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Deng K, Yao J, Huang J, Ding Y, Zuo J. Abnormal alternative splicing promotes tumor resistance in targeted therapy and immunotherapy. Transl Oncol 2021; 14:101077. [PMID: 33774500 PMCID: PMC8039720 DOI: 10.1016/j.tranon.2021.101077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2020] [Revised: 03/12/2021] [Accepted: 03/15/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Abnormal alternative splicing is involve in abnormal expression of genes in cancer. Abnormal alternative splicing events promote malignant progression of cancer. Abnormal alternative splicing develops tumor resistance to targeted therapy by changing the target point and signal transduction pathway. Abnormal alternative splicing develops tumor resistance to immunotherapy by changing cell surface antigens and protein structure.
Abnormally alternative splicing events are common hallmark of diverse types of cancers. Splicing variants with aberrant functions play an important role in cancer development. Most importantly, a growing body of evidence has supported that alternative splicing might play a significant role in the therapeutic resistance of tumors. Targeted therapy and immunotherapy are the future directions of tumor therapy; however, the loss of antigen targets on the tumor cells surface and alterations in drug efficacy have resulted in the failure of targeted therapy and immunotherapy. Interestingly, abnormal alternative splicing, as a strategy to regulate gene expression, is reportedly involved in the reprogramming of cell signaling pathways and epitopes on the tumor cell surface by changing splicing patterns of genes, thus rendering tumors resisted to targeted therapy and immunotherapy. Accordingly, increased knowledge regarding abnormal alternative splicing in tumors may help predict therapeutic resistance during targeted therapy and immunotherapy and lead to novel therapeutic approaches in cancer. Herein, we provide a brief synopsis of abnormal alternative splicing events in cancer progression and therapeutic resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kun Deng
- The Laboratory of translational medicine, Hengyang Medical School, University of South China, 28 Changsheng Road, Hengyang, Hunan 421001, P R China
| | - Jingwei Yao
- The Affiliated Nanhua Hospital of University of South China, Hengyang, Hunan 421002, P R China
| | - Jialu Huang
- The Laboratory of translational medicine, Hengyang Medical School, University of South China, 28 Changsheng Road, Hengyang, Hunan 421001, P R China
| | - Yubo Ding
- The Affiliated Nanhua Hospital of University of South China, Hengyang, Hunan 421002, P R China
| | - Jianhong Zuo
- The Laboratory of translational medicine, Hengyang Medical School, University of South China, 28 Changsheng Road, Hengyang, Hunan 421001, P R China; The Affiliated Nanhua Hospital of University of South China, Hengyang, Hunan 421002, P R China; Clinical Laboratory, The Third Affiliated Hospital of University of South China, Hengyang, Hunan 421900, China.
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Chen CB, Tahboub F, Plesec T, Kay M, Radhakrishnan K. A Review of Autoimmune Enteropathy and Its Associated Syndromes. Dig Dis Sci 2020; 65:3079-3090. [PMID: 32833153 DOI: 10.1007/s10620-020-06540-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2020] [Accepted: 08/05/2020] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Autoimmune enteropathy is an extremely rare condition characterized by an abnormal intestinal immune response which typically manifests within the first 6 months of life as severe, intractable diarrhea that does not respond to dietary modification. Affected individuals frequently present with other signs of autoimmunity. The diagnosis is made based on a characteristic combination of clinical symptoms, laboratory studies, and histological features on small bowel biopsy. Autoimmune enteropathy is associated with a number of other conditions and syndromes, most notably immunodysregulation polyendocrinopathy enteropathy X-linked (IPEX) syndrome and autoimmune polyglandular syndrome type 1 (APS-1). Diagnosis and treatment is challenging, and further research is needed to better understand the pathogenesis, disease progression, and long-term outcomes of these conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charles B Chen
- Department of Pediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology, and Nutrition, Cleveland Clinic Foundation, 9500 Euclid Ave, Cleveland, OH, 44195, USA.
| | - Farah Tahboub
- The University of Jordan School of Medicine, Queen Rania St 212, Amman, Jordan
| | - Thomas Plesec
- Department of Anatomic Pathology, Cleveland Clinic Foundation, 9500 Euclid Ave, Cleveland, OH, 44195, USA
| | - Marsha Kay
- Department of Pediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology, and Nutrition, Cleveland Clinic Foundation, 9500 Euclid Ave, Cleveland, OH, 44195, USA
| | - Kadakkal Radhakrishnan
- Department of Pediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology, and Nutrition, Cleveland Clinic Foundation, 9500 Euclid Ave, Cleveland, OH, 44195, USA
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Padya BS, Pandey A, Pisay M, Koteshwara KB, Chandrashekhar Hariharapura R, Bhat KU, Biswas S, Mutalik S. Stimuli-responsive and cellular targeted nanoplatforms for multimodal therapy of skin cancer. Eur J Pharmacol 2020; 890:173633. [PMID: 33049302 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2020.173633] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2020] [Revised: 09/29/2020] [Accepted: 10/05/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Interdisciplinary applications of nanopharmaceutical sciences have tremendous potential for enhancing pharmacokinetics, efficacy and safety of cancer therapy. The limitations of conventional therapeutic platforms used for skin cancer therapy have been largely overcome by the use of nanoplatforms. This review discusses various nanotechnological approaches experimented for the treatment of skin cancer. The review describes various polymeric, lipidic and inorganic nanoplatforms for efficient therapy of skin cancer. The stimuli-responsive nanoplatforms such as pH-responsive as well as temperature-responsive platforms have also been reviewed. Different strategies for potentiating the nanoparticles application for cancer therapy such as surface engineering, conjugation with drugs, stimulus-responsive and multimodal effect have also been discussed and compared with the available conventional treatments. Although, nanopharmaceuticals face challenges such as toxicity, cost and scale-up, efforts put-in to improve these drawbacks with continuous research would deliver exciting and promising results in coming days.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bharath Singh Padya
- Department of Pharmaceutics, Manipal College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal, Karnataka, 576104, India
| | - Abhijeet Pandey
- Department of Pharmaceutics, Manipal College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal, Karnataka, 576104, India
| | - Muralidhar Pisay
- Department of Pharmaceutics, Manipal College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal, Karnataka, 576104, India
| | - K B Koteshwara
- Department of Pharmaceutics, Manipal College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal, Karnataka, 576104, India
| | - Raghu Chandrashekhar Hariharapura
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Manipal College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal, Karnataka, 576104, India
| | - Kuruveri Udaya Bhat
- Department of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Mangalore, Karnataka, 575025, India
| | - Swati Biswas
- Department of Pharmacy, Birla Institute of Technology & Science-Pilani, Hyderabad Campus, Hyderabad, Telangana, 500078, India
| | - Srinivas Mutalik
- Department of Pharmaceutics, Manipal College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal, Karnataka, 576104, India.
