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Holtappels R, Büttner JK, Freitag K, Reddehase MJ, Lemmermann NA. Modulation of cytomegalovirus immune evasion identifies direct antigen presentation as the predominant mode of CD8 T-cell priming during immune reconstitution after hematopoietic cell transplantation. Front Immunol 2024; 15:1355153. [PMID: 38426094 PMCID: PMC10902149 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2024.1355153] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2023] [Accepted: 02/01/2024] [Indexed: 03/02/2024] Open
Abstract
Cytomegalovirus (CMV) infection is the most critical infectious complication in recipients of hematopoietic cell transplantation (HCT) in the period between a therapeutic hematoablative treatment and the hematopoietic reconstitution of the immune system. Clinical investigation as well as the mouse model of experimental HCT have consistently shown that timely reconstitution of antiviral CD8 T cells is critical for preventing CMV disease in HCT recipients. Reconstitution of cells of the T-cell lineage generates naïve CD8 T cells with random specificities among which CMV-specific cells need to be primed by presentation of viral antigen for antigen-specific clonal expansion and generation of protective antiviral effector CD8 T cells. For CD8 T-cell priming two pathways are discussed: "direct antigen presentation" by infected professional antigen-presenting cells (pAPCs) and "antigen cross-presentation" by uninfected pAPCs that take up antigenic material derived from infected tissue cells. Current view in CMV immunology favors the cross-priming hypothesis with the argument that viral immune evasion proteins, known to interfere with the MHC class-I pathway of direct antigen presentation by infected cells, would inhibit the CD8 T-cell response. While the mode of antigen presentation in the mouse model of CMV infection has been studied in the immunocompetent host under genetic or experimental conditions excluding either pathway of antigen presentation, we are not aware of any study addressing the medically relevant question of how newly generated naïve CD8 T cells become primed in the phase of lympho-hematopoietic reconstitution after HCT. Here we used the well-established mouse model of experimental HCT and infection with murine CMV (mCMV) and pursued the recently described approach of up- or down-modulating direct antigen presentation by using recombinant viruses lacking or overexpressing the central immune evasion protein m152 of mCMV, respectively. Our data reveal that the magnitude of the CD8 T-cell response directly reflects the level of direct antigen presentation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rafaela Holtappels
- Institute for Virology and Research Center for Immunotherapy (FZI) at the University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, Mainz, Germany
| | - Julia K. Büttner
- Institute for Virology and Research Center for Immunotherapy (FZI) at the University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, Mainz, Germany
| | - Kirsten Freitag
- Institute for Virology and Research Center for Immunotherapy (FZI) at the University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, Mainz, Germany
| | - Matthias J. Reddehase
- Institute for Virology and Research Center for Immunotherapy (FZI) at the University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, Mainz, Germany
| | - Niels A. Lemmermann
- Institute for Virology and Research Center for Immunotherapy (FZI) at the University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, Mainz, Germany
- Institute of Virology, Medical Faculty, University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany
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Espinar-Buitrago MS, Vazquez-Alejo E, Magro-Lopez E, Tarancon-Diez L, Leal M, Muñoz-Fernandez MA. Immune modulation via dendritic cells by the effect of Thymosin-alpha-1 on immune synapse in HCMV infection. Int Immunopharmacol 2023; 125:111103. [PMID: 38149577 DOI: 10.1016/j.intimp.2023.111103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2023] [Revised: 10/18/2023] [Accepted: 10/18/2023] [Indexed: 12/28/2023]
Abstract
Tα1 (Thymosin-alpha-1) is a thymus-derived hormone that has been demonstrated to be effective on diverse immune cell subsets. The objective of this study was to determine the in vitro immunomodulatory effect of Tα1 in human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) infection. Dendritic cells (DCs) were isolated from peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) by negative selection and cultured in the presence or absence of Tα1. The immunophenotyping of DCs was characterised by multiparametric flow cytometry assessing CD40, CD80, TIM-3 and PDL-1 markers, as well as intracellular TNFα production. Then, autologous CD4+ or CD8+ T-Lymphocytes (TLs) isolated by negative selection from PBMCs were co-cultured with DCs previously treated with Tα1 in the presence or absence of HCMV. Intracellular TNFα, IFNγ, IL-2 production, CD40-L and PD-1 expression were assessed through immunophenotyping, and polyfunctionality in total TLs and memory subsets were evaluated. The results showed that Tα1 increased CD40, CD80, TIM-3 and TNFα intracellular production while decreasing PDL-1 expression, particularly on plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDCs). Therefore, Tα1 modulated the production of TNFα, IFNγ and IL-2 in both total and memory subsets of CD4+ and CD8+ TLs by upregulating CD40/CD40-L and downregulating PDL-1/PD-1 expression. Our study concludes that Tα1 enhances antigen-presenting capacity of DCs, improves TLs responses to HCMV infection, and enhances the polyfunctionality of CD8+ TLs. Consequently, Tα1 could be an alternative adjuvant for use in therapeutic cell therapy for immunocompromised patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- M S Espinar-Buitrago
- Sección de Inmunología, Laboratorio Inmuno-Biología Molecular (LIBM), Hospital General Universitario Gregorio Marañón (HGUGM), Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Gregorio Marañón (IiSGM), 28009 Madrid, Spain; Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanotecnología (CIBER-BBN), Madrid, Spain
| | - E Vazquez-Alejo
- Sección de Inmunología, Laboratorio Inmuno-Biología Molecular (LIBM), Hospital General Universitario Gregorio Marañón (HGUGM), Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Gregorio Marañón (IiSGM), 28009 Madrid, Spain; Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanotecnología (CIBER-BBN), Madrid, Spain
| | - E Magro-Lopez
- Sección de Inmunología, Laboratorio Inmuno-Biología Molecular (LIBM), Hospital General Universitario Gregorio Marañón (HGUGM), Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Gregorio Marañón (IiSGM), 28009 Madrid, Spain; Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanotecnología (CIBER-BBN), Madrid, Spain
| | - L Tarancon-Diez
- Sección de Inmunología, Laboratorio Inmuno-Biología Molecular (LIBM), Hospital General Universitario Gregorio Marañón (HGUGM), Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Gregorio Marañón (IiSGM), 28009 Madrid, Spain; Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanotecnología (CIBER-BBN), Madrid, Spain
| | - M Leal
- Departamento de Medicina Interna, Hospital Viamed Santa Ángela de la Cruz, 41014 Sevilla, Spain; Hogar Residencia de la Santa Caridad, 41001 Sevilla, Spain
| | - M A Muñoz-Fernandez
- Sección de Inmunología, Laboratorio Inmuno-Biología Molecular (LIBM), Hospital General Universitario Gregorio Marañón (HGUGM), Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Gregorio Marañón (IiSGM), 28009 Madrid, Spain; Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanotecnología (CIBER-BBN), Madrid, Spain.
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Gabor F, Jahn G, Sedmak DD, Sinzger C. In vivo Downregulation of MHC Class I Molecules by HCMV Occurs During All Phases of Viral Replication but Is Not Always Complete. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2020; 10:283. [PMID: 32596168 PMCID: PMC7304332 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2020.00283] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2020] [Accepted: 05/12/2020] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Based on cell culture data, MHC class I downregulation by HCMV on infected cells has been suggested as a means of immune evasion by this virus. In order to address this issue in vivo, an immunohistochemical analysis of tissue sections from biopsy and autopsy materials of HCMV infected organs was performed. HCMV antigens from the immediate early, early, and late phase of viral replication, and cellular MHC class I molecules were detected simultaneously or in serial sections by immuno-peroxidase and immuno-alkaline phosphatase techniques. Investigated organs included lung, gastrointestinal tract, and placenta. Colocalization of MHC molecules with sites of viral replication as well as MHC expression in individual infected cells were analyzed. To detect immune effector cells at sites of viral replication, leukocytes, CD8+ lymphocytes, and HCMV antigens were stained in serial sections. While strong MHC class I expression was detected in the cells surrounding infected cells, it appeared downregulated in the majority of infected cells themselves, particularly in the late replication phase. Despite significantly reduced MHC class I signals on infected cells, sites of infection were infiltrated by inflammatory cells that consisted predominantly of CD8+ lymphocytes. The extent of inflammatory infiltrates was negatively correlated with the extent of HCMV infected cells. Taken together, our findings indicate that HCMV can downmodulate MHC class I expression in vivo, whereas cytokines originating from infiltrating immune effector cells probably up regulates MHC class I expression in noninfected bystander cells. The presence of cytotoxic lymphocytes in close contact to infected cells may reflect control of viral spread by these cells despite MHC class I downmodulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Florin Gabor
- Institute of Medical Virology, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Gerhard Jahn
- Institute of Medical Virology, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Daniel D Sedmak
- Institute of Pathology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, United States
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Pugh J, Nemat-Gorgani N, Djaoud Z, Guethlein LA, Norman PJ, Parham P. In vitro education of human natural killer cells by KIR3DL1. Life Sci Alliance 2019; 2:2/6/e201900434. [PMID: 31723004 PMCID: PMC6856763 DOI: 10.26508/lsa.201900434] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2019] [Revised: 11/01/2019] [Accepted: 11/04/2019] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Using NK cells isolated from individuals who lack the Bw4 epitope on HLA-B, Pugh et al reveal that KIR3DL1+ NK cells can be educated in vitro by co-culturing them with target cells that display the missing epitope. During development, NK cells are “educated” to respond aggressively to cells with low surface expression of HLA class I, a hallmark of malignant and infected cells. The mechanism of education involves interactions between inhibitory killer immunoglobulin–like receptors (KIRs) and specific HLA epitopes, but the details of this process are unknown. Because of the genetic diversity of HLA class I genes, most people have NK cells that are incompletely educated, representing an untapped source of human immunity. We demonstrate how mature peripheral KIR3DL1+ human NK cells can be educated in vitro. To accomplish this, we trained NK cells expressing the inhibitory KIR3DL1 receptor by co-culturing them with target cells that expressed its ligand, Bw4+HLA-B. After this training, KIR3DL1+ NK cells increased their inflammatory and lytic responses toward target cells lacking Bw4+HLA-B, as though they had been educated in vivo. By varying the conditions of this basic protocol, we provide mechanistic and translational insights into the process NK cell education.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jason Pugh
- Departments of Structural Biology and Microbiology & Immunology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Neda Nemat-Gorgani
- Departments of Structural Biology and Microbiology & Immunology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Zakia Djaoud
- Departments of Structural Biology and Microbiology & Immunology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Lisbeth A Guethlein
- Departments of Structural Biology and Microbiology & Immunology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Paul J Norman
- Division of Biomedical Informatics and Personalized Medicine, Department of Immunology, School of Medicine, University of Colorado Denver, Denver, CO, USA
| | - Peter Parham
- Departments of Structural Biology and Microbiology & Immunology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
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Ubiquitinated Proteins Isolated From Tumor Cells Are Efficient Substrates for Antigen Cross-Presentation. J Immunother 2018; 40:155-163. [PMID: 28368960 DOI: 10.1097/cji.0000000000000165] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
We have previously shown that inhibition of the proteasome causes defective ribosomal products to be shunted into autophagosomes and subsequently released from tumor cells as defective ribosomal products in Blebs (DRibbles). These DRibbles serve as an excellent source of antigens for cross-priming of tumor-specific T cells. Here, we examine the role of ubiquitinated proteins (Ub-proteins) in this pathway. Using purified Ub-proteins from tumor cells that express endogenous tumor-associated antigen or exogenous viral antigen, we tested the ability of these proteins to stimulate antigen-specific T-cell responses, by activation of monocyte-derived dendritic cells generated from human peripheral blood mononuclear cells. Compared with total cell lysates, we found that purified Ub-proteins from both a gp100-specific melanoma cell line and from a lung cancer cell line expressing cytomegalovirus pp65 antigen produced a significantly higher level of IFN-γ in gp100- or pp65-specific T cells, respectively. In addition, Ub-proteins from an allogeneic tumor cell line could be used to stimulate tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes isolated and expanded from non-small cell lung cancer patients. These results establish that Ub-proteins provide a relevant source of antigens for cross-priming of antitumor immune responses in a variety of settings, including endogenous melanoma and exogenous viral antigen presentation, as well as antigen-specific tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes. Thus, ubiquitin can be used as an affinity tag to enrich for unknown tumor-specific antigens from tumor cell lysates to stimulate tumor-specific T cells ex vivo or to be used as vaccines to target short-lived proteins.
