitties. RESULTS The results showed significant memory decline, hippocampal alterations, decrease levels of antioxidant markers, enzyme and neurotransmitters activities with concomitant increase in norepinephrine and oxidative stress markers in cuprizone induced rats relative to normal but was attenuated with DRLC administration. CONCLUSION Cuprizone causes cognitive impairment and neurodegeneration through oxidative stress; however, administration of DRLC ameliorated neuropathological alteration induced by cuprizone.
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Affiliation(s)
- B Ogunlade
- Neurobehavioral and Aging Lab, Human Anatomy Department, Federal University of Technology, Akure, Ondo State, Nigeria.
| | - O P Fidelis
- Department of Biomedical Technology, Federal University of Technology, Akure, Ondo State, Nigeria.
| | - O O Afolayan
- Anatomy Department, College of Medicine, University of Lagos, Lagos State, Nigeria.
| | - J A Agie
- Neurobehavioral and Aging Lab, Human Anatomy Department, Federal University of Technology, Akure, Ondo State, Nigeria.
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Zhang L, Lei Z, Guo Z, Pei Z, Chen Y, Zhang F, Cai A, Mok G, Lee G, Swaminathan V, Wang F, Bai Y, Chen G. Development of Neuroregenerative Gene Therapy to Reverse Glial Scar Tissue Back to Neuron-Enriched Tissue. Front Cell Neurosci 2020; 14:594170. [PMID: 33250718 PMCID: PMC7674596 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2020.594170] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2020] [Accepted: 10/02/2020] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Injuries in the central nervous system (CNS) often causes neuronal loss and glial scar formation. We have recently demonstrated NeuroD1-mediated direct conversion of reactive glial cells into functional neurons in adult mouse brains. Here, we further investigate whether such direct glia-to-neuron conversion technology can reverse glial scar back to neural tissue in a severe stab injury model of the mouse cortex. Using an adeno-associated virus (AAV)-based gene therapy approach, we ectopically expressed a single neural transcription factor NeuroD1 in reactive astrocytes in the injured areas. We discovered that the reactive astrocytes were efficiently converted into neurons both before and after glial scar formation, and the remaining astrocytes proliferated to repopulate themselves. The astrocyte-converted neurons were highly functional, capable of firing action potentials and establishing synaptic connections with other neurons. Unexpectedly, the expression of NeuroD1 in reactive astrocytes resulted in a significant reduction of toxic A1 astrocytes, together with a significant decrease of reactive microglia and neuroinflammation. Furthermore, accompanying the regeneration of new neurons and repopulation of new astrocytes, new blood vessels emerged and blood-brain-barrier (BBB) was restored. These results demonstrate an innovative neuroregenerative gene therapy that can directly reverse glial scar back to neural tissue, opening a new avenue for brain repair after injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lei Zhang
- Department of Biology, Huck Institute of Life Sciences, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, United States
| | - Zhuofan Lei
- Department of Biology, Huck Institute of Life Sciences, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, United States
| | - Ziyuan Guo
- Department of Biology, Huck Institute of Life Sciences, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, United States
| | - Zifei Pei
- Department of Biology, Huck Institute of Life Sciences, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, United States
| | - Yuchen Chen
- Department of Biology, Huck Institute of Life Sciences, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, United States
| | - Fengyu Zhang
- Department of Biology, Huck Institute of Life Sciences, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, United States
| | - Alice Cai
- Department of Biology, Huck Institute of Life Sciences, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, United States
| | - Gabriel Mok
- Department of Biology, Huck Institute of Life Sciences, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, United States
| | - Grace Lee
- Department of Biology, Huck Institute of Life Sciences, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, United States
| | - Vishal Swaminathan
- Department of Biology, Huck Institute of Life Sciences, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, United States
| | - Fan Wang
- Department of Biology, Huck Institute of Life Sciences, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, United States
| | - Yuting Bai
- Department of Biology, Huck Institute of Life Sciences, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, United States
| | - Gong Chen
- Department of Biology, Huck Institute of Life Sciences, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, United States