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Okazaki T, Okazaki IM. Stimulatory and Inhibitory Co-signals in Autoimmunity. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2019; 1189:213-232. [PMID: 31758536 DOI: 10.1007/978-981-32-9717-3_8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Co-receptors cooperatively regulate the function of immune cells to optimize anti-infectious immunity while limiting autoimmunity by providing stimulatory and inhibitory co-signals. Among various co-receptors, those in the CD28/CTLA-4 family play fundamental roles in the regulation of lymphocytes by modulating the strength, quality, and/or duration of the antigen receptor signal. The development of the lethal lymphoproliferative disorder and various tissue-specific autoimmune diseases in mice deficient for CTLA-4 and PD-1, respectively, clearly demonstrates their pivotal roles in the development and the maintenance of immune tolerance. The recent success of immunotherapies targeting CTLA-4 and PD-1 in the treatment of various cancers highlights their critical roles in the regulation of cancer immunity in human. In addition, the development of multifarious autoimmune diseases as immune-related adverse events of anti-CTLA-4 and anti-PD-1/PD-L1 therapies and the successful clinical application of the CD28 blocking therapy using CTLA-4-Ig to the treatment of arthritis assure their crucial roles in the regulation of autoimmunity in human. Accumulating evidences in mice and humans indicate that genetic and environmental factors strikingly modify effects of the targeted inhibition and potentiation of co-signals. In this review, we summarize our current understanding of the roles of CD28, CTLA-4, and PD-1 in autoimmunity. Deeper understandings of the context-dependent and context-independent functions of co-signals are essential for the appropriate usage and the future development of innovative immunomodulatory therapies for a diverse array of diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Taku Okazaki
- Division of Immune Regulation, Institute of Advanced Medical Sciences, Tokushima University, Tokushima, Japan.
| | - Il-Mi Okazaki
- Division of Immune Regulation, Institute of Advanced Medical Sciences, Tokushima University, Tokushima, Japan
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Lingel H, Brunner-Weinzierl MC. CTLA-4 (CD152): A versatile receptor for immune-based therapy. Semin Immunol 2019; 42:101298. [DOI: 10.1016/j.smim.2019.101298] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2019] [Accepted: 08/05/2019] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
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Chang LS, Barroso-Sousa R, Tolaney SM, Hodi FS, Kaiser UB, Min L. Endocrine Toxicity of Cancer Immunotherapy Targeting Immune Checkpoints. Endocr Rev 2019; 40:17-65. [PMID: 30184160 PMCID: PMC6270990 DOI: 10.1210/er.2018-00006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 296] [Impact Index Per Article: 59.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2018] [Accepted: 06/07/2018] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Immune checkpoints are small molecules expressed by immune cells that play critical roles in maintaining immune homeostasis. Targeting the immune checkpoints cytotoxic T-lymphocyte-associated protein 4 (CTLA-4) and programmed death 1 (PD-1) with inhibitory antibodies has demonstrated effective and durable antitumor activity in subgroups of patients with cancer. The US Food and Drug Administration has approved several immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICPis) for the treatment of a broad spectrum of malignancies. Endocrinopathies have emerged as one of the most common immune-related adverse events (irAEs) of ICPi therapy. Hypophysitis, thyroid dysfunction, insulin-deficient diabetes mellitus, and primary adrenal insufficiency have been reported as irAEs due to ICPi therapy. Hypophysitis is particularly associated with anti-CTLA-4 therapy, whereas thyroid dysfunction is particularly associated with anti-PD-1 therapy. Diabetes mellitus and primary adrenal insufficiency are rare endocrine toxicities associated with ICPi therapy but can be life-threatening if not promptly recognized and treated. Notably, combination anti-CTLA-4 and anti-PD-1 therapy is associated with the highest incidence of ICPi-related endocrinopathies. The precise mechanisms underlying these endocrine irAEs remain to be elucidated. Most ICPi-related endocrinopathies occur within 12 weeks after the initiation of ICPi therapy, but several have been reported to develop several months to years after ICPi initiation. Some ICPi-related endocrinopathies may resolve spontaneously, but others, such as central adrenal insufficiency and primary hypothyroidism, appear to be persistent in most cases. The mainstay of management of ICPi-related endocrinopathies is hormone replacement and symptom control. Further studies are needed to determine (i) whether high-dose corticosteroids in the treatment of ICPi-related endocrinopathies preserves endocrine function (especially in hypophysitis), and (ii) whether the development of ICPi-related endocrinopathies correlates with tumor response to ICPi therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lee-Shing Chang
- Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes, and Hypertension, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Romualdo Barroso-Sousa
- Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Sara M Tolaney
- Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - F Stephen Hodi
- Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Ursula B Kaiser
- Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes, and Hypertension, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Le Min
- Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes, and Hypertension, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts
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Ward FJ, Dahal LN, Abu-Eid R. On the Road to Immunotherapy-Prospects for Treating Head and Neck Cancers With Checkpoint Inhibitor Antibodies. Front Immunol 2018; 9:2182. [PMID: 30319637 PMCID: PMC6165864 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2018.02182] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2018] [Accepted: 09/04/2018] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Head and neck cancers (HNC) represent a heterogeneous cluster of aggressive malignancies that account for 3% of all cancer cases in the UK. HNC is increasing in frequency particularly in the developing world, which is related to changes in risk factors. Unfortunately, the mortality rate is high, which is chiefly attributed to late diagnosis at stages where traditional treatments fail. Cancer immunotherapy has achieved great successes in anti-tumor therapy. Checkpoint inhibitor (CI) antibodies enhance anti-tumor activity by blocking inhibitory receptors to drive tumor-specific T and NK cell effector responses. Since their introduction in 2011, CI antibodies have been approved for many cancer types including HNC. Here, we examine the development of CI therapies and look forward to future developments for treatment of HNC with CI therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frank J Ward
- Institute of Medical Sciences, School of Medicine, Medical Sciences and Nutrition, University of Aberdeen, Foresterhill, Aberdeen, United Kingdom
| | - Lekh N Dahal
- Centre for Cancer Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Southampton, Southampton General Hospital, Southampton, United Kingdom