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Banas B, Böger CA, Lückhoff G, Krüger B, Barabas S, Batzilla J, Schemmerer M, Köstler J, Bendfeldt H, Rascle A, Wagner R, Deml L, Leicht J, Krämer BK. Validation of T-Track® CMV to assess the functionality of cytomegalovirus-reactive cell-mediated immunity in hemodialysis patients. BMC Immunol 2017; 18:15. [PMID: 28270092 PMCID: PMC5339958 DOI: 10.1186/s12865-017-0194-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2016] [Accepted: 02/10/2017] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Uncontrolled cytomegalovirus (CMV) replication in immunocompromised solid-organ transplant recipients is a clinically relevant issue and an indication of impaired CMV-specific cell-mediated immunity (CMI). Primary aim of this study was to assess the suitability of the immune monitoring tool T-Track® CMV to determine CMV-reactive CMI in a cohort of hemodialysis patients representative of patients eligible for renal transplantation. Positive and negative agreement of T-Track® CMV with CMV serology was examined in 124 hemodialysis patients, of whom 67 (54%) revealed a positive CMV serostatus. Secondary aim of the study was to evaluate T-Track® CMV performance against two unrelated CMV-specific CMI monitoring assays, QuantiFERON®-CMV and a cocktail of six class I iTAg™ MHC Tetramers. Results Positive T-Track® CMV results were obtained in 90% (60/67) of CMV-seropositive hemodialysis patients. In comparison, 73% (45/62) and 77% (40/52) positive agreement with CMV serology was achieved using QuantiFERON®-CMV and iTAg™ MHC Tetramer. Positive T-Track® CMV responses in CMV-seropositive patients were dominated by pp65-reactive cells (58/67 [87%]), while IE-1-responsive cells contributed to an improved (87% to 90%) positive agreement of T-Track® CMV with CMV serology. Interestingly, T-Track® CMV, QuantiFERON®-CMV and iTAg™ MHC Tetramers showed 79% (45/57), 87% (48/55) and 93% (42/45) negative agreement with serology, respectively, and a strong inter-assay variability. Notably, T-Track® CMV was able to detect IE-1-reactive cells in blood samples of patients with a negative CMV serology, suggesting either a previous exposure to CMV that yielded a cellular but no humoral immune response, or TCR cross-reactivity with foreign antigens, both suggesting a possible protective immunity against CMV in these patients. Conclusion T-Track® CMV is a highly sensitive assay, enabling the functional assessment of CMV-responsive cells in hemodialysis patients prior to renal transplantation. T-Track® CMV thus represents a valuable immune monitoring tool to identify candidate transplant recipients potentially at increased risk for CMV-related clinical complications. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12865-017-0194-z) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bernhard Banas
- Department of Nephrology, University Medical Center Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany.
| | - Carsten A Böger
- Department of Nephrology, University Medical Center Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
| | | | - Bernd Krüger
- 5th Department of Medicine, University Medical Center Mannheim, Medical Faculty Mannheim of the University Heidelberg, Mannheim, Germany
| | | | | | - Mathias Schemmerer
- Lophius Biosciences GmbH, Regensburg, Germany.,Institute of Clinical Microbiology and Hygiene, University of Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
| | - Josef Köstler
- Institute of Clinical Microbiology and Hygiene, University of Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
| | | | - Anne Rascle
- Lophius Biosciences GmbH, Regensburg, Germany
| | - Ralf Wagner
- Institute of Clinical Microbiology and Hygiene, University of Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
| | - Ludwig Deml
- Lophius Biosciences GmbH, Regensburg, Germany
| | | | - Bernhard K Krämer
- 5th Department of Medicine, University Medical Center Mannheim, Medical Faculty Mannheim of the University Heidelberg, Mannheim, Germany
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Barabas S, Spindler T, Kiener R, Tonar C, Lugner T, Batzilla J, Bendfeldt H, Rascle A, Asbach B, Wagner R, Deml L. An optimized IFN-γ ELISpot assay for the sensitive and standardized monitoring of CMV protein-reactive effector cells of cell-mediated immunity. BMC Immunol 2017; 18:14. [PMID: 28270111 PMCID: PMC5339961 DOI: 10.1186/s12865-017-0195-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2016] [Accepted: 02/10/2017] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Background In healthy individuals, Cytomegalovirus (CMV) infection is efficiently controlled by CMV-specific cell-mediated immunity (CMI). Functional impairment of CMI in immunocompromized individuals however can lead to uncontrolled CMV replication and severe clinical complications. Close monitoring of CMV-specific CMI is therefore clinically relevant and might allow a reliable prognosis of CMV disease as well as assist personalized therapeutic decisions. Methods Objective of this work was the optimization and technical validation of an IFN-γ ELISpot assay for a standardized, sensitive and reliable quantification of CMV-reactive effector cells. T-activated® immunodominant CMV IE-1 and pp65 proteins were used as stimulants. All basic assay parameters and reagents were tested and optimized to establish a user-friendly protocol and maximize the signal-to-noise ratio of the ELISpot assay. Results Optimized and standardized ELISpot revealed low intra-assay, inter-assay and inter-operator variability (coefficient of variation CV below 22%) and CV inter-site was lower than 40%. Good assay linearity was obtained between 6 × 104 and 2 × 105 PBMC per well upon stimulation with T-activated® IE-1 (R2 = 0.97) and pp65 (R2 = 0.99) antigens. Remarkably, stimulation of peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) with T-activated® IE-1 and pp65 proteins resulted in the activation of a broad range of CMV-reactive effector cells, including CD3+CD4+ (Th), CD3+CD8+ (CTL), CD3−CD56+ (NK) and CD3+CD56+ (NKT-like) cells. Accordingly, the optimized IFN-γ ELISpot assay revealed very high sensitivity (97%) in a cohort of 45 healthy donors, of which 32 were CMV IgG-seropositive. Conclusion The combined use of T-activated® IE-1 and pp65 proteins for the stimulation of PBMC with the optimized IFN-γ ELISpot assay represents a highly standardized, valuable tool to monitor the functionality of CMV-specific CMI with great sensitivity and reliability. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12865-017-0195-y) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sascha Barabas
- Lophius Biosciences GmbH, Am BioPark 13, 93053, Regensburg, Germany
| | - Theresa Spindler
- Lophius Biosciences GmbH, Am BioPark 13, 93053, Regensburg, Germany
| | - Richard Kiener
- Institute of Medical Microbiology and Hygiene, University Regensburg, Franz-Josef-Strauss-Allee 11, 93053, Regensburg, Germany
| | - Charlotte Tonar
- Lophius Biosciences GmbH, Am BioPark 13, 93053, Regensburg, Germany
| | - Tamara Lugner
- Lophius Biosciences GmbH, Am BioPark 13, 93053, Regensburg, Germany
| | - Julia Batzilla
- Lophius Biosciences GmbH, Am BioPark 13, 93053, Regensburg, Germany
| | - Hanna Bendfeldt
- Lophius Biosciences GmbH, Am BioPark 13, 93053, Regensburg, Germany
| | - Anne Rascle
- Lophius Biosciences GmbH, Am BioPark 13, 93053, Regensburg, Germany
| | - Benedikt Asbach
- Institute of Medical Microbiology and Hygiene, University Regensburg, Franz-Josef-Strauss-Allee 11, 93053, Regensburg, Germany
| | - Ralf Wagner
- Institute of Medical Microbiology and Hygiene, University Regensburg, Franz-Josef-Strauss-Allee 11, 93053, Regensburg, Germany
| | - Ludwig Deml
- Lophius Biosciences GmbH, Am BioPark 13, 93053, Regensburg, Germany. .,Institute of Medical Microbiology and Hygiene, University Regensburg, Franz-Josef-Strauss-Allee 11, 93053, Regensburg, Germany.