- Guangdong-Hongkong-Macau Institute of CNS Regeneration, Jinan University, Guangzhou, China
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40
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Pro-Inflammatory Role of AQP4 in Mice Subjected to Intrastriatal Injections of the Parkinsonogenic Toxin MPP. Cells 2020; 9:cells9112418. [PMID: 33167342 PMCID: PMC7694382 DOI: 10.3390/cells9112418] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2020] [Revised: 11/01/2020] [Accepted: 11/02/2020] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Aquaporin-4 (AQP4) is critically involved in brain water and volume homeostasis and has been implicated in a wide range of pathological conditions. Notably, evidence has been accrued to suggest that AQP4 plays a proinflammatory role by promoting release of astrocytic cytokines that activate microglia and other astrocytes. Neuroinflammation is a hallmark of Parkinson’s disease (PD), and we have previously shown that astrocytes in substantia nigra (SN) are enriched in AQP4 relative to cortical astrocytes, and that their complement of AQP4 is further increased following treatment with the parkinsonogenic toxin MPTP (1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine). Here, we investigated the effect of Aqp4 deletion on microglial activation in mice subjected to unilateral intrastriatal injection of 1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium (MPP+, the toxic metabolite of MPTP). Our results show that MPP+ injections lead to a pronounced increase in the expression level of microglial activating genes in the ventral mesencephalon of wild type (WT) mice, but not Aqp4−/− mice. We also show, in WT mice, that MPP+ injections cause an upregulation of nigral AQP4 and swelling of astrocytic endfeet. These findings are consistent with the idea that AQP4 plays a pro-inflammatory role in Parkinson’s disease, secondary to the dysregulation of astrocytic volume homeostasis.
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Liu C, Zhang N, Zhang R, Jin L, Petridis AK, Loers G, Zheng X, Wang Z, Siebert HC. Cuprizone-Induced Demyelination in Mouse Hippocampus Is Alleviated by Ketogenic Diet. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2020; 68:11215-11228. [PMID: 32921051 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.0c04604] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic inflammatory demyelinating disease of the central nervous system (CNS). Recently, ketogenic diet (KD) supplementation has attracted great interest. Therefore, we established the cuprizone (CPZ)-induced demyelination mouse model to investigate the possible neuroprotective effect of KD on the hippocampus of mice. We found that KD significantly elevated the level of serum β-hydroxybutyric acid, improved behavioral and motor abnormalities, and impaired the spatial learning and memory of CPZ-induced demyelination mice. Meanwhile, KD lessened the hippocampal demyelination by enhancing the expression of mature oligodendrocytes (OLs), which was revealed by the elevated expression of MBP and CNPase, as well as the luxol fast blue-staining intensity. Furthermore, KD inhibits the activation of microglia (especially M1-like microglia) and reactive astrocytes. Interestingly, KD attenuated the CPZ-induced oxidative stress by decreasing the malondialdehyde (MDA) content and restoring the glutathione (GSH) levels. In addition, the double immunofluorescence staining revealed that KD enhanced the expression of SIRT1 in astrocytes, microglia, and mature oligodendrocytes. Concomitantly, Western blot demonstrated that KD increased the expression of SIRT1, phosphorylated-AKT, mTOR, and PPAR-γ. In conclusion, KD exerted a neuroprotective effect on CPZ-induced demyelination mice, and this activity was associated with the modulation of the SIRT1/PPAR-γ and SIRT1/P-Akt/mTOR pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chunhong Liu
- Institute of Biopharmaceutical Research, Liaocheng University, Liaocheng, Shandong 252000, China
| | - Ning Zhang
- Institute of Biopharmaceutical Research, Liaocheng University, Liaocheng, Shandong 252000, China
| | - Ruiyan Zhang
- Institute of Biopharmaceutical Research, Liaocheng University, Liaocheng, Shandong 252000, China
| | - Li Jin
- Institute of Biopharmaceutical Research, Liaocheng University, Liaocheng, Shandong 252000, China
| | - Athanasios K Petridis
- Heinrich Heine University, Neurosurgical Department, University of Düsseldorf, Moorenstraße 5, 40255 Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Gabriele Loers
- Center for Molecular Neurobiology Hamburg, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, University of Hamburg, Falkenried 94, 20251 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Xuexing Zheng
- Department of Virology, School of Public Health, Shandong University, Jinan 250012, China
| | - Zhengping Wang
- Institute of Biopharmaceutical Research, Liaocheng University, Liaocheng, Shandong 252000, China
| | - Hans-Christian Siebert