| | - Rasha Abu-Eid
- Institute of Medical Sciences, School of Medicine, Medical Sciences and Nutrition, University of Aberdeen, Foresterhill, Aberdeen, United Kingdom.,Institute of Dentistry, School of Medicine, Medical Sciences and Nutrition, University of Aberdeen, Foresterhill, Aberdeen, United Kingdom
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Abstract
The response of peripheral T lymphocytes (T cell) is controlled by multiple checkpoints to avoid unwanted activation against self-tissues. Two opposing costimulatory receptors, CD28 and CTLA-4, on T cells bind to the same ligands (CD80 and CD86) on antigen-presenting cells (APCs), and provide positive and negative feedback for T-cell activation, respectively. Early studies suggested that CTLA-4 is induced on activated T cells and binds to CD80/CD86 with much stronger affinity than CD28, providing a competitive inhibition. Subsequent studies by many researchers revealed the more complex mode of T-cell inhibition by CTLA-4. After T-cell activation, CTLA-4 is stored in the intracellular vesicles, and recruited to the immunological synapse formed between T cells and APCs, and inhibits further activation of T cells by blocking signals initiated by T-cell receptors and CD28. CTLA-4-positive cells can also provide cell-extrinsic regulation on other autoreactive T cells, and are considered to provide an essential regulatory mechanism for FoxP3+ regulatory T cells. Genetic deficiency of CTLA-4 leads to CD28-mediated severe autoimmunity in mice and humans, suggesting its function as a fundamental brake that restrains the expansion and activation of self-reactive T cells. In cancer, therapeutic approaches targeting CTLA-4 by humanized blocking antibodies has been demonstrated to be an effective immunotherapy by reversing T-cell tolerance against tumors. This chapter introduces CTLA-4 biology, including its discovery and mechanism of action, and discusses questions related to CTLA-4.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shunsuke Chikuma
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Keio University School of Medicine, 35 Shinanomachi, Shinjuku-Ku, Tokyo, 160-8582, Japan.
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Induction of autoimmune disease by deletion of CTLA-4 in mice in adulthood. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2016; 113:E2383-92. [PMID: 27071130 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1603892113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 159] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Cytotoxic T lymphocyte antigen-4 (CTLA-4) is essential for immunological (self-) tolerance, but due to the early fatality of CTLA-4 KO mice, its specific function in central and peripheral tolerance and in different systemic diseases remains to be determined. Here, we further examined the role of CTLA-4 by abrogating CTLA-4 expression in adult mice and compared the resulting autoimmunity that follows with that produced by congenital CTLA-4 deficiency. We found that conditional deletion of CTLA-4 in adult mice resulted in spontaneous lymphoproliferation, hypergammaglobulinemia, and histologically evident pneumonitis, gastritis, insulitis, and sialadenitis, accompanied by organ-specific autoantibodies. However, in contrast to congenital deficiency, this was not fatal. CTLA-4 deletion induced preferential expansion of CD4(+)Foxp3(+) Treg cells. However, T cells from CTLA-4-deficient inducible KO mice were able to adoptively transfer the diseases into T cell-deficient mice. Notably, cell transfer of thymocytes de novo produced myocarditis, otherwise not observed in donor mice depleted in adulthood. Moreover, CTLA-4 deletion in adult mice had opposing impacts on induced autoimmune models. Thus, although CTLA-4-deficient mice had more severe collagen-induced arthritis (CIA), they were protected against peptide-induced experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE); however, onset of protein-induced EAE was only delayed. Collectively, this indicates that CTLA-4 deficiency affects both central and peripheral tolerance and Treg cell-mediated suppression.
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Ward FJ, Dahal LN, Khanolkar RC, Shankar SP, Barker RN. Targeting the alternatively spliced soluble isoform of CTLA-4: prospects for immunotherapy? Immunotherapy 2015; 6:1073-84. [PMID: 25428646 DOI: 10.2217/imt.14.73] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
CTLA-4 is an inhibitory protein that contributes to immune homeostasis and tolerance, a role that has led to its exploitation as a therapeutic in several clinical settings including cancer and autoimmune disease. Development of CTLA-4 therapies focused largely on the full-length receptor isoform but other CTLA-4 isoforms are also expressed, including a secretable form of CTLA-4 (soluble CTLA-4 [sCTLA-4]). The contribution of sCTLA-4 to immune regulation has been less well studied, primarily because it was identified some years after the original description of CTLA-4. Here, we examine how sCTLA-4 might contribute to immune regulation and ask whether it might be a biomarker to inform current CTLA-4 therapies or represent a novel CTLA-4 target for future therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frank J Ward
- Section of Immunology & Infection, Division of Applied Medicine, Institute of Medical Sciences, University of Aberdeen, Foresterhill, Aberdeen, UK
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Walker LSK. Treg and CTLA-4: two intertwining pathways to immune tolerance. J Autoimmun 2013; 45:49-57. [PMID: 23849743 PMCID: PMC3989116 DOI: 10.1016/j.jaut.2013.06.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 283] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2013] [Accepted: 06/12/2013] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Both the CTLA-4 pathway and regulatory T cells (Treg) are essential for the control of immune homeostasis. Their therapeutic relevance is highlighted by the increasing use of anti-CTLA-4 antibody in tumor therapy and the development of Treg cell transfer strategies for use in autoimmunity and transplantation settings. The CTLA-4 pathway first came to the attention of the immunological community in 1995 with the discovery that mice deficient in Ctla-4 suffered a fatal lymphoproliferative syndrome. Eight years later, mice lacking the critical Treg transcription factor Foxp3 were shown to exhibit a remarkably similar phenotype. Much of the debate since has centered on the question of whether Treg suppressive function requires CTLA-4. The finding that it does in some settings but not in others has provoked controversy and inevitable polarization of opinion. In this article, I suggest that CTLA-4 and Treg represent complementary and largely overlapping mechanisms of immune tolerance. I argue that Treg commonly use CTLA-4 to effect suppression, however CTLA-4 can also function in the non-Treg compartment while Treg can invoke CTLA-4-independent mechanisms of suppression. The notion that Foxp3 and CTLA-4 direct independent programs of immune regulation, which in practice overlap to a significant extent, will hopefully help move us towards a better appreciation of the underlying biology and therapeutic significance of these pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucy S K Walker
- Institute of Immunity & Transplantation, University College London Medical School, Royal Free Campus, Rowland Hill Street, London NW3 2PF, UK.