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Subramanian N, Wu Z, Mertens TM. Phenotypic characterization of human cytomegalovirus strains in cell cultures based on their transmission kinetics. J Gen Virol 2016; 97:2376-2386. [PMID: 27405754 DOI: 10.1099/jgv.0.000543] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
We established a new 'transmission kinetic assay (TKA)' to quantify the human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) transmission between cells in vitro and to phenotypically characterize HCMV strains based on their mode of transmission by flow cytometric analysis. On one hand we used the genetically modified HCMV strain TB40/E-delUL16-GFP, and on the other hand, clinical isolates. When twofold diluted infecting cells were seeded to a constant number of uninfected cells, the transmission of virus on each day (day 0-5) followed a strictly linear pattern, which was characterized by a linear equation. The slope of this linear equation represents 'the number of newly infected cells per infecting cell'. To standardize the TKA, the slopes of the different days were plotted against the corresponding days. This resulted in a new linear equation with a new slope value, which characterizes the transmission kinetics. To differentiate cell-associated and cell-free modes of transmission, we introduced HCMV neutralizing antibodies into the system. The slope was 0.9 (±0.5) when the virus exhibited only cell-associated transmission and was 4.1 (±0.7) when the virus exhibited both modes of transmission. TKA was then applied to different clinical isolates and they were phenotypically characterized based on their modes of transmission. Apart from the quantitative analysis of HCMV transmission and the phenotypical characterization of clinical isolates, the TKA was applied to quantify the inhibition of clinical isolates transmission by immune cells and to study the effect of cytokine (IL-2) on immune cells inhibiting HCMV transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Zeguang Wu
- Institute of Virology, Ulm University Medical Center, Ulm, Germany
| | - Thomas M Mertens
- Institute of Virology, Ulm University Medical Center, Ulm, Germany
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Deng R, Yi H, Liu YL, Fan FY, Fu LI, Li YC, Li GS, Lai SH, Miao XJ, Shuai YR, He GC, Wang YI, Zeng Y, Sun HP, Qiu L, Su YI. Enhanced antitumor effect of combining chemotherapy with Epstein-Barr virus (EBV)-specific cytotoxic T lymphocytes in mice with EBV-related non-Hodgkin's lymphoma. Mol Clin Oncol 2016; 3:1233-1238. [PMID: 26807226 DOI: 10.3892/mco.2015.646] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2015] [Accepted: 08/28/2015] [Indexed: 11/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Epstein-Barr virus (EBV)-related non-Hodgkin's lymphoma (NHL) represents a major problem in hematological clinical studies due to its drug tolerance and refractoriness. EBV infection is a key factor driving the process of tumor growth. Immune therapy is an important biotherapeutic method of treating cancer, which is attracting increasing attention. We hypothesized that combining conventional chemotherapy with immune therapy in the treatment of EBV-related NHL may achieve better outcomes. First, we successfully cloned large numbers of EBV-specific T cells by immune stimulation ex vivo. Subsequently, the combined therapy was applied in a murine model of human EBV-related NHL. As expected, combined therapy inhibited tumor growth more effectively compared with monotherapy. In addition, we continuously tested the tumor-associated immune microenvironment and observed that the numbers of tumor-infiltrating cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs) and macrophages were elevated following combined therapy. These effects suggest that EBV-specific CTLs may indirectly promote an innate immune reaction in lymphoma by activating tumor-infiltrating macrophage proliferation. Our findings may provide a guide for the prospective treatment of EBV-related NHL.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rui Deng
- Department of Hematology, Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplantation and Cell Immunotherapy Center, Cheng Du Military General Hospital of PLA, Chengdu, Sichuan 610083, P.R. China
| | - Hai Yi
- Department of Hematology, Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplantation and Cell Immunotherapy Center, Cheng Du Military General Hospital of PLA, Chengdu, Sichuan 610083, P.R. China
| | - Yi-Lan Liu
- Department of Hematology, Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplantation and Cell Immunotherapy Center, Cheng Du Military General Hospital of PLA, Chengdu, Sichuan 610083, P.R. China
| | - Fang-Yi Fan
- Department of Hematology, Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplantation and Cell Immunotherapy Center, Cheng Du Military General Hospital of PLA, Chengdu, Sichuan 610083, P.R. China
| | - L I Fu
- Department of Hematology, Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplantation and Cell Immunotherapy Center, Cheng Du Military General Hospital of PLA, Chengdu, Sichuan 610083, P.R. China
| | - Ye-Cheng Li
- Department of Hematology, Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplantation and Cell Immunotherapy Center, Cheng Du Military General Hospital of PLA, Chengdu, Sichuan 610083, P.R. China
| | - Guo-Shun Li
- Department of Translational Medicine, Experimental Medical Research Center, Cheng Du Military General Hospital of PLA, Chengdu, Sichuan 610083, P.R. China
| | - Si-Han Lai
- Department of Hematology, Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplantation and Cell Immunotherapy Center, Cheng Du Military General Hospital of PLA, Chengdu, Sichuan 610083, P.R. China
| | - Xiao-Juan Miao
- Department of Hematology, Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplantation and Cell Immunotherapy Center, Cheng Du Military General Hospital of PLA, Chengdu, Sichuan 610083, P.R. China
| | - Yan-Rong Shuai
- Department of Hematology, Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplantation and Cell Immunotherapy Center, Cheng Du Military General Hospital of PLA, Chengdu, Sichuan 610083, P.R. China
| | - Guang-Cui He
- Department of Hematology, Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplantation and Cell Immunotherapy Center, Cheng Du Military General Hospital of PLA, Chengdu, Sichuan 610083, P.R. China
| | - Y I Wang
- Department of Hematology, Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplantation and Cell Immunotherapy Center, Cheng Du Military General Hospital of PLA, Chengdu, Sichuan 610083, P.R. China
| | - Yan Zeng
- Department of Hematology, Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplantation and Cell Immunotherapy Center, Cheng Du Military General Hospital of PLA, Chengdu, Sichuan 610083, P.R. China
| | - Hao-Ping Sun
- Department of Hematology, Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplantation and Cell Immunotherapy Center, Cheng Du Military General Hospital of PLA, Chengdu, Sichuan 610083, P.R. China
| | - Ling Qiu
- Department of Hematology, Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplantation and Cell Immunotherapy Center, Cheng Du Military General Hospital of PLA, Chengdu, Sichuan 610083, P.R. China
| | - Y I Su
- Department of Hematology, Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplantation and Cell Immunotherapy Center, Cheng Du Military General Hospital of PLA, Chengdu, Sichuan 610083, P.R. China
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Salimu J, Spary LK, Al-Taei S, Clayton A, Mason MD, Staffurth J, Tabi Z. Cross-Presentation of the Oncofetal Tumor Antigen 5T4 from Irradiated Prostate Cancer Cells—A Key Role for Heat-Shock Protein 70 and Receptor CD91. Cancer Immunol Res 2015; 3:678-88. [DOI: 10.1158/2326-6066.cir-14-0079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2014] [Accepted: 02/05/2015] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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11
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Identification of transcription factor AML-1 binding site upstream of human cytomegalovirus UL111A gene. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0117773. [PMID: 25658598 PMCID: PMC4320089 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0117773] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2014] [Accepted: 12/30/2014] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) interleukin-10 (hcmvIL-10), encoded by HCMV UL111A gene, is a homolog of human IL-10. It exerts immunomodulatory effects that allow HCMV to evade host defense mechanisms. However, the exact mechanism underlying the regulation of hcmvIL-10 expression is not well understood. The transcription factor acute myeloid leukemia 1 (AML-1) plays an important role in the regulation of various genes involved in the differentiation of hematopoietic lineages. A putative AML-1 binding site is present within the upstream regulatory region (URR) of UL111A gene. To provide evidence that AML-1 is involved in regulating UL111A gene expression, we examined the interaction of AML-1 with the URR of UL111A in HCMV-infected human monocytic THP-1 cells using a chromatin immunoprecipitation assay. HcmvIL-10 transcription was detected in differentiated THP-1 cells, but not in undifferentiated ones. Furthermore, the URR of UL111A showed a higher intensity of AML-1 binding, a higher level of histone H3 acetyl-K9, but a lower level of histone H3 dimethyl-K9 in differentiated THP-1 cells than undifferentiated cells. Down-regulation of AML1 by RNA interference decreased the expression of the UL111A gene. Our results suggest that AML-1 may contribute to the epigenetic regulation of UL111A gene via histone modification in HCMV-infected differentiated THP-1 cells. This finding could be useful for the development of new anti-viral therapies.