- RI-B-NT-Research Institute of Bioinformatics and Nanotechnology, Schauenburgerstr. 116, 24118 Kiel, Germany
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Hashimoto M, Kumabe A, Kim JD, Murata K, Sekizar S, Williams A, Lu W, Ishida J, Nakagawa T, Endo M, Minami Y, Fukamizu A. Loss of PRMT1 in the central nervous system (CNS) induces reactive astrocytes and microglia during postnatal brain development. J Neurochem 2020; 156:834-847. [PMID: 33460120 DOI: 10.1111/jnc.15149] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2019] [Revised: 03/29/2020] [Accepted: 08/05/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
PRMT1, a major arginine methyltransferase, plays critical roles in transcription, DNA damage response, and cell proliferation. Although we have previously discovered the crucial roles of PRMT1 for oligodendrocyte lineage progression in the central nervous system of neural stem cell-specific PRMT1 conditional knockout (PRMT1-CKO) mice, the context of other glial cell states that may cause the hypomyelination phenotype in PRMT1-CKO mice has not been explored so far. Here, we performed RNA-seq of the neonatal cortices of PRMT1-CKO mice to reveal overall gene expression changes and show the up-regulation of inflammatory signaling which is generally mediated by astrocytes and microglia in advance of the myelination defects. In particular, qRT-PCR analyses revealed Interleukin-6 (Il-6), a major central nervous system cytokine, was dramatically increased in the PRMT1-CKO brains. The gene expression changes led to augmentation of glial fibrillary acidic protein and Vimentin protein levels in PRMT1-CKO mice, showing severe reactive astrogliosis after birth. We further show that IBA1-positive and CD68-positive activated microglia were increased in PRMT1-CKO mice, in spite of intact Prmt1 gene expression in purified microglia from the mutant mice. Our results indicate that PRMT1 loss in the neural stem cell lineage causes disruptive changes in all glial types perturbing postnatal brain development and myelination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Misuzu Hashimoto
- Laboratory of Biological Chemistry, Faculty of Applied Biological Sciences, Gifu University, Gifu, Japan.,Life Science Center for Survival Dynamics, Tsukuba Advanced Research Alliance (TARA), University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Japan
| | - Ayako Kumabe
- Laboratory of Biological Chemistry, Faculty of Applied Biological Sciences, Gifu University, Gifu, Japan
| | - Jun-Dal Kim
- Life Science Center for Survival Dynamics, Tsukuba Advanced Research Alliance (TARA), University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Japan
| | - Kazuya Murata
- Laboratory Animal Resource Center, Transborder Medical Research Center, Faculty of Medicine, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Japan
| | - Sowmya Sekizar
- MRC Centre for Regenerative Medicine, Institute for Regeneration and Repair, and MS Society Edinburgh Centre, Edinburgh bioQuarter, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Anna Williams
- MRC Centre for Regenerative Medicine, Institute for Regeneration and Repair, and MS Society Edinburgh Centre, Edinburgh bioQuarter, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Weizhe Lu
- Life Science Center for Survival Dynamics, Tsukuba Advanced Research Alliance (TARA), University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Japan
| | - Junji Ishida
- Life Science Center for Survival Dynamics, Tsukuba Advanced Research Alliance (TARA), University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Japan
| | - Tsutomu Nakagawa
- Laboratory of Biological Chemistry, Faculty of Applied Biological Sciences, Gifu University, Gifu, Japan
| | - Mitsuharu Endo
- Division of Cell Physiology, Department of Physiology and Cell Biology, Graduate School of Medicine, Kobe University, Kobe, Japan
| | - Yasuhiro Minami
- Division of Cell Physiology, Department of Physiology and Cell Biology, Graduate School of Medicine, Kobe University, Kobe, Japan
| | - Akiyoshi Fukamizu
- Life Science Center for Survival Dynamics, Tsukuba Advanced Research Alliance (TARA), University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Japan.,The World Premier International Research Center Initiative (WPI), International Institute for Integrative Sleep Medicine, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Japan
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43