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Intlekofer AM, Thompson CB. At the bench: preclinical rationale for CTLA-4 and PD-1 blockade as cancer immunotherapy. J Leukoc Biol 2013; 94:25-39. [PMID: 23625198 DOI: 10.1189/jlb.1212621] [Citation(s) in RCA: 278] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Tumors can avoid immune surveillance by stimulating immune inhibitory receptors that function to turn off established immune responses. By blocking the ability of tumors to stimulate inhibitory receptors on T cells, sustained, anti-tumor immune responses can be generated in animals. Thus, therapeutic blockade of immune inhibitory checkpoints provides a potential method to boost anti-tumor immunity. The CTLA-4 and PD-1Rs represent two T cell-inhibitory receptors with independent mechanisms of action. Preclinical investigations revealed that CTLA-4 enforces an activation threshold and attenuates proliferation of tumor-specific T lymphocytes. In contrast, PD-1 functions primarily as a stop signal that limits T cell effector function within a tumor. The unique mechanisms and sites of action of CTLA-4 and PD-1 suggest that although blockade of either has the potential to promote anti-tumor immune responses, combined blockade of both might offer even more potent anti-tumor activity. See related review At the Bedside: CTLA-4 and PD-1 blocking antibodies in cancer immunotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew M Intlekofer
- Department of Medicine, Cancer Biology and Genetics Program, and Sloan-Kettering Institute, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, New York, New York, USA
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Ward FJ, Dahal LN, Wijesekera SK, Abdul-Jawad SK, Kaewarpai T, Xu H, Vickers MA, Barker RN. The soluble isoform of CTLA-4 as a regulator of T-cell responses. Eur J Immunol 2013; 43:1274-85. [DOI: 10.1002/eji.201242529] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2012] [Revised: 01/21/2013] [Accepted: 02/05/2013] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Frank J. Ward
- Section of Immunology and Infection, Division of Applied Medicine; Institute of Medical Sciences, University of Aberdeen; Foresterhill; Aberdeen; UK
| | - Lekh N. Dahal
- Section of Immunology and Infection, Division of Applied Medicine; Institute of Medical Sciences, University of Aberdeen; Foresterhill; Aberdeen; UK
| | - Subadra K. Wijesekera
- Section of Immunology and Infection, Division of Applied Medicine; Institute of Medical Sciences, University of Aberdeen; Foresterhill; Aberdeen; UK
| | - Sultan K. Abdul-Jawad
- Section of Immunology and Infection, Division of Applied Medicine; Institute of Medical Sciences, University of Aberdeen; Foresterhill; Aberdeen; UK
| | - Taniya Kaewarpai
- Section of Immunology and Infection, Division of Applied Medicine; Institute of Medical Sciences, University of Aberdeen; Foresterhill; Aberdeen; UK
| | - Heping Xu
- Section of Immunology and Infection, Division of Applied Medicine; Institute of Medical Sciences, University of Aberdeen; Foresterhill; Aberdeen; UK
| | - Mark A. Vickers
- Section of Immunology and Infection, Division of Applied Medicine; Institute of Medical Sciences, University of Aberdeen; Foresterhill; Aberdeen; UK
| | - Robert N. Barker
- Section of Immunology and Infection, Division of Applied Medicine; Institute of Medical Sciences, University of Aberdeen; Foresterhill; Aberdeen; UK
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Abstract
A number of autoimmune diseases, including multiple sclerosis, are mediated by self-reactive T cells that have escaped the deletional mechanisms of central tolerance. Usually, these T cells are kept at bay through peripheral tolerance mechanisms, including regulation through coinhibitory receptors and suppression by regulatory T cells. However, if these mechanisms fail, self-reactive T cells are activated and autoimmune responses ensue. This review outlines how the coinhibitory receptors CTLA-4 (cytotoxic T-lymphocyte antigen-4), PD-1 (programed death-1), Tim-3 (T-cell immunoglobulin- and mucin domain-containing molecule 3), and TIGIT (T-cell immunoreceptor with immunoglobulin and ITIM domains) act at different checkpoints to inhibit autoreactive T cells and suppress the development of central nervous system autoimmunity. Loss of each of these receptors predisposes to autoimmunity, indicating a non-redundant role in maintaining peripheral tolerance. At the same time, their functional patterns seem to overlap to a large degree. Therefore, we propose that only the concerted action of a combination of inhibitory receptors is able to maintain peripheral tolerance and prevent autoimmunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicole Joller
- Center for Neurologic Diseases, Brigham and Women’s Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115
| | - Anneli Peters
- Center for Neurologic Diseases, Brigham and Women’s Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115
| | - Ana C. Anderson
- Center for Neurologic Diseases, Brigham and Women’s Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115
| | - Vijay K. Kuchroo
- Center for Neurologic Diseases, Brigham and Women’s Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115
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15
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Walker LSK, Sansom DM. The emerging role of CTLA4 as a cell-extrinsic regulator of T cell responses. Nat Rev Immunol 2011; 11:852-63. [PMID: 22116087 DOI: 10.1038/nri3108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 526] [Impact Index Per Article: 40.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
The T cell protein cytotoxic T lymphocyte antigen 4 (CTLA4) was identified as a crucial negative regulator of the immune system over 15 years ago, but its mechanisms of action are still under debate. It has long been suggested that CTLA4 transmits an inhibitory signal to the cells that express it. However, not all the available data fit with a cell-intrinsic function for CTLA4, and other studies have suggested that CTLA4 functions in a T cell-extrinsic manner. Here, we discuss the data for and against the T cell-intrinsic and -extrinsic functions of CTLA4.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucy S K Walker
- MRC Centre for Immune Regulation, University of Birmingham Medical School, Birmingham, UK.