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12
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Alejenef A, Pachnio A, Halawi M, Christmas SE, Moss PAH, Khan N. Cytomegalovirus drives Vδ2neg γδ T cell inflation in many healthy virus carriers with increasing age. Clin Exp Immunol 2014; 176:418-28. [PMID: 24547915 PMCID: PMC4008987 DOI: 10.1111/cei.12297] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/10/2014] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Cytomegalovirus (CMV) usually causes lifelong asymptomatic infection, but over time can distort immune profiles. Recent reports describe selective expansion of Vδ2neg γδ T cells in healthy and immunocompromised CMV carriers. Having shown previously that virus-specific CD8+ and CD4+ T cell responses are increased significantly in elderly CMV carriers, probably driven by chronic stimulation, we hypothesized that Vδ2neg γδ T cells may also be expanded with age. Our results show that Vδ2neg γδ T cells are increased significantly in CMV-seropositive healthy individuals compared to CMV-seronegative controls in all age groups. The differences were most significant in older age groups (P < 0·0001). Furthermore, while Vδ2neg γδ T- cells comprise both naive and memory cells in CMV-seronegative donors, highly differentiated effector memory cells are the dominant phenotype in CMV carriers, with naive cells reduced significantly in numbers in CMV-seropositive elderly. Although phenotypically resembling conventional CMV-specific T cells, Vδ2neg γδ T cells do not correlate with changes in magnitude of CMV-specific CD4+ or CD8+ T cell frequencies within those individuals, and do not possess ex-vivo immediate effector function as shown by CMV-specific CD4+ and CD8+ T cells. However, after short-term culture, Vδ2neg γδ T cells demonstrate effector T cell functions, suggesting additional requirements for activation. In summary, Vδ2neg γδ T cells are expanded in many older CMV carriers, demonstrating a further level of lymphocyte subset skewing by CMV in healthy individuals. As others have reported shared reactivity of Vδ2neg γδ T cells towards tumour cells, the composition of γδ T cell subsets may also have implications for risk of developing cancer in elderly people.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Alejenef
- Department of Clinical Infection, Microbiology and Immunology, Institute of Infection and Global Health, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
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13
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van Montfoort N, van der Aa E, Woltman AM. Understanding MHC class I presentation of viral antigens by human dendritic cells as a basis for rational design of therapeutic vaccines. Front Immunol 2014; 5:182. [PMID: 24795724 PMCID: PMC4005948 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2014.00182] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2014] [Accepted: 04/07/2014] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Effective viral clearance requires the induction of virus-specific CD8+ cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTL). Since dendritic cells (DC) have a central role in initiating and shaping virus-specific CTL responses, it is important to understand how DC initiate virus-specific CTL responses. Some viruses can directly infect DC, which theoretically allow direct presentation of viral antigens to CTL, but many viruses target other cells than DC and thus the host depends on the cross-presentation of viral antigens by DC to activate virus-specific CTL. Research in mouse models has highly enhanced our understanding of the mechanisms underlying cross-presentation and the dendritic cells (DC) subsets involved, however, these results cannot be readily translated toward the role of human DC in MHC class I-antigen presentation of human viruses. Here, we summarize the insights gained in the past 20 years on MHC class I presentation of viral antigen by human DC and add to the current debate on the capacities of different human DC subsets herein. Furthermore, possible sources of viral antigens and essential DC characteristics for effective induction of virus-specific CTL are evaluated. We conclude that cross-presentation is not only an efficient mechanism exploited by DC to initiate immunity to viruses that do not infect DC but also to viruses that do infect DC, because cross-presentation has many conceptual advantages and bypasses direct immune modulatory effects of the virus on its infected target cells. Since knowledge on the mechanism of viral antigen presentation and the preferred DC subsets is crucial for rational vaccine design, the obtained insights are very instrumental for the development of effective anti-viral immunotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nadine van Montfoort
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Erasmus MC University Medical Center Rotterdam , Rotterdam , Netherlands
| | - Evelyn van der Aa
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Erasmus MC University Medical Center Rotterdam , Rotterdam , Netherlands
| | - Andrea M Woltman
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Erasmus MC University Medical Center Rotterdam , Rotterdam , Netherlands
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14
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Gredmark-Russ S, Söderberg-Nauclér C. Dendritic cell biology in human cytomegalovirus infection and the clinical consequences for host immunity and pathology. Virulence 2012; 3:621-34. [PMID: 23076329 PMCID: PMC3545944 DOI: 10.4161/viru.22239] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV), a member of the herpesvirus family, establishes life-long persistence and latency after primary infection and can be reactivated later in life. In immunosuppressed patients, it is an important pathogen that can cause severe disease. HCMV is also thought to play a causative role in inflammatory diseases and cancer. The virus can infect different immune cells, including dendritic cells (DCs) and can take advantage of host immune functions to avoid immune recognition. These characteristics have sparked major interest in understanding HCMV and its interaction with immune cells and their relevance to disease pathogenesis. In this review, we focus on the complex host-pathogen relationship between HCMV and DCs, including the persistence of the virus in these cells, their function in the immune response to HCMV infection and the potential clinical consequences of HCMV infection in DCs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara Gredmark-Russ
- Center for Infectious Medicine, Department of Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, Karolinska University Hospital Huddinge, Stockholm, Sweden.
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15
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Al-Taei S, Salimu J, Lester JF, Linnane S, Goonewardena M, Harrop R, Mason MD, Tabi Z. Overexpression and potential targeting of the oncofoetal antigen 5T4 in malignant pleural mesothelioma. Lung Cancer 2012; 77:312-8. [PMID: 22498111 DOI: 10.1016/j.lungcan.2012.03.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2012] [Revised: 03/02/2012] [Accepted: 03/14/2012] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Malignant pleural mesothelioma (MPM) is resistant to conventional treatments. Novel, targeted treatments are hampered by the relative lack of MPM-associated tumour antigens. The aim of this study was to evaluate the level of expression and the relevance of 5T4 as a tumour-associated antigen in MPM. 5T4 expression was assessed by Western blotting, flow cytometry, immuno-cytochemistry and -histochemistry in 11 mesothelioma cell lines, 21 tumour biopsies, and ex vivo tumour cells obtained from the pleural fluid (PF) of 10 patients. 5T4 antibody levels were also determined in the plasma of patients and healthy donors. The susceptibility of MPM cells to 5T4-specific T-cell-mediated killing was determined using an HLA-A2(+), CD8(+) T-cell line, developed against the 5T4(17-25) peptide. We report here that cell surface 5T4 expression was detected in all mesothelioma cell lines and PF cell samples. Mesothelin and CD200, a suggested mesothelioma marker, were co-expressed with 5T4 on tumour cells in PF. Immunohistochemistry confirmed overexpression of 5T4, similar to mesothelin, on tumour cells but not on reactive stroma in all tissue sections tested. Median 5T4 antibody levels were 46% higher in patient than in healthy donor plasma, indicating immune recognition. Importantly, 5T4-specific CD8(+) T-cells were able to kill four out of six HLA-A2(+) MPM cell lines but not an HLA-A2(-) cell line, demonstrating immune recognition of MPM-associated 5T4 antigen at the effector T-cell level. We conclude that 5T4 is a potential new antigen for targeted therapies such as immunotherapy in MPM, as it is overexpressed on mesothelioma cells and recognised by 5T4-specific cytotoxic T-cells. Our findings have been translated into a Phase II clinical trial applying 5T4-targeted therapies in MPM patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saly Al-Taei
- Department of Oncology, School of Medicine, Cardiff University, Velindre Cancer Centre, Velindre Road, Whitchurch, Cardiff CF14 2TL, UK
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16
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Canderan G, Gruarin P, Montagna D, Fontana R, Melloni G, Traversari C, Dellabona P, Casorati G. An efficient strategy to induce and maintain in vitro human T cells specific for autologous non-small cell lung carcinoma. PLoS One 2010; 5:e12014. [PMID: 20711505 PMCID: PMC2918513 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0012014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2010] [Accepted: 07/15/2010] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The efficient expansion in vitro of cytolytic CD8+ T cells (CTLs) specific for autologous tumors is crucial both for basic and translational aspects of tumor immunology. We investigated strategies to generate CTLs specific for autologous Non-Small Cell Lung Carcinoma (NSCLC), the most frequent tumor in mankind, using circulating lymphocytes. Principal Findings Classic Mixed Lymphocyte Tumor Cultures with NSCLC cells consistently failed to induce tumor-specific CTLs. Cross-presentation in vitro of irradiated NSCLC cells by autologous dendritic cells, by contrast, induced specific CTL lines from which we obtained a high number of tumor-specific T cell clones (TCCs). The TCCs displayed a limited TCR diversity, suggesting an origin from few tumor-specific T cell precursors, while their TCR molecular fingerprints were detected in the patient's tumor infiltrating lymphocytes, implying a role in the spontaneous anti-tumor response. Grafting NSCLC-specific TCR into primary allogeneic T cells by lentiviral vectors expressing human V-mouse C chimeric TCRα/β chains overcame the growth limits of these TCCs. The resulting, rapidly expanding CD4+ and CD8+ T cell lines stably expressed the grafted chimeric TCR and specifically recognized the original NSCLC. Conclusions This study defines a strategy to efficiently induce and propagate in vitro T cells specific for NSCLC starting from autologous peripheral blood lymphocytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Glenda Canderan
- Experimental Immunology Unit, Division of Immunology, Transplantation and Infectious Diseases, San Raffaele Scientific Institute, Milan, Italy
| | - Paola Gruarin
- Experimental Immunology Unit, Division of Immunology, Transplantation and Infectious Diseases, San Raffaele Scientific Institute, Milan, Italy
| | - Daniela Montagna
- Laboratory of Immunology, Department of Pediatrics, University of Pavia, Pavia, Italy
| | - Raffaella Fontana
- Cancer Gene Therapy Unit, Division of Molecular Oncology, San Raffaele Scientific Institute, Milan, Italy
| | - Giulio Melloni
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, San Raffaele Scientific Institute, Milan, Italy
| | | | - Paolo Dellabona
- Experimental Immunology Unit, Division of Immunology, Transplantation and Infectious Diseases, San Raffaele Scientific Institute, Milan, Italy
- * E-mail: (PD); (GC)
| | - Giulia Casorati
- Experimental Immunology Unit, Division of Immunology, Transplantation and Infectious Diseases, San Raffaele Scientific Institute, Milan, Italy
- * E-mail: (PD); (GC)
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17
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Vermijlen D, Brouwer M, Donner C, Liesnard C, Tackoen M, Van Rysselberge M, Twité N, Goldman M, Marchant A, Willems F. Human cytomegalovirus elicits fetal gammadelta T cell responses in utero. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2010; 207:807-21. [PMID: 20368575 PMCID: PMC2856038 DOI: 10.1084/jem.20090348] [Citation(s) in RCA: 156] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
The fetus and infant are highly susceptible to viral infections. Several viruses, including human cytomegalovirus (CMV), cause more severe disease in early life compared with later life. It is generally accepted that this is a result of the immaturity of the immune system. gammadelta T cells are unconventional T cells that can react rapidly upon activation and show major histocompatibility complex-unrestricted activity. We show that upon CMV infection in utero, fetal gammadelta T cells expand and become differentiated. The expansion was restricted to Vgamma9-negative gammadelta T cells, irrespective of their Vdelta chain expression. Differentiated gammadelta T cells expressed high levels of IFN-gamma, transcription factors T-bet and eomes, natural killer receptors, and cytotoxic mediators. CMV infection induced a striking enrichment of a public Vgamma8Vdelta1-TCR, containing the germline-encoded complementary-determining-region-3 (CDR3) delta1-CALGELGDDKLIF/CDR3gamma8-CATWDTTGWFKIF. Public Vgamma8Vdelta1-TCR-expressing cell clones produced IFN-gamma upon coincubation with CMV-infected target cells in a TCR/CD3-dependent manner and showed antiviral activity. Differentiated gammadelta T cells and public Vgamma8Vdelta1-TCR were detected as early as after 21 wk of gestation. Our results indicate that functional fetal gammadelta T cell responses can be generated during development in utero and suggest that this T cell subset could participate in antiviral defense in early life.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Vermijlen
- Institute for Medical Immunology, Université Libre de Bruxelles, 6041 Gosselies, Belgium.