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Plastini MJ, Desu HL, Brambilla R. Dynamic Responses of Microglia in Animal Models of Multiple Sclerosis. Front Cell Neurosci 2020; 14:269. [PMID: 32973458 PMCID: PMC7468479 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2020.00269] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2020] [Accepted: 07/31/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Microglia play an essential role in maintaining central nervous system (CNS) homeostasis, as well as responding to injury and disease. Most neurological disorders feature microglial activation, a process whereby microglia undergo profound morphological and transcriptional changes aimed at containing CNS damage and promoting repair, but often resulting in overt inflammation that sustains and propagates the neurodegenerative process. This is especially evident in multiple sclerosis (MS), were microglial activation and microglia-driven neuroinflammation are considered key events in the onset, progression, and resolution of the disease. Our understanding of microglial functions in MS has widened exponentially in the last decade by way of new tools and markers to discriminate microglia from other myeloid populations. Consequently, the complex functional and phenotypical diversity of microglia can now be appreciated. This, in combination with a variety of animal models that mimic specific features and processes of MS, has contributed to filling the gap of knowledge in the cascade of events underlying MS pathophysiology. The purpose of this review is to present the most up to date knowledge of the dynamic responses of microglia in the commonly used animal models of MS, specifically the immune-mediated experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) model, and the chemically-induced cuprizone and lysolecithin models. Elucidating the spectrum of microglial functions in these models, from detrimental to protective, is essential to identify emerging targets for therapy and guide drug discovery efforts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melanie J Plastini
- The Miami Project To Cure Paralysis, Department of Neurological Surgery, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, United States.,The Neuroscience Program, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, United States
| | - Haritha L Desu
- The Miami Project To Cure Paralysis, Department of Neurological Surgery, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, United States.,The Neuroscience Program, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, United States
| | - Roberta Brambilla
- The Miami Project To Cure Paralysis, Department of Neurological Surgery, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, United States.,The Neuroscience Program, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, United States.,Department of Neurobiology Research, Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark.,BRIDGE-Brain Research Inter-Disciplinary Guided Excellence, Department of Clinical Research, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark
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44
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Shelestak J, Singhal N, Frankle L, Tomor R, Sternbach S, McDonough J, Freeman E, Clements R. Increased blood-brain barrier hyperpermeability coincides with mast cell activation early under cuprizone administration. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0234001. [PMID: 32511268 PMCID: PMC7279587 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0234001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2020] [Accepted: 05/15/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The cuprizone induced animal model of demyelination is characterized by demyelination in many regions of the brain with high levels of demyelination in the corpus callosum as well as changes in neuronal function by 4–6 weeks of exposure. The model is used as a tool to study demyelination and subsequent degeneration as well as therapeutic interventions on these effects. Historically, the cuprizone model has been shown to contain no alterations to blood-brain barrier integrity, a key feature in many diseases that affect the central nervous system. Cuprizone is generally administered for 4–6 weeks to obtain maximal demyelination and degeneration. However, emerging evidence has shown that the effects of cuprizone on the brain may occur earlier than measurable gross demyelination. This study sought to investigate changes to blood-brain barrier permeability early in cuprizone administration. Results showed an increase in blood-brain barrier permeability and changes in tight junction protein expression as early as 3 days after beginning cuprizone treatment. These changes preceded glial morphological activation and demyelination known to occur during cuprizone administration. Increases in mast cell presence and activity were measured alongside the increased permeability implicating mast cells as a potential source for the blood-brain barrier disruption. These results provide further evidence of blood-brain barrier alterations in the cuprizone model and a target of therapeutic intervention in the prevention of cuprizone-induced pathology. Understanding how mast cells become activated under cuprizone and if they contribute to blood-brain barrier alterations may give further insight into how and when the blood-brain barrier is affected in CNS diseases. In summary, cuprizone administration causes an increase in blood-brain barrier permeability and this permeability coincides with mast cell activation.