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Bour-Jordan H, Esensten JH, Martinez-Llordella M, Penaranda C, Stumpf M, Bluestone JA. Intrinsic and extrinsic control of peripheral T-cell tolerance by costimulatory molecules of the CD28/ B7 family. Immunol Rev 2011; 241:180-205. [PMID: 21488898 PMCID: PMC3077803 DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-065x.2011.01011.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 296] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Positive and negative costimulation by members of the CD28 family is critical for the development of productive immune responses against foreign pathogens and their proper termination to prevent inflammation-induced tissue damage. In addition, costimulatory signals are critical for the establishment and maintenance of peripheral tolerance. This paradigm has been established in many animal models and has led to the development of immunotherapies targeting costimulation pathways for the treatment of cancer, autoimmune disease, and allograft rejection. During the last decade, the complexity of the biology of costimulatory pathways has greatly increased due to the realization that costimulation does not affect only effector T cells but also influences regulatory T cells and antigen-presenting cells. Thus, costimulation controls T-cell tolerance through both intrinsic and extrinsic pathways. In this review, we discuss the influence of costimulation on intrinsic and extrinsic pathways of peripheral tolerance, with emphasis on members of the CD28 family, CD28, cytotoxic T-lymphocyte antigen-4 (CTLA-4), and programmed death-1 (PD-1), as well as the downstream cytokine interleukin-1 (IL-2).
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Affiliation(s)
- Hélène Bour-Jordan
- UCSF Diabetes Center, University of California at San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143-0400, USA
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17
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Callahan MK, Wolchok JD, Allison JP. Anti-CTLA-4 antibody therapy: immune monitoring during clinical development of a novel immunotherapy. Semin Oncol 2010; 37:473-84. [PMID: 21074063 DOI: 10.1053/j.seminoncol.2010.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 175] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Cytotoxic T-lymphocyte-associated antigen (CTLA-4), also known as CD152, is a co-inhibitory molecule that functions to regulate T-cell activation. Antibodies that block the interaction of CTLA-4 with its ligands B7.1 and B7.2 can enhance immune responses, including antitumor immunity. Two CTLA-4-blocking antibodies are presently under clinical investigation: ipilimumab and tremelimumab. CTLA-4 blockade has shown promise in treatment of patients with metastatic melanoma, with a recently completed randomized, double-blind phase III trial demonstrating a benefit in overall survival (OS) in the treated population. However, this approach appears to benefit only a subset of patients. Understanding the mechanism(s) of action of CTLA-4 blockade and identifying prognostic immunologic correlates of clinical endpoints to monitor are presently areas of intense investigation. Several immunologic endpoints have been proposed to correlate with clinical activity. This review will focus on the endpoints of immune monitoring described in studies to date and discuss future areas of additional work needed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Margaret K Callahan
- Department of Medicine, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY 10065, USA
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18
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Wang J, Okazaki IM, Yoshida T, Chikuma S, Kato Y, Nakaki F, Hiai H, Honjo T, Okazaki T. PD-1 deficiency results in the development of fatal myocarditis in MRL mice. Int Immunol 2010; 22:443-52. [PMID: 20410257 DOI: 10.1093/intimm/dxq026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 184] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
The deficiency of programmed cell death 1 (PD-1, Pdcd1), a negative immuno-receptor belonging to the CD28/cytotoxic T lymphocyte antigen 4 (CTLA-4) family, can support various tissue-specific autoimmune conditions. Here, we analyzed the effect of PD-1 deficiency in MRL mice that is genetically predisposed to systemic autoimmunity. MRL-Pdcd1(-)(/-) mice developed a fatal myocarditis, which is reminiscent of CTLA-4-deficient (Ctla4(-)(/-)) mice. Massive infiltration of CD4(+) and CD8(+) T cells and myeloid cells was found in hearts of MRL-Pdcd1(-)(/-) mice concomitant with the production of high-titer auto-antibodies against cardiac myosin. In contrast to Ctla4(-)(/-) mice in which most of the CD4(+) T cells are non-specifically activated and invade various organs, T cells in the heart but not in the spleen and lymph nodes are activated in MRL-Pdcd1(-)(/-) mice, suggesting that myocarditis is mediated by antigen-specific autoimmune response. Heart infiltrating myeloid cells strongly suppressed the allogenic response of T cells in vitro, suggesting that these Mac1(+)Gr1(+) myeloid cells are phenotypically similar to myeloid suppressor cells, which can be found in tumor-bearing hosts. These findings unravel the hidden heart-specific autoimmune predisposition of MRL mice and provide MRL-Pdcd1(-)(/-) mice as a useful animal model of lymphocytic myocarditis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jian Wang
- Department of Immunology and Genomic Medicine, Kyoto University, Yoshida-Konoe, Sakyo-ku, Japan
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19
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Avogadri F, Yuan J, Yang A, Schaer D, Wolchok JD. Modulation of CTLA-4 and GITR for cancer immunotherapy. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 2010; 344:211-44. [PMID: 20563707 DOI: 10.1007/82_2010_49] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
The rational manipulation of antigen-specific T cells to reignite a tumor-specific immune response in cancer patients is a challenge for cancer immunotherapy. Targeting coinhibitory and costimulatory T cell receptors with specific antibodies in cancer patients is an emerging approach to T cell manipulation, namely "immune modulation." Cytotoxic T-lymphocyte antigen-4 (CTLA-4) and glucocorticoid-induced tumor necrosis factor family receptor (GITR) are potential targets for immune modulation through anti-CTLA-4 blocking antibodies and anti-GITR agonistic antibodies, respectively. In this review, we first discuss preclinical findings key to the understanding of the mechanisms of action of these immunomodulatory antibodies and the preclinical evidence of antitumor activity which preceded translation into the clinic. We next describe the outcomes and immune related adverse effects associated with anti-CTLA-4 based clinical trials with particular emphasis on specific biomarkers used to elucidate the mechanisms of tumor immunity in patients. The experience with anti-CTLA-4 therapy and the durable clinical benefit observed provide proof of principle to effective antitumor immune modulation and the promise of future clinical immune modulatory antibodies.