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18
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Cross-presentation of HCMV chimeric protein enables generation and measurement of polyclonal T cells. Immunol Cell Biol 2010; 88:676-84. [PMID: 20195281 DOI: 10.1038/icb.2010.20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
CD8(+) T cell immunity has a critical function in controlling human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) infection. In immunocompromized individuals, HCMV reactivation or disease can lead to increased morbidity and mortality, particularly in transplant recipients. In this setting, adoptive transfer of HCMV-specific CD8(+) T cells is a promising vaccine strategy to restore viral immunity, with most clinical approaches focussing on the use of peptides for the generation of single epitope-specific CD8(+) T cells. We show that using an IE1-pp65 chimeric protein as the antigen source promotes effective cross-presentation, by monocyte-derived dendritic cells (MoDCs), to generate polyclonal CD8(+) T cell epitopes. By exploring human leukocyte antigen (HLA)-restricted immunodominance hierarchies both within and across two immunodominant proteins, we show that HLA-B7 epitopes elicit higher CD8(+) T cell responses compared with HLA-A1, -A2 or -B8. This study provides important evidence highlighting both the efficacy of the IE1-pp65 chimeric protein and the importance of immunodominance in designing future therapeutic vaccines.
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19
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Giodini A, Albert ML. A whodunit: an appointment with death. Curr Opin Immunol 2010; 22:94-108. [DOI: 10.1016/j.coi.2010.01.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2009] [Revised: 01/27/2010] [Accepted: 01/28/2010] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
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20
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Varani S, Frascaroli G, Landini MP, Söderberg-Nauclér C. Human cytomegalovirus targets different subsets of antigen-presenting cells with pathological consequences for host immunity: implications for immunosuppression, chronic inflammation and autoimmunity. Rev Med Virol 2009; 19:131-45. [DOI: 10.1002/rmv.609] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
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21
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Abstract
Dendritic cells are the most potent antigen-presenting cells of the mammalian immune system and are central to the initiation and maintenance of the adaptive immune response. They are crucial for the presentation of antigen to T cells and B cells, as well as the induction of chemokines and proinflammatory cytokines, which orchestrate the balance of the cell-mediated (Th1) and antibody (Th2) response. This ability of dendritic cells to present antigen and release chemokines and cytokines also bridges the innate and adaptive immune responses by driving T cell activation. These cells thus possess key immunological functions that make them the front line of defence for the targeting and clearance of any invading pathogen and, as such, they underpin the host immune response to infection. For efficient infection, invading pathogens often need to overcome these sentinel immune functions. It is therefore not surprising that pathogens have evolved numerous mechanisms to target dendritic cell functions directly or indirectly during infection, and at least one herpesvirus--human cytomegalovirus--has evolved a life cycle that hijacks dendritic cells for its long-term persistence in the infected host.
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22
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Effect of frequently used chemotherapeutic drugs on cytotoxic activity of human cytotoxic T-lymphocytes. J Immunother 2008; 31:283-93. [PMID: 18317359 DOI: 10.1097/cji.0b013e3181628b76] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
Tumors are considered to be possible targets of immunotherapy using stimulated and expanded cytotoxic T-lymphocytes (CTL). It is important to consider the drug-induced effects when chemotherapeutic regimens and CTL-mediated immunotherapy is planned to be used in parallel. In this study, we characterized the effect of 29 frequently used chemotherapeutic agents on the cytotoxic activity of autologous and allogeneic CTLs. We found that treatment of CTLs with the following drugs: docetaxel, vincristine, chlorambucil, mitomycin C, oxaliplatin, doxorubicin, and bleomycin effectively inhibited CTL-mediated killing, without affecting their viability. On the other hand, the following drugs enhanced or permitted efficient CTL-mediated killing in vitro at concentrations comparable with the maximally achieved therapeutic concentration in vivo in humans: daunorubicin, prednisolone, vinorelbine, cisplatin, methotrexate, hydroxyurea, cytarabine, cyclophosphamide, topotecan, epirubicin, fluorouracil, carboplatin, asparaginase, 6-mercaptopurine, and bortezomib. Our results could potentially be used in the future to design new CTL-based adjuvant immunotherapy protocols.
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23
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Abstract
The human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) can infect a remarkably broad cell range within its host, including parenchymal cells and connective tissue cells of virtually any organ and various hematopoietic cell types. Epithelial cells, endothelial cells, fibroblasts and smooth muscle cells are the predominant targets for virus replication. The pathogenesis of acute HCMV infections is greatly influenced by this broad target cell range. Infection of epithelial cells presumably contributes to inter-host transmission. Infection of endothelial cells and hematopoietic cells facilitates systemic spread within the host. Infection of ubiquitous cell types such as fibroblasts and smooth muscle cells provides the platform for efficient proliferation of the virus. The tropism for endothelial cells, macrophages and dendritic cells varies greatly among different HCMV strains, mostly dependent on alterations within the UL128-131 gene locus. In line with the classification of the respective proteins as structural components of the viral envelope, interstrain differences concerning the infectivity in endothelial cells and macrophages are regulated on the level of viral entry.
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24
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Waller ECP, Day E, Sissons JGP, Wills MR. Dynamics of T cell memory in human cytomegalovirus infection. Med Microbiol Immunol 2008; 197:83-96. [PMID: 18301918 DOI: 10.1007/s00430-008-0082-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2008] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Primary human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) infection of an immunocompetent individual leads to the generation of a robust CD4+ and CD8+ T cell response which subsequently controls viral replication. HCMV is never cleared from the host and enters into latency with periodic reactivation and viral replication, which is controlled by reactivation of the memory T cells. In this article, we discuss the magnitude, phenotype and clonality of the T cell response following primary HCMV infection, the selection of responding T cells into the long-term memory pool and maintenance of this memory T cell population in the face of a latent/persistent infection. The article also considers the effect that this long-term surveillance of HCMV has on the T cell memory phenotype, their differentiation, function and the associated concepts of T cell memory inflation and immunosenescence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edward C P Waller
- Department of Medicine, Level 5, Addenbrookes Hospital, University of Cambridge, Hills Rd, Cambridge CB2 2QQ, UK
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25
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Danis B, George T, Goriely S, Dutta B, Renneson J, Gatto L, Fitzgerald-Bocarsly P, Marchant A, Goldman M, Willems F, De Wit D. Interferon regulatory factor 7-mediated responses are defective in cord blood plasmacytoid dendritic cells. Eur J Immunol 2008; 38:507-17. [DOI: 10.1002/eji.200737760] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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26
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Hosoya N, Miura T, Kawana-Tachikawa A, Koibuchi T, Shioda T, Odawara T, Nakamura T, Kitamura Y, Kano M, Kato A, Hasegawa M, Nagai Y, Iwamoto A. Comparison between Sendai virus and adenovirus vectors to transduce HIV-1 genes into human dendritic cells. J Med Virol 2008; 80:373-82. [DOI: 10.1002/jmv.21052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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27
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Scheller N, Furtwängler R, Sester U, Maier R, Breinig T, Meyerhans A. Human cytomegalovirus protein pp65: an efficient protein carrier system into human dendritic cells. Gene Ther 2007; 15:318-25. [DOI: 10.1038/sj.gt.3303086] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
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28
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Weck MM, Appel S, Werth D, Sinzger C, Bringmann A, Grünebach F, Brossart P. hDectin-1 is involved in uptake and cross-presentation of cellular antigens. Blood 2007; 111:4264-72. [PMID: 17698636 DOI: 10.1182/blood-2006-10-051375] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Human Dectin-1 (hDectin-1) is a member of the C-type lectin-like receptor family that was shown to be the major receptor for fungal beta-glucans and to play an important role in the cellular responses mediated by these carbohydrates. In this study, we demonstrate that hDectin-1 is involved in the uptake and cross-presentation of cellular antigens. Furthermore, activation of monocyte-derived dendritic cells (MDCs) with toll-like receptor 3 (TLR3) ligand but not with TLR2 ligand or TLR7 ligand resulted in down-regulation of hDectin-1 expression and reduced phagocytosis of apoptotic tumor cells as well as presentation of pp65-derived T-cell epitopes upon engulfment of cytomegalovirus (CMV)-infected human foreskin fibroblasts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Markus M Weck
- Department of Internal Medicine II, Division of Oncology, Hematology, Immunology, Rheumatology and Pneumology, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
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29
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Sinzger C, Mangin M, Weinstock C, Topp MS, Hebart H, Einsele H, Jahn G. Effect of serum and CTL on focal growth of human cytomegalovirus. J Clin Virol 2007; 38:112-9. [PMID: 17204454 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcv.2006.11.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2006] [Revised: 11/17/2006] [Accepted: 11/17/2006] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND In immunocompromised patients only cytotoxic T-lymphocytes (CTL) but not antiviral antibodies appear to be efficient in control of human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) infection. This is contrasted by the well-documented neutralising activity of patient sera against standard HCMV strains. OBJECTIVE We tested the hypothesis that a cell-culture model based on a recent clinical HCMV isolate would more accurately approximate the clinical situation and provide an explanation for the failure of neutralising antibodies in efficient restriction of HCMV infection. METHODS Sera from five bone marrow transplant recipients with or without prolonged HCMV replication were analysed by an enzyme-linked immunoassay for their capacity to neutralise cell-free HCMV preparations. The inhibitory effect of these sera on viral cell-to-cell-spread was then quantified by focus expansion assays using a recent clinical HCMV-isolate and was finally compared to the inhibitory effect of HCMV-specific CTL lines. RESULTS Prolonged HCMV replication occurred in three patients despite high titres of neutralising antibodies. In contrast to the strong inhibitory effect on cell-free HCMV, their sera could not inhibit the focal growth of a recent cell-associated HCMV isolate, whereas CTL clones directed against pUL123 or pUL83 of HCMV effectively limited focal expansion of the clinical isolate in fibroblast culture. CONCLUSIONS Focus expansion assays based on a cell-associated clinical HCMV isolate provide a model for the in vivo effectiveness of virus-specific CTL and neutralising antibodies. Our data support the assumption that due to their strict cell-association clinical HCMV strains are withdrawn from neutralising antibodies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian Sinzger
- Institute of Medical Virology, University of Tuebingen, Tuebingen, Germany.