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Affiliation(s)
- John Shelestak
- Department of Biological Sciences, School of Biomedical Sciences, Kent State University, Kent, Ohio, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Naveen Singhal
- Department of Biochemistry, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Rishikesh, Uttarakhand, India
| | - Lana Frankle
- Department of Biological Sciences, School of Biomedical Sciences, Kent State University, Kent, Ohio, United States of America
| | - Riely Tomor
- Department of Biological Sciences, School of Biomedical Sciences, Kent State University, Kent, Ohio, United States of America
| | - Sarah Sternbach
- Department of Biological Sciences, School of Biomedical Sciences, Kent State University, Kent, Ohio, United States of America
| | - Jennifer McDonough
- Department of Biological Sciences, School of Biomedical Sciences, Kent State University, Kent, Ohio, United States of America
| | - Ernest Freeman
- Department of Biological Sciences, School of Biomedical Sciences, Kent State University, Kent, Ohio, United States of America
| | - Robert Clements
- Department of Biological Sciences, School of Biomedical Sciences, Kent State University, Kent, Ohio, United States of America
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45
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Reinbach C, Stadler MS, Pröbstl N, Chrzanowski U, Schmitz C, Kipp M, Hochstrasser T. CD44 expression in the cuprizone model. Brain Res 2020; 1745:146950. [PMID: 32524994 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2020.146950] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2020] [Revised: 05/08/2020] [Accepted: 06/05/2020] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
Numerous studies report that changes in extracellular matrix components and receptors, such as CD44, contribute to immune cell recruitment and thus lesion formation in multiple sclerosis (MS). In the present study, we used the cuprizone model to elucidate the expression pattern of CD44 in a toxin-induced MS model. Therefore, tissues of cuprizone-intoxicated mice were analyzed by real-time qRT-PCR and immunohistochemical staining against CD44. Co-localization analyses of CD44-positive cells with glial cell markers were performed by immunofluorescence labeling and in-situ hybridization. To investigate the functional importance of CD44 expression for myelination and glial cell activation, Cd44-deficient mice were used. In this study we demonstrate that CD44 expression is induced in a time-dependent manner in an autoimmune-independent model of MS. Up-regulation of CD44 expression was primarily associated to the superficial and perivascular glia limitans and demyelinated white matter structures, particularly the corpus callosum. In the demyelinated corpus callosum, CD44 was localized on GFAP+ astrocytes and IBA1+ microglial cells. Despite a robust expression induction, Cd44-deficiency did not ameliorate cuprizone-induced pathology. Although further studies will be needed to examine the functional relevance of CD44 in the cuprizone model, the spatial and temporal expression pattern of CD44 will pave the way to evaluate its precise role in different (immune and non-immune) pathological conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christin Reinbach
- Department of Anatomy II, Ludwig-Maximilians-University of Munich, Pettenkoferstr. 11, 80336 Munich, Germany
| | - Maria-Sophia Stadler
- Department of Anatomy II, Ludwig-Maximilians-University of Munich, Pettenkoferstr. 11, 80336 Munich, Germany
| | - Nicolas Pröbstl
- Department of Anatomy II, Ludwig-Maximilians-University of Munich, Pettenkoferstr. 11, 80336 Munich, Germany
| | - Uta Chrzanowski
- Department of Anatomy II, Ludwig-Maximilians-University of Munich, Pettenkoferstr. 11, 80336 Munich, Germany
| | - Christoph Schmitz
- Department of Anatomy II, Ludwig-Maximilians-University of Munich, Pettenkoferstr. 11, 80336 Munich, Germany
| | - Markus Kipp
- Institute of Anatomy, Rostock University Medical Center, Gertrudenstraße 9, 18057 Rostock, Germany
| | - Tanja Hochstrasser
- Department of Anatomy II, Ludwig-Maximilians-University of Munich, Pettenkoferstr. 11, 80336 Munich, Germany.