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20
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CTLA-4 suppresses the pathogenicity of self antigen-specific T cells by cell-intrinsic and cell-extrinsic mechanisms. Nat Immunol 2009; 11:129-35. [PMID: 20037585 PMCID: PMC3235641 DOI: 10.1038/ni.1835] [Citation(s) in RCA: 136] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2009] [Accepted: 11/24/2009] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
The inhibitory immunoregulatory receptor CTLA-4 is critical in maintaining self-tolerance, but the mechanisms of its actions have remained controversial. Here we examined the antigen specificity of tissue-infiltrating CD4(+) T cells in Ctla4(-/-) mice. After adoptive transfer, T cells isolated from tissues of Ctla4(-/-) mice showed T cell antigen receptor (TCR)-dependent accumulation in the tissues from which they were derived, which suggested reactivity to tissue-specific antigens. We identified the pancreas-specific enzyme PDIA2 as an autoantigen in Ctla4(-/-) mice. CTLA-4 expressed either on PDIA2-specific effector cells or on regulatory T cells was sufficient to control tissue destruction mediated by PDIA2-specific T cells. Our results demonstrate that both cell-intrinsic and non-cell-autonomous actions of CTLA-4 operate to maintain T cell tolerance to a self antigen.
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21
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Sojka DK, Hughson A, Fowell DJ. CTLA-4 is required by CD4+CD25+ Treg to control CD4+ T-cell lymphopenia-induced proliferation. Eur J Immunol 2009; 39:1544-51. [PMID: 19462377 DOI: 10.1002/eji.200838603] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
CTLA-4 is constitutively expressed by CD4(+)CD25(+)Foxp3(+) Treg but its precise role in Treg function is not clear. Although blockade of CTLA-4 interferes with Treg function, studies using CTLA-4-deficient Treg have failed to reveal an essential requirement for CTLA-4 in Treg suppression in vivo. Conditional deletion of CTLA-4 in Foxp3(+) T cells disrupts immune homeostasis in vivo but the immune processes disrupted by CTLA-4 deletion have not been determined. We demonstrate that Treg expression of CTLA-4 is essential for Treg control of lymphopenia-induced CD4 T-cell expansion. Despite IL-10 expression, CTLA-4-deficient Treg were unable to control the expansion of CD4(+) target cells in a lymphopenic environment. Moreover, unlike their WT counterparts, CTLA-4-deficient Treg failed to inhibit cytokine production associated with homeostatic expansion and were unable to prevent colitis. Thus, while Treg developing in the absence of CTLA-4 appear to acquire some compensatory suppressive mechanisms in vitro, we identify a non-redundant role for CTLA-4 in Treg function in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dorothy K Sojka
- David H. Smith Center for Vaccine Biology and Immunology, Aab Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY 14642, USA
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22
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Bour-Jordan H, Bluestone JA. Regulating the regulators: costimulatory signals control the homeostasis and function of regulatory T cells. Immunol Rev 2009; 229:41-66. [PMID: 19426214 PMCID: PMC2714548 DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-065x.2009.00775.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 164] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
SUMMARY Costimulation is a concept that goes back to the early 1980s when Lafferty and others hypothesized that cell surface and soluble molecules must exist that are essential for initiating immune responses subsequent to antigen exposure. The explosion in this field of research ensued as over a dozen molecules have been identified to function as second signals following T-cell receptor engagement. By 1994, it seemed clear that the most prominent costimulatory pathway CD28 and functionally related costimulatory molecules, such as CD154, were the major drivers of a positive immune response. Then the immunology world turned upside down. CD28 knockout mice, which were, in most cases, immunodeficient, led to increased autoimmunity when bred into the non-obese diabetic background. Another CD28 family member, cytotoxic T-lymphocyte-associated protein 4, which was presumed to be a costimulatory molecule on activated T cells, turned out to be critical in downregulating immunity. These results, coupled with the vast suppressor cell literature which had been largely rebuked, suggested that the immune system was not poised for response but controlled in such a way that regulation was dominant. Over the last decade, we have learned that these costimulatory molecules play a key role in the now classical CD4(+)CD25(+)Foxp3(+) regulatory T cells (Tregs) that provide critical control of unwanted autoimmune responses. In this review, we discuss the connections between costimulation and Tregs that have changed the costimulation paradigm.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hélène Bour-Jordan
- UCSF Diabetes Center, University of California at San Francisco, San Francisco, CA USA
| | - Jeffrey A. Bluestone
- UCSF Diabetes Center, University of California at San Francisco, San Francisco, CA USA
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23
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Schmidt EM, Wang CJ, Ryan GA, Clough LE, Qureshi OS, Goodall M, Abbas AK, Sharpe AH, Sansom DM, Walker LSK. Ctla-4 controls regulatory T cell peripheral homeostasis and is required for suppression of pancreatic islet autoimmunity. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2009; 182:274-82. [PMID: 19109158 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.182.1.274] [Citation(s) in RCA: 123] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