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30
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Weck MM, Grünebach F, Werth D, Sinzger C, Bringmann A, Brossart P. TLR ligands differentially affect uptake and presentation of cellular antigens. Blood 2007; 109:3890-4. [PMID: 17218388 DOI: 10.1182/blood-2006-04-015719] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Abstract
Dendritic cells (DCs) have the unique ability to efficiently present T-cell epitopes from exogenous antigens on MHC class I molecules, a process called cross-presentation. In our study we demonstrate that stimulation of monocyte-derived DCs with Toll-like receptor (TLR) ligands differentially affects the uptake and cross-presentation of cellular antigens. Activation of DCs with TLR3 or TLR4 but not with TLR2 or TLR7/8 ligands inhibited phagocytosis of apoptotic tumor cells and resulted in a reduced cross-presentation of pp65-derived T-cell epitopes on MHC class I molecules upon engulfment of cytomegalovirus (CMV)–infected fibroblasts. These results have an important impact on the understanding of the interactions between the immune system and pathogens and the development of vaccination strategies to treat malignant diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Markus Michael Weck
- Department of Oncology, Hematology, Immunology, Rheumatology and Pulmology, Internal Medicine II, Institute of Medical Virology, University of Tübingen, Otfried-Müller-Strasse 10, 72076 Tübingen, Germany
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Pepperl-Klindworth S, Besold K, Frankenberg N, Farkas M, Kuball J, Theobald M, Plachter B. Cytomegalovirus interleukin-10 expression in infected cells does not impair MHC class I restricted peptide presentation on bystanding antigen-presenting cells. Viral Immunol 2006; 19:92-101. [PMID: 16553554 DOI: 10.1089/vim.2006.19.92] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) has evolved strategies to counteract its surveillance by the immune system. Mitigation of antiviral immune responses is considered critical for establishment of viral latency and for spread. Recently, a gene encoding an interleukin-10 homologue (cmvIL-10) has been discovered in the HCMV genome. Using recombinant cmvIL-10, several mostly immunosuppressive functions of the molecule have been described. However, the role of cmvIL-10 in the context of viral infection was not addressed. To be able to analyze this issue, we generated cmvIL- 10-negative viral mutants. Using these mutants, we tested whether the expression of cmvIL-10 by infected cells would render bystander antigen-presenting cells less efficient in their capacity to present antigenic peptides in the context of MHC class I. To test this, CTL clones specific for the viral nonapeptides P65(495-503) and IE1(297-305) were used as tools. Culture supernatant from fibroblasts infected with cmv-IL10-negative viruses was supplemented with increasing concentrations of recombinant cmvIL-10. Treatment of human THP-1 cells with these conditioned media did not impair their capacity to present HCMV-derived nonapeptides in the context of MHC-class I, even when high concentrations of cmvIL-10 were used. To investigate whether close cell contact was important, fibroblasts were infected with either wild-type HCMV or cmvIL-10 null mutants and were cocultured with nonpermissive lymphoblastoid cell lines, serving as target cells. No correlation was found between the ability of HCMV strains to express the cmvIL-10 gene and the capacity of neighboring LCL to present peptides in the context of MHC class I. Consequently, we propose that cmvIL- 10 expressed in the context of HCMV infection has no direct impact on MHC class I-restricted antigen presentation of noninfected bystander cells.
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Kis Z, Pallinger E, Endresz V, Burian K, Falus A, Berencsi G, Gonczol E. A soluble factor(s) released by MRC-5 cells early and late after human cytomegalovirus infection induces maturation of monocyte-derived dendritic cells. Arch Virol 2006; 151:2277-87. [PMID: 16773236 DOI: 10.1007/s00705-006-0799-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2005] [Accepted: 05/09/2006] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
A human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) strain passaged 10 times on MRC-5 human fibroblast cells failed to express immediate early (IE) antigens in immature dendritic cells (iDCs) after infection. However, both the early and the late HCMV conditioning medium, harvested from MRC-5 cells at 24 h or 7-9 days after infection, respectively, induced a higher ratio of DCs expressing maturation markers (CD40, CD83, CD86 and HLA-DR) on the surface of the cells. HCMV conditioning medium, ultracentrifuged to remove virus particles, exhibited a similarly enhanced expression of DC maturation markers. DCs treated with HCMV conditioning medium harvested late after infection increased the percentages of autologous CD4+ and CD8+ cells of seropositive donors to produce IFN-gamma and stimulated HCMV-specific lymphoproliferative responses. The early HCMC conditioning medium was also able to induce the functional maturation of DCs, as demonstrated by supplementing this medium with a Chlamydia pneumoniae antigen.
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Affiliation(s)
- Z Kis
- Division of Virology, National Center for Epidemiology, Budapest, Hungary
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33
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McCarthy C, Youde SJ, Man S. Definition of an HPV18/45 cross-reactive human T-cell epitope after DNA immunisation of HLA-A2/KB transgenic mice. Int J Cancer 2006; 118:2514-21. [PMID: 16353149 DOI: 10.1002/ijc.21643] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Although human papillomavirus (HPV) types 16 and 18 are the most common types associated with cervical cancer worldwide, other related HPV types such as HPV 35, 45 and 58 have significant prevalence in geographically distinct populations. For development of global prophylactic and therapeutic vaccine strategies, it is important to study immune responses against these viruses and to define the degree of cross-reactivity between related HPV types. To investigate the potential for T cell cross-reactivity after vaccination, HLA-A2/Kb transgenic mice were immunised with DNA plasmid constructs containing HPV18 and 45 E6 and E7. Splenocytes from immunised mice were tested in direct ELIspot assays against overlapping pools of HPV 18 peptides. Immunisation with either HPV18 or HPV45 E6 DNA produced dominant T cell responses against an epitope (KCIDFYSRI) that was shared between HPV18 and HPV45. This peptide was shown to bind to HLA-A*0201 but not Db or Kb molecules on the cell surface. Furthermore this peptide was shown to be immunogenic in vitro to human T cells from 2 out of 3 HLA-A2+ healthy donors. Collectively, these results demonstrate that HPV 18 and 45 E6 DNA vaccines are immunogenic in mice and demonstrate that cross-reactive T cell responses against closely related HPV types can be induced in vivo. The use of the HLA-A2/Kb transgenic mice allowed definition of an HLA-A*0201 binding peptide epitope that would have been rejected on the basis of predicted major histocompatibility complex binding affinity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Corinna McCarthy
- Tumour Immunology Group, Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Oxford, John Radcliffe Hospital, Oxford OX3 9DS, United Kingdom.
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34
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Vilalta A, Mahajan RK, Hartikka J, Rusalov D, Martin T, Bozoukova V, Leamy V, Hall K, Lalor P, Rolland A, Kaslow DC. I. Poloxamer-Formulated Plasmid DNA-Based Human Cytomegalovirus Vaccine: Evaluation of Plasmid DNA Biodistribution/Persistence and Integration. Hum Gene Ther 2005; 16:1143-50. [PMID: 16218775 DOI: 10.1089/hum.2005.16.1143] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Preclinical studies were conducted in mice and rabbits to evaluate biodistribution/persistence and potential integration of plasmid DNA (pDNA) after intramuscular administration of a poloxamer-formulated pDNAbased vaccine, VCL-CT01, encoding gB, pp65, and IE1 human cytomegalovirus (hCMV) immunogens. Tissue distribution in mice vaccinated with VCL-CT01 was compared with that in mice vaccinated with a phosphate- buffered saline (PBS)-formulated control pDNA vaccine. Residual pDNA copy number (PCN), in selected tissues collected on days 3, 30, and 60 after vaccination, was measured by quantitative polymerase chain reaction. In VCL-CT01-vaccinated mice and in control pDNA-vaccinated mice, pDNA was below the limit of detection by day 60 in all tissues except the injection site. Clearance of pDNA from the injection site was slower in VCL-CT01-vaccinated mice compared with PBS-pDNA-vaccinated mice. An integration study was conducted in rabbits to determine whether pDNA integration into the genome of the vaccinated animal contributed to pDNA persistence. Residual pDNA in VCL-CT01-injected rabbit muscle collected 60 days after vaccination (geometric mean of 1085 PCN/microg total DNA) was comparable to that observed in VCL-CT01- injected mouse muscle (geometric mean of 1471 PCN/microg total DNA) collected at the same time point. pDNA integration was not detectable by column agarose gel electrophoresis despite the persistence of pDNA at the injection site 60 days after vaccination. Therefore the risk of genomic integration of hCMV pDNA formulated with poloxamer was considered negligible.