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46
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Martin NA, Hyrlov KH, Elkjaer ML, Thygesen EK, Wlodarczyk A, Elbaek KJ, Aboo C, Okarmus J, Benedikz E, Reynolds R, Hegedus Z, Stensballe A, Svenningsen ÅF, Owens T, Illes Z. Absence of miRNA-146a Differentially Alters Microglia Function and Proteome. Front Immunol 2020; 11:1110. [PMID: 32582192 PMCID: PMC7292149 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2020.01110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2020] [Accepted: 05/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: MiR-146a is an important regulator of innate inflammatory responses and is also implicated in cell death and survival. Methods: By sorting CNS resident cells, microglia were the main cellular source of miR-146a. Therefore, we investigated microglia function and phenotype in miR-146a knock-out (KO) mice, analyzed the proteome of KO and wild-type (WT) microglia by LC-MS/MS, and examined miR-146a expression in different brain lesions of patients with multiple sclerosis (MS). Results: When stimulated with LPS or myelin in vitro, microglia from KO mice expressed higher levels of IL-1β, TNF, IL-6, IL-10, CCL3, and CCL2 compared to WT. Stimulation increased migration and phagocytosis of WT but not KO microglia. CD11c+ microglia were induced by cuprizone (CPZ) in the WT mice but less in the KO. The proteome of ex vivo microglia was not different in miR-146a KO compared to WT mice, but CPZ treatment induced differential and reduced protein responses in the KO: GOT1, COX5b, CRYL1, and cystatin-C were specifically changed in KO microglia. We explored discriminative features of microglia proteomes: sparse Partial Least Squares-Discriminant Analysis showed the best discrimination when control and CPZ-treated conditions were compared. Cluster of ten proteins separated WT and miR-146a KO microglia after CPZ: among them were sensomes allowing to perceive the environment, Atp1a3 that belongs to the signature of CD11c+ microglia, and proteins related to inflammatory responses (S100A9, Ppm1g). Finally, we examined the expression of miR-146a and its validated target genes in different brain lesions of MS patients. MiR-146 was upregulated in all lesion types, and the highest expression was in active lesions. Nineteen of 88 validated target genes were significantly changed in active lesions, while none were changed in NAWM. Conclusion: Our data indicated that microglia is the major source of miR-146a in the CNS. The absence of miR-146a differentially affected microglia function and proteome, and miR-146a may play an important role in gene regulation of active MS lesions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nellie A Martin
- Department of Neurology, Odense University Hospital, Odense, Denmark
| | - Kirsten H Hyrlov
- Department of Neurology, Odense University Hospital, Odense, Denmark
| | - Maria L Elkjaer
- Department of Neurology, Odense University Hospital, Odense, Denmark
| | - Eva K Thygesen
- Department of Neurology, Odense University Hospital, Odense, Denmark
| | - Agnieszka Wlodarczyk
- Department of Neurobiology Research, Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark.,Institute of Clinical Research, BRIDGE, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark
| | - Kirstine J Elbaek
- Department of Health Science and Technology, Aalborg University, Aalborg, Denmark
| | - Christopher Aboo
- Department of Health Science and Technology, Aalborg University, Aalborg, Denmark.,Sino-Danish Center for Education and Research, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Justyna Okarmus
- Department of Neurology, Odense University Hospital, Odense, Denmark
| | - Eirikur Benedikz
- Department of Neurobiology Research, Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark
| | - Richard Reynolds
- Department of Brain Sciences, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Zoltan Hegedus
- Laboratory of Bioinformatics, Biological Research Centre, Szeged, Hungary.,Department of Biochemistry and Medical Chemistry, University of Pecs, Pecs, Hungary
| | - Allan Stensballe
- Department of Health Science and Technology, Aalborg University, Aalborg, Denmark
| | - Åsa Fex Svenningsen
- Department of Neurobiology Research, Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark
| | - Trevor Owens
- Department of Neurobiology Research, Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark.,Institute of Clinical Research, BRIDGE, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark
| | - Zsolt Illes
- Department of Neurology, Odense University Hospital, Odense, Denmark.,Department of Neurobiology Research, Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark.,Institute of Clinical Research, BRIDGE, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark
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47
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The microbiota regulates murine inflammatory responses to toxin-induced CNS demyelination but has minimal impact on remyelination. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2019; 116:25311-25321. [PMID: 31740610 PMCID: PMC6911206 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1905787116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
People with multiple sclerosis have a microbiota distinct from healthy controls, and there is growing interest in how these differences might contribute to the onset and progression of CNS autoimmunity. However, the impact that the microbiota may also have on the endogenous regeneration of myelin—remyelination—has not yet been explored. Here we show that inflammatory responses during remyelination depend upon the microbiota, being modulated by antibiotics or probiotics or in germ-free mice. In contrast, these interventions had minimal impact on the activity of oligodendrocyte progenitor cells, with only supratherapeutic doses of antibiotics having an inhibitory effect. Our results suggest that endogenous CNS remyelination is largely resilient to interventions that modify the microbiota. The microbiota is now recognized as a key influence on the host immune response in the central nervous system (CNS). As such, there has been some progress toward therapies that modulate the microbiota with the aim of limiting immune-mediated demyelination, as occurs in multiple sclerosis. However, remyelination—the regeneration of myelin sheaths—also depends upon an immune response, and the effects that such interventions might have on remyelination have not yet been explored. Here, we show that the inflammatory response during CNS remyelination in mice is modulated by antibiotic or probiotic treatment, as well as in germ-free mice. We also explore the effect of these changes on oligodendrocyte progenitor cell differentiation, which is inhibited by antibiotics but unaffected by our other interventions. These results reveal that high combined doses of oral antibiotics impair oligodendrocyte progenitor cell responses during remyelination and further our understanding of how mammalian regeneration relates to the microbiota.