The CTLA-4 pathway is recognized as a major immune inhibitory axis and is a key therapeutic target for augmenting antitumor immunity or curbing autoimmunity. CTLA-4-deficient mice provide the archetypal example of dysregulated immune homeostasis, developing lethal lymphoproliferation with multiorgan inflammation. In this study, we show that surprisingly these mice have an enlarged population of Foxp3(+) regulatory T cells (Treg). The increase in Treg is associated with normal thymic output but enhanced proliferation of Foxp3(+) cells in the periphery. We confirmed the effect of CTLA-4 deficiency on the Treg population using OVA-specific Treg which develop normally in the absence of CTLA-4, but show increased proliferation in response to peripheral self-Ag. Functional analysis revealed that Ag-specific Treg lacking CTLA-4 were unable to regulate disease in an adoptive transfer model of diabetes. Collectively, these data suggest that the proliferation of Treg in the periphery is tuned by CTLA-4 signals and that Treg expression of CTLA-4 is required for regulation of pancreas autoimmunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emily M Schmidt
- Medical Research Council Centre for Immune Regulation, University of Birmingham Medical School, Birmingham, United Kingdom
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24
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Friedline RH, Brown DS, Nguyen H, Kornfeld H, Lee J, Zhang Y, Appleby M, Der SD, Kang J, Chambers CA. CD4+ regulatory T cells require CTLA-4 for the maintenance of systemic tolerance. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2009; 206:421-34. [PMID: 19188497 PMCID: PMC2646578 DOI: 10.1084/jem.20081811] [Citation(s) in RCA: 193] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Cytotoxic T lymphocyte antigen-4 (CTLA-4) plays a critical role in negatively regulating T cell responses and has also been implicated in the development and function of natural FOXP3+ regulatory T cells. CTLA-4–deficient mice develop fatal, early onset lymphoproliferative disease. However, chimeric mice containing both CTLA-4–deficient and –sufficient bone marrow (BM)–derived cells do not develop disease, indicating that CTLA-4 can act in trans to maintain T cell self-tolerance. Using genetically mixed blastocyst and BM chimaeras as well as in vivo T cell transfer systems, we demonstrate that in vivo regulation of Ctla4−/− T cells in trans by CTLA-4–sufficient T cells is a reversible process that requires the persistent presence of FOXP3+ regulatory T cells with a diverse TCR repertoire. Based on gene expression studies, the regulatory T cells do not appear to act directly on T cells, suggesting they may instead modulate the stimulatory activities of antigen-presenting cells. These results demonstrate that CTLA-4 is absolutely required for FOXP3+ regulatory T cell function in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Randall H Friedline
- Department of Pathology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA 01655, USA
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25
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Chikuma S, Bluestone JA. Expression of CTLA-4 and FOXP3 in cis protects from lethal lymphoproliferative disease. Eur J Immunol 2007; 37:1285-9. [PMID: 17429849 DOI: 10.1002/eji.200737159] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Both CTLA-4-deficient and FoxP3-deficient mice exhibit a short life span due to massive lymphoproliferation (LP) and a systemic autoimmune-like syndrome. Although it has been postulated that both diseases result from regulatory T cell (T(reg)) defects, there have been no direct complementation studies to elucidate their relationship in homeostatic lymphocyte proliferation during the neonatal period. In this study, reconstitution of sublethally irradiated RAG KO mice with either CTLA-4-deficient or FoxP3-deficient bone marrow (BM) resulted in LP disease similar to that observed in CTLA-4 KO or Scurfy mice, respectively. Although co-injection of BM from wild-type mice inhibited the activation of CTLA-4-deficient or FoxP3-deficient T cells and ameliorated LP disease through extrinsic regulatory mechanisms by T(reg) cells, mice that had received the BM mixture of Scurfy and CTLA-4 KO BM eventually died of incomplete protection. These results suggest common attributes of both diseases, but expression of both CTLA-4 and FoxP3 on the same cell subset is essential to fully prevent LP disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shunsuke Chikuma
- UCSF Diabetes Center, Department of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94143-0450, USA
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26
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Homann D, Dummer W, Wolfe T, Rodrigo E, Theofilopoulos AN, Oldstone MBA, von Herrath MG. Lack of intrinsic CTLA-4 expression has minimal effect on regulation of antiviral T-cell immunity. J Virol 2007; 80:270-80. [PMID: 16352552 PMCID: PMC1317527 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.80.1.270-280.2006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
CTLA-4 is considered one of the most potent negative regulators of T-cell activation. To circumvent experimental limitations due to fatal lymphoproliferative disease associated with genetic ablation of CTLA-4, we have used radiation chimeras reconstituted with a mixture of CTLA-4+/+ and CTLA-4-/- bone marrow that retain a normal phenotype and allow the evaluation of long-term T-cell immunity under conditions of intrinsic CTLA-4 deficiency. Following virus infection, we profiled primary, memory, and secondary CD8+ and CD4+ T-cell responses directed against eight different viral epitopes. Our data demonstrate unaltered antigen-driven proliferation, acquisition of effector functions, distribution of epitope hierarchies, T-cell receptor repertoire selection, functional avidities, and long-term memory maintenance in the absence of CTLA-4. Moreover, regulation of memory T-cell survival and homeostatic proliferation, as well as secondary responses, was equivalent in virus-specific CTLA4+/+ and CTL-A-4-/- T-cell populations. Thus, lack of CTLA-4 expression by antigen-specific T cells can be compensated for by extrinsic factors in the presence of CTLA-4 expression by other cells. These findings have implications for the physiologic, pathological, and therapeutic regulation of costimulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dirk Homann
- Barbara Davis Center for Childhood Diabetes, University of Colorado Health Sciences Center. Mail stop B140, P.O. Box 6511, Aurora, CO 80045, USA.