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35
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Vilalta A, Mahajan RK, Hartikka J, Rusalov D, Martin T, Bozoukova V, Leamy V, Hall K, Lalor P, Rolland A, Kaslow DC. I. Poloxamer-Formulated Plasmid DNA-Based Human Cytomegalovirus Vaccine: Evaluation of Plasmid DNA Biodistribution/Persistence and Integration. Hum Gene Ther 2005. [DOI: 10.1089/hum.2005.16.ft-123] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
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36
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Vilalta A, Mahajan RK, Hartikka J, Rusalov D, Martin T, Bozoukova V, Leamy V, Hall K, Lalor P, Rolland A, Kaslow DC. I. Poloxamer-Formulated Plasmid DNA-Based Human Cytomegalovirus Vaccine: Evaluation of Plasmid DNA Biodistribution/Persistence and Integration. Hum Gene Ther 2005. [DOI: 10.1089/hum.2005.16.ft-116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
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Skoberne M, Beignon AS, Larsson M, Bhardwaj N. Apoptotic cells at the crossroads of tolerance and immunity. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 2005; 289:259-92. [PMID: 15791960 DOI: 10.1007/3-540-27320-4_12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Clearance of apoptotic cells by phagocytes can result in either anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive effects or prostimulatory consequences through presentation of cell-associated antigens to T cells. The differences in outcome are due to the conditions under which apoptosis is induced, the type of phagocytic cell, the nature of the receptors involved in apoptotic cell capture, and the milieu in which phagocytosis of apoptotic cells takes place. Preferential ligation of specific receptors on professional antigen-presenting cells (dendritic cells) has been proposed to induce potentially tolerogenic signals. On the other hand, dendritic cells can efficiently process and present antigens from pathogen-infected apoptotic cells to T cells. In this review, we discuss how apoptotic cells manipulate immunity through interactions with dendritic cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Skoberne
- Cancer Institute, NYU School of Medicine, 550 First Avenue, MSB507, New York, NY 10016, USA.
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38
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Posnett DN, Engelhorn ME, Houghton AN. Antiviral T cell responses: phalanx or multipronged attack? ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2005; 201:1881-4. [PMID: 15967819 PMCID: PMC2212042 DOI: 10.1084/jem.20050928] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Around 700 BCE, a new military formation called the phalanx was established in ancient Greece: a tight column of heavy infantry carrying long spears, or pikes, used in a single prong of attack. Later, in the battle of Marathon described by Herodotus, the Greeks learned the advantages of multipronged attacks, a strategy still used in modern warfare. Is the immune system similar in its approach to combating pathogens or tumors?
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Affiliation(s)
- David N Posnett
- Department of Medicine, Division of Hematology-Oncology, Weill Medical College, Cornell University, New York, NY 10021, USA.
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39
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De Lerma Barbaro A, Frumento G, Procopio FA, Accolla RS. MHC immunoevasins: protecting the pathogen reservoir in infection. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2005; 66:2-8. [PMID: 15982251 DOI: 10.1111/j.1399-0039.2005.00410.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Alteration of antigen recognition by T cells as result of insufficient major histocompatibility complex (MHC)-dependent antigen-presenting function has been observed in many cases of infections, particularly in in vitro systems. To hide themselves from an efficient immune response, pathogens may act on MHC-related functions at three levels: (i) by limiting the number of potential antigens that can be presented to naïve T cells; (ii) by synthesizing proteins which directly affect MHC cell-surface expression; and (iii) by altering the normal intracellular pathway of peptide loading on MHC. Here, we review examples of pathogens' action on each single step of MHC function and we suggest that the result of these often synergistic actions is both a limitation of the priming of naïve T cells and, more importantly, a protection of the pathogen's reservoir from the attack of primed T cells. The above mechanisms may also generate a skewing effect on immune effector mechanisms, which helps preserving the reservoir of infection from sterilization by the immune system.
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Affiliation(s)
- A De Lerma Barbaro
- Department of Clinical and Biological Sciences, School of Medicine, University of Insubria, Varese, Italy
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40
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Khan N, Bruton R, Taylor GS, Cobbold M, Jones TR, Rickinson AB, Moss PAH. Identification of cytomegalovirus-specific cytotoxic T lymphocytes in vitro is greatly enhanced by the use of recombinant virus lacking the US2 to US11 region or modified vaccinia virus Ankara expressing individual viral genes. J Virol 2005; 79:2869-79. [PMID: 15709006 PMCID: PMC548448 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.79.5.2869-2879.2005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Cytomegalovirus (CMV) elicits a potent T-cell response in humans that appears to protect the host from virus-associated disease. Despite facing strong host defense mechanisms, CMV remains as a lifelong infection that may reactivate and cause life-threatening disease in immunocompromised individuals. This persistence is probably assisted by expression of immune subversion proteins of the virus encoded by genes belonging to the US gene family. These proteins modulate major histocompatibility complex expression in infected cells and bias in vitro experiments toward the detection of only certain specificities. We have combined the use of recombinant CMV, lacking the US2 to US11 region genes, and cytoplasmic gamma interferon staining to define a more accurate assessment of CMV-specific responses in vivo. Recombinant CMV stimulation reveals a CD8 response much larger than that of parental virus in all donors tested. In some cases, this represented up to 10-fold increases in the number of cells detected. Responses were directed mainly against pp65, IE-1, and pp50 in the majority of donors. In addition, previously unreported IE-2-specific T-cell responses could be detected in a minority of cases. Furthermore, we observed a less marked increase in the response to mutant CMV by CD4 T cells in some donors. This suggests that a much broader T-cell response to CMV exists in vivo than is revealed by restimulation with wild-type virus and adds to the evidence that the efficacy of immune evasion strategies may not be as absolute as previously believed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naeem Khan
- CR UK Institute for Cancer Studies, Vincent Dr., Edgbaston, University of Birmingham, Birmingham B15 2TA, United Kingdom
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41
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Bosnjak L, Miranda-Saksena M, Koelle DM, Boadle RA, Jones CA, Cunningham AL. Herpes simplex virus infection of human dendritic cells induces apoptosis and allows cross-presentation via uninfected dendritic cells. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2005; 174:2220-7. [PMID: 15699155 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.174.4.2220] [Citation(s) in RCA: 135] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
HSV efficiently infects dendritic cells (DCs) in their immature state and induces down-regulation of costimulatory and adhesion molecules. As in mice, HSV infection of human DCs also leads to their rapid and progressive apoptosis, and we show that both early and late viral proteins contribute to its induction. Because topical HSV infection is confined to the epidermis, Langerhans cells are expected to be the major APCs in draining lymph nodes. However, recent observations in murine models show T cell activation to be mediated by nonepidermal DC subsets, suggesting cross-presentation of viral Ag. In this study we provide an explanation for this phenomenon, demonstrating that HSV-infected apoptotic DCs are readily phagocytosed by uninfected bystander DCs, which, in turn, stimulate virus-specific CD8+ T cell clones.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lidija Bosnjak
- Center for Virus Research, Westmead Millennium Institutem, Westmead Millennium Institute and Institute of Clinical Pathology and Medical Research, Westmead Hospital, Westmead, Australia
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42
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Abstract
Myeloid and plasmacytoid dendritic cells, a family of professional antigen presenting cells, are crucial in generating and maintaining anti-viral immunity. Many viruses have evolved to avoid, subvert, and even counterattack them. In this article, we focus on the tuning of innate and adaptive responses induced by human dendritic cells, and on the inhibition of their functions by viruses of medical significance. A constant "tug of war" goes on between dendritic cells and viruses and a main dendritic cell countermeasure is cross-presentation/priming.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marie Larsson
- NYU School of Medicine, 550 First Avenue, MSB507, New York, NY 10016, USA
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43
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Fleeton MN, Contractor N, Leon F, Wetzel JD, Dermody TS, Kelsall BL. Peyer's patch dendritic cells process viral antigen from apoptotic epithelial cells in the intestine of reovirus-infected mice. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2004; 200:235-45. [PMID: 15263030 PMCID: PMC2212021 DOI: 10.1084/jem.20041132] [Citation(s) in RCA: 114] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
We explored the role of Peyer's patch (PP) dendritic cell (DC) populations in the induction of immune responses to reovirus strain type 1 Lang (T1L). Immunofluorescence staining revealed the presence of T1L structural (σ1) and nonstructural (σNS) proteins in PPs of T1L-infected mice. Cells in the follicle-associated epithelium contained both σ1 and σNS, indicating productive viral replication. In contrast, σ1, but not σNS, was detected in the subepithelial dome (SED) in association with CD11c+/CD8α−/CD11blo DCs, suggesting antigen uptake by these DCs in the absence of infection. Consistent with this possibility, PP DCs purified from infected mice contained σ1, but not σNS, and PP DCs from uninfected mice could not be productively infected in vitro. Furthermore, σ1 protein in the SED was associated with fragmented DNA by terminal deoxy-UTP nick-end labeling staining, activated caspase-3, and the epithelial cell protein cytokeratin, suggesting that DCs capture T1L antigen from infected apoptotic epithelial cells. Finally, PP DCs from infected mice activated T1L-primed CD4+ T cells in vitro. These studies show that CD8α−/CD11blo DCs in the PP SED process T1L antigen from infected apoptotic epithelial cells for presentation to CD4+ T cells, and therefore demonstrate the cross-presentation of virally infected cells by DCs in vivo during a natural viral infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marina N Fleeton
- Laboratory of Molecular Immunology, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Building 10, Room 11N228, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
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44
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Manley TJ, Luy L, Jones T, Boeckh M, Mutimer H, Riddell SR. Immune evasion proteins of human cytomegalovirus do not prevent a diverse CD8+ cytotoxic T-cell response in natural infection. Blood 2004; 104:1075-82. [PMID: 15039282 DOI: 10.1182/blood-2003-06-1937] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
AbstractAlthough cytomegalovirus (CMV) expresses proteins that interfere with antigen presentation by class I major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecules, CD8+ cytotoxic T cells (CTLs) are indispensable for controlling infection and maintaining latency. Here, a cytokine flow cytometry assay that employs fibroblasts infected with a mutant strain of CMV (RV798), which is deleted of the 4 viral genes that are responsible for interfering with class I MHC presentation, was used to examine the frequency and specificity of the CD8+ CTLs to CMV in immunocompetent CMV-seropositive individuals. A large fraction of the CD8+ CTL response was found to be specific for viral antigens expressed during the immediate early and early phases of virus replication and presented by fibroblasts infected with RV798 but not wild-type CMV. These results demonstrate that the inhibition of class I antigen presentation observed in CMV-infected cells in vitro is not sufficient to prevent the induction of a broad repertoire of CD8+ CTLs after natural infection in vivo. Thus, reconstitution of T-cell immunity in immunodeficient patients by cell therapy or by vaccination may need to target multiple viral antigens to completely restore immunologic control of CMV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas J Manley
- Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, D3-100, 1100 Fairview Ave N, Seattle, WA 98109, USA.