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48
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Nyamoya S, Steinle J, Chrzanowski U, Kaye J, Schmitz C, Beyer C, Kipp M. Laquinimod Supports Remyelination in Non-Supportive Environments. Cells 2019; 8:cells8111363. [PMID: 31683658 PMCID: PMC6912710 DOI: 10.3390/cells8111363] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2019] [Revised: 10/21/2019] [Accepted: 10/22/2019] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Inflammatory demyelination, which is a characteristic of multiple sclerosis lesions, leads to acute functional deficits and, in the long term, to progressive axonal degeneration. While remyelination is believed to protect axons, the endogenous-regenerative processes are often incomplete or even completely fail in many multiple sclerosis patients. Although it is currently unknown why remyelination fails, recurrent demyelination of previously demyelinated white matter areas is one contributing factor. In this study, we investigated whether laquinimod, which has demonstrated protective effects in active multiple sclerosis patients, protects against recurrent demyelination. To address this, male mice were intoxicated with cuprizone for up to eight weeks and treated with either a vehicle solution or laquinimod at the beginning of week 5, where remyelination was ongoing. The brains were harvested and analyzed by immunohistochemistry. At the time-point of laquinimod treatment initiation, oligodendrocyte progenitor cells proliferated and maturated despite ongoing demyelination activity. In the following weeks, myelination recovered in the laquinimod- but not vehicle-treated mice, despite continued cuprizone intoxication. Myelin recovery was paralleled by less severe microgliosis and acute axonal injury. In this study, we were able to demonstrate that laquinimod, which has previously been shown to protect against cuprizone-induced oligodendrocyte degeneration, exerts protective effects during oligodendrocyte progenitor differentiation as well. By this mechanism, laquinimod allows remyelination in non-supportive environments. These results should encourage further clinical studies in progressive multiple sclerosis patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stella Nyamoya
- Institute of Anatomy, Rostock University Medical Center, 18057 Rostock, Germany.
- Institute of Neuroanatomy and JARA-BRAIN, Faculty of Medicine, RWTH Aachen University, 52074 Aachen, Germany.
| | - Julia Steinle
- Institute of Neuroanatomy and JARA-BRAIN, Faculty of Medicine, RWTH Aachen University, 52074 Aachen, Germany.
| | - Uta Chrzanowski
- Department of Anatomy II, Ludwig-Maximilians-University of Munich, 80336 Munich, Germany.
| | - Joel Kaye
- AyalaPharma, VP Research & Nonclinical Development, Rehovot 7670104, Israel.
| | - Christoph Schmitz
- Department of Anatomy II, Ludwig-Maximilians-University of Munich, 80336 Munich, Germany.
| | - Cordian Beyer
- Institute of Neuroanatomy and JARA-BRAIN, Faculty of Medicine, RWTH Aachen University, 52074 Aachen, Germany.
| | - Markus Kipp
- Institute of Neuroanatomy and JARA-BRAIN, Faculty of Medicine, RWTH Aachen University, 52074 Aachen, Germany.
- Centre for Transdisciplinary Neurosciences, Rostock University Medical Center, 18057 Rostock, Germany.