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45
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Moss P, Khan N. CD8+ T-cell immunity to cytomegalovirus. Hum Immunol 2004; 65:456-64. [PMID: 15172445 DOI: 10.1016/j.humimm.2004.02.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2003] [Revised: 01/15/2004] [Accepted: 02/03/2004] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Cytomegalovirus is arguable the most immunodominant antigen that is encountered by the human immune system. CMV latency results from chronic immune suppression of viral application and the CD8(+) T cell appears to be the most important effector cell in this regard. The magnitude of the CMV-specific CD8(+) T cell response has been shown in recent years to be exceptionally strong and shows the unusual feature of increasing with age. The specificity of this response is focused on two proteins, namely pp65 and IE-1, although recent work points towards a broader recognition of viral proteins. The phenotype of CMV-specific T cells is heterogeneous but is generally typical of a late differentiation pattern of effector T cell. During immune suppression the CD8(+) T cell response usually increases in magnitude but an impaired CMV-specific immune response is indicative of poor clinical outcome. Advances in immunological techniques have allowed great advances in our understanding of CMV-specific immunity in both health and disease which should assist translation into improved vaccination or immunotherapeutic approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul Moss
- The University of Birmingham, Birmingham, United Kingdom
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46
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Moutaftsi M, Brennan P, Spector SA, Tabi Z. Impaired lymphoid chemokine-mediated migration due to a block on the chemokine receptor switch in human cytomegalovirus-infected dendritic cells. J Virol 2004; 78:3046-54. [PMID: 14990723 PMCID: PMC353728 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.78.6.3046-3054.2004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Dendritic cell (DC) migration from the site of infection to the site of T-cell priming is a crucial event in the generation of antiviral T-cell responses. Here we present to our knowledge the first functional evidence that human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) blocks the migration of infected monocyte-derived DCs toward lymphoid chemokines CCL19 and CCL21. DC migration is blocked by viral impairment of the chemokine receptor switch at the level of the expression of CCR7 molecules. The inhibition occurs with immediate-early-early kinetics, and viral interference with NF-kappaB signaling is likely to be at least partially responsible for the lack of CCR7 expression. DCs which migrate from the infected cultures are HCMV antigen negative, and consequently they do not stimulate HCMV-specific CD8(+) T cells, while CD4(+)-T-cell activation is not impaired. Although CD8(+) T cells can also be activated by alternative antigen presentation mechanisms, the spatial segregation of naive T cells and infected DCs seems a potent mechanism of delaying the generation of primary CD8(+)-T-cell responses and aiding early viral spread.
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Affiliation(s)
- Magdalena Moutaftsi
- Section of Infection and Immunity. Department of Medicine, University of Wales College of Medicine, Cardiff, United Kingdom
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47
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Khan S, Zimmermann A, Basler M, Groettrup M, Hengel H. A cytomegalovirus inhibitor of gamma interferon signaling controls immunoproteasome induction. J Virol 2004; 78:1831-42. [PMID: 14747547 PMCID: PMC369451 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.78.4.1831-1842.2004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Both human and mouse cytomegaloviruses (HCMV and MCMV) avoid peptide presentation through the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I pathway to CD8(+) T cells. Within the MHC class I pathway, the vast majority of antigenic peptides are generated by the proteasome system, a multicatalytic protease complex consisting of constitutive subunits, three of which can be replaced by enzymatically active gamma interferon (IFN-gamma)-inducible subunits, i.e., LMP2, LMP7, and MECL1, to form the so-called immunoproteasomes. Here, we show that steady-state levels of immunoproteasomes are readily formed in response to MCMV infection in the liver. In contrast, the incorporation of immunoproteasome subunits was prevented in MCMV-infected, as well as HCMV-infected, fibroblasts in vitro. Likewise, the expression of the IFN-gamma-inducible proteasome regulator PA28 alpha beta was also impaired in MCMV-infected cells. Both MCMV and HCMV did not alter the constitutive-subunit composition of proteasomes in infected cells. Quantitative assessment of LMP2, MECL1, and LMP7 transcripts revealed that the inhibition of immunoproteasome formation occurred at a pretranscriptional level. Remarkably, a targeted deletion of the MCMV gene M27, encoding an inhibitor of STAT2 that disrupts IFN-gamma receptor signaling, largely restored transcription and protein expression of immunoproteasome subunits in infected cells. While CMV block peptide transport and MHC class I assembly by posttranslational strategies, immunoproteasome assembly, and thus the repertoire of proteasomal peptides, is controlled by pretranscriptional mechanisms. We hypothesize that the blockade of immunoproteasome formation has considerable consequences for shaping the CD8(+)-T-cell repertoire during the effector phase of the immune response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Selina Khan
- Research Department, Cantonal Hospital St. Gallen, CH-9007 St. Gallen, Switzerland
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48
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Basta S, Bennink JR. A survival game of hide and seek: cytomegaloviruses and MHC class I antigen presentation pathways. Viral Immunol 2004; 16:231-42. [PMID: 14583141 DOI: 10.1089/088282403322396064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Cytomegaloviruses (CMV) are members of the ubiquitous family of herpesviruses, which escape immunological clearance and persist throughout life in the infected host. Cytomegaloviruses have developed numerous strategies that permit them to co-exist with their host even as an anti-virus immune response endangers their long-term survival. A considerable number of these strategies are aimed at MHC class I presentation of viral proteins to CD8+ T cells (TCD8+ ). Although the gamut of CMV immune evasion will be briefly examined, the primary focus of this review is on the host ability to counteract the strategies developed by CMV to inhibit antigen processing and presentation. A primary mechanism used by the immune system is the recognition of very early virus proteins including recognition of the immunomodulatory proteins themselves. We further speculate that cross-presentation of antigen is an adaptive immune response to the inhibition of direct presentation. Other mechanisms, such as the evolution of pAPC subsets, may also allow the immune system to adapt to a variety of different infectious pathogens while preventing cytopathic infection of all pAPCs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sameh Basta
- Laboratory of Viral Diseases, NIAID, NIH, Bethesda, Maryland 20892-0440, USA
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49
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Fonteneau JF, Kavanagh DG, Lirvall M, Sanders C, Cover TL, Bhardwaj N, Larsson M. Characterization of the MHC class I cross-presentation pathway for cell-associated antigens by human dendritic cells. Blood 2003; 102:4448-55. [PMID: 12933572 DOI: 10.1182/blood-2003-06-1801] [Citation(s) in RCA: 100] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I presentation of exogenous antigens is the mechanism enabling professional antigen-presenting cells (APCs) to induce CD8+ T-cell responses against viruses and tumors that do not have access to the classical MHC class I pathway. We have characterized the uptake, processing, and MHC class I cross-presentation by human dendritic cells (DCs) of cell-associated antigens derived from physiologically relevant sources, namely, vaccinia virus-infected apoptotic and necrotic cells. We show that cross-presentation is a rapid process, detectable within 2 to 4 hours after uptake of dead cells, and that proteolysis by cathepsin D in an acidic endosomal compartment is essential for cross-presentation. The presentation is abolished when the phagocytic or macropinocytic functions of the cells are inhibited and is dependent on transporter associated with antigen processing, sensitive to brefeldin A, and requires functional proteasomes. Altogether, these data suggest that antigens derived from apoptotic and necrotic cells require access to the cytosol to intersect with the conventional MHC class I pathway for presentation of cytosolic proteins.
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Chahroudi A, Silvestri G, Feinberg MB. Measuring T cell-mediated cytotoxicity using fluorogenic caspase substrates. Methods 2003; 31:120-6. [PMID: 12957569 DOI: 10.1016/s1046-2023(03)00121-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs) play a major role in the immune response against viruses and other intracellular pathogens. In addition, CTLs are implicated in the control of tumor cells in certain settings. Accurate measures of CTL function are of critical importance to study the pathogenesis of infectious diseases and to evaluate the efficacy of new vaccines and immunotherapies. To this end, we have recently developed a flow cytometry-based CTL (FCC) assay that measures the CTL-induced caspase activation within target cells using cell permeable fluorogenic caspase substrates. This novel assay reliably detects, by flow cytometry or fluorescence/confocal microscopy, antigen-specific CTLs in a wide variety of human and murine systems, and is safer and more informative than the standard 51Cr-release assay. In addition, the flow cytometric CTL (FCC) assay provides an alternative method that is often more sensitive and physiologically informative when compared to previously described FCC assays, as it measures a biological indicator of apoptosis within the target cell. The FCC assay may thus represent a useful tool to further understand the molecular and cellular mechanisms that underlie CTL-mediated killing during tumorigenesis or following infection with viruses or other intracellular pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Chahroudi
- Emory Vaccine Center, Emory University School of Medicine, 954 Gatewood Rd, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA
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