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49
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Sen MK, Mahns DA, Coorssen JR, Shortland PJ. Behavioural phenotypes in the cuprizone model of central nervous system demyelination. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2019; 107:23-46. [PMID: 31442519 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2019.08.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2019] [Revised: 08/01/2019] [Accepted: 08/12/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
The feeding of cuprizone (CPZ) to animals has been extensively used to model the processes of demyelination and remyelination, with many papers adopting a narrative linked to demyelinating conditions like multiple sclerosis (MS), the aetiology of which is unknown. However, no current animal model faithfully replicates the myriad of symptoms seen in the clinical condition of MS. CPZ ingestion causes mitochondrial and endoplasmic reticulum stress and subsequent apoptosis of oligodendrocytes leads to central nervous system demyelination and glial cell activation. Although there are a wide variety of behavioural tests available for characterizing the functional deficits in animal models of disease, including that of CPZ-induced deficits, they have focused on a narrow subset of outcomes such as motor performance, cognition, and anxiety. The literature has not been systematically reviewed in relation to these or other symptoms associated with clinical MS. This paper reviews these tests and makes recommendations as to which are the most important in order to better understand the role of this model in examining aspects of demyelinating diseases like MS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monokesh K Sen
- School of Medicine, Western Sydney University, New South Wales, Australia
| | - David A Mahns
- School of Medicine, Western Sydney University, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Jens R Coorssen
- Departments of Health Sciences and Biological Sciences, Faculties of Applied Health Sciences and Mathematics & Science, Brock University, Ontario, Canada.
| | - Peter J Shortland
- Science and Health, Western Sydney University, New South Wales, Australia.
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50
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Li QY, Miao Q, Sui RX, Cao L, Ma CG, Xiao BG, Xiao W, Yu WB. Ginkgolide K supports remyelination via induction of astrocytic IGF/PI3K/Nrf2 axis. Int Immunopharmacol 2019; 75:105819. [PMID: 31421546 DOI: 10.1016/j.intimp.2019.105819] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2019] [Revised: 08/09/2019] [Accepted: 08/09/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Although several therapies are approved, none promote re-myelination in multiple sclerosis (MS) patients, limiting their ability for sustained recovery. Thus, treatment development in MS has the opportunity to tackle the challenges, including experimental therapies targeting neuroprotection and re-myelination. Here, we provide a novel therapeutic target for Ginkgolide K (GK) that is now becoming a very critical natural compound to treat demyelination and neurodegeneration. GK improves behavioral dysfunction and demyelination in cuprizone (CPZ) model, followed by the migration and enrichment of astrocytes in the corpus callosum. Both in vitro and in vivo experiments demonstrates that GK triggers the upregulation of Nrf2/HO-1 in astrocytes and inhibition of p-NF-kB/p65, which is associated with the outcome of anti-inflammation and anti-oxidation by suppressing the production of IL-6 and TNFα as well as nitric oxide and iNOS in astrocytes. Further findings suggest that IGF/PI3K, but not BDNF, was induced in the corpus callosum after GK treatment, revealing that Nrf2 activation inhibited caspase-3 and apoptosis in O4+ oligodendrocytes possibly through IGF/PI3K signaling molecules. Since the current immunomodulatory therapies for MS have failed to prevent patients from entering the progressive phase of the disease, thus targeting Nrf2 in astrocytes with GK would be an ideal strategy for myelin protection and regeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qin-Ying Li
- Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, Jing'an District Centre Hospital of Shanghai, Fudan University, Shanghai 200040, China
| | - Qiang Miao
- The Key Research Laboratory of Benefiting Qi for Acting Blood Circulation Method to Treat Multiple Sclerosis of State Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanxi University of Chinese Medicine, Taiyuan 030024, China
| | - Ruo-Xuan Sui
- The Key Research Laboratory of Benefiting Qi for Acting Blood Circulation Method to Treat Multiple Sclerosis of State Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanxi University of Chinese Medicine, Taiyuan 030024, China
| | - Liang Cao
- Key Laboratory of New-tech for Chinese Medicine Pharmaceutical Process, Lianyungang, China
| | - Cun-Gen Ma
- The Key Research Laboratory of Benefiting Qi for Acting Blood Circulation Method to Treat Multiple Sclerosis of State Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanxi University of Chinese Medicine, Taiyuan 030024, China; Institute of Brain Science, Shanxi Datong University, Datong, 037009, China
| | - Bao-Guo Xiao
- Department of Neurology, Huashan Hospital, State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology, Fudan University, Shanghai 200040, China
| | - Wei Xiao
- Key Laboratory of New-tech for Chinese Medicine Pharmaceutical Process, Lianyungang, China.
| | - Wen-Bo Yu
- Department of Neurology, Huashan Hospital, State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology, Fudan University, Shanghai 200040, China.
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