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27
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Raué HP, Slifka MK. Pivotal advance: CTLA-4+ T cells exhibit normal antiviral functions during acute viral infection. J Leukoc Biol 2007; 81:1165-75. [PMID: 17215523 DOI: 10.1189/jlb.0806535] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Previous studies have shown that T cells, which are genetically deficient in CTLA-4/CD152 expression, will proliferate uncontrollably, resulting in lethal autoimmune disease. This and other evidence indicate that CTLA-4 plays a critical role in the negative regulation of effector T cell function. In contrast to expectations, BrdU incorporation experiments demonstrated that CTLA-4 expression was associated with normal or even enhanced in vivo proliferation of virus-specific CD4+ and CD8+ T cells following acute lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus or vaccinia virus infection. When compared with CTLA-4- T cells directly ex vivo, CTLA-4+ T cells also exhibited normal antiviral effector functions following stimulation with peptide-coated cells, virus-infected cells, plate-bound anti-CD3/anti-CTLA-4, or the cytokines IL-12 and IL-18. Together, this indicates that CTLA-4 does not directly inhibit antiviral T cell expansion or T cell effector functions, at least not under the normal physiological conditions associated with either of these two acute viral infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hans-Peter Raué
- Vaccine and Gene Therapy Institute, Oregon Health and Science University, 505 N.W. 185th Avenue, Beaverton, OR 97006, USA
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28
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Vogt L, Schmitz N, Kurrer MO, Bauer M, Hinton HI, Behnke S, Gatto D, Sebbel P, Beerli RR, Sonderegger I, Kopf M, Saudan P, Bachmann MF. VSIG4, a B7 family-related protein, is a negative regulator of T cell activation. J Clin Invest 2007; 116:2817-26. [PMID: 17016562 PMCID: PMC1578631 DOI: 10.1172/jci25673] [Citation(s) in RCA: 193] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2005] [Accepted: 07/18/2006] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
T cell activation by APCs is positively and negatively regulated by members of the B7 family. We have identified a previously unknown function for B7 family-related protein V-set and Ig domain-containing 4 (VSIG4). In vitro experiments using VSIG4-Ig fusion molecules showed that VSIG4 is a strong negative regulator of murine and human T cell proliferation and IL-2 production. Administration to mice of soluble VSIG4-Ig fusion molecules reduced the induction of T cell responses in vivo and inhibited the production of Th cell-dependent IgG responses. Unlike that of B7 family members, surface expression of VSIG4 was restricted to resting tissue macrophages and absent upon activation by LPS or in autoimmune inflammatory foci. The specific expression of VSIG4 on resting macrophages in tissue suggests that this inhibitory ligand may be important for the maintenance of T cell unresponsiveness in healthy tissues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lorenz Vogt
- Cytos Biotechnology AG, Zurich-Schlieren, Switzerland.
Department of Pathology, University Hospital, Zurich, Switzerland.
Molecular Biomedicine, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Nicole Schmitz
- Cytos Biotechnology AG, Zurich-Schlieren, Switzerland.
Department of Pathology, University Hospital, Zurich, Switzerland.
Molecular Biomedicine, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Michael O. Kurrer
- Cytos Biotechnology AG, Zurich-Schlieren, Switzerland.
Department of Pathology, University Hospital, Zurich, Switzerland.
Molecular Biomedicine, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Monika Bauer
- Cytos Biotechnology AG, Zurich-Schlieren, Switzerland.
Department of Pathology, University Hospital, Zurich, Switzerland.
Molecular Biomedicine, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Heather I. Hinton
- Cytos Biotechnology AG, Zurich-Schlieren, Switzerland.
Department of Pathology, University Hospital, Zurich, Switzerland.
Molecular Biomedicine, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Silvia Behnke
- Cytos Biotechnology AG, Zurich-Schlieren, Switzerland.
Department of Pathology, University Hospital, Zurich, Switzerland.
Molecular Biomedicine, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Dominique Gatto
- Cytos Biotechnology AG, Zurich-Schlieren, Switzerland.
Department of Pathology, University Hospital, Zurich, Switzerland.
Molecular Biomedicine, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Peter Sebbel
- Cytos Biotechnology AG, Zurich-Schlieren, Switzerland.
Department of Pathology, University Hospital, Zurich, Switzerland.
Molecular Biomedicine, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Roger R. Beerli
- Cytos Biotechnology AG, Zurich-Schlieren, Switzerland.
Department of Pathology, University Hospital, Zurich, Switzerland.
Molecular Biomedicine, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Ivo Sonderegger
- Cytos Biotechnology AG, Zurich-Schlieren, Switzerland.
Department of Pathology, University Hospital, Zurich, Switzerland.
Molecular Biomedicine, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Manfred Kopf
- Cytos Biotechnology AG, Zurich-Schlieren, Switzerland.
Department of Pathology, University Hospital, Zurich, Switzerland.
Molecular Biomedicine, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Philippe Saudan
- Cytos Biotechnology AG, Zurich-Schlieren, Switzerland.
Department of Pathology, University Hospital, Zurich, Switzerland.
Molecular Biomedicine, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Martin F. Bachmann
- Cytos Biotechnology AG, Zurich-Schlieren, Switzerland.
Department of Pathology, University Hospital, Zurich, Switzerland.
Molecular Biomedicine, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, Zurich, Switzerland
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29
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Zaunders JJ, Ip S, Munier ML, Kaufmann DE, Suzuki K, Brereton C, Sasson SC, Seddiki N, Koelsch K, Landay A, Grey P, Finlayson R, Kaldor J, Rosenberg ES, Walker BD, Fazekas de St Groth B, Cooper DA, Kelleher AD. Infection of CD127+ (interleukin-7 receptor+) CD4+ cells and overexpression of CTLA-4 are linked to loss of antigen-specific CD4 T cells during primary human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection. J Virol 2006; 80:10162-72. [PMID: 17005693 PMCID: PMC1617311 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00249-06] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
We recently found that human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-specific CD4+ T cells express coreceptor CCR5 and activation antigen CD38 during early primary HIV-1 infection (PHI) but then rapidly disappear from the circulation. This cell loss may be due to susceptibility to infection with HIV-1 but could also be due to inappropriate apoptosis, an expansion of T regulatory cells, trafficking out of the circulation, or dysfunction. We purified CD38+++CD4+ T cells from peripheral blood mononuclear cells, measured their level of HIV-1 DNA by PCR, and found that about 10% of this population was infected. However, a small subset of HIV-specific CD4+) T cells also expressed CD127, a marker of long-term memory cells. Purified CD127+CD4+ lymphocytes contained fivefold more copies of HIV-1 DNA per cell than did CD127-negative CD4+ cells, suggesting preferential infection of long-term memory cells. We observed no apoptosis of antigen-specific CD4+ T cells in vitro and only a small increase in CD45RO+CD25+CD127dimCD4+ T regulatory cells during PHI. However, 40% of CCR5+CD38+++ CD4+ T cells expressed gut-homing integrins, suggesting trafficking through gut-associated lymphoid tissue (GALT). Furthermore, 80% of HIV-specific CD4+ T cells expressed high levels of the negative regulator CTLA-4 in response to antigen stimulation in vitro, which was probably contributing to their inability to produce interleukin-2 and proliferate. Taken together, the loss of HIV-specific CD4+ T cells is associated with a combination of an infection of CCR5+ CD127+ memory CD4+ T cells, possibly in GALT, and a high expression of the inhibitory receptor CTLA-4.
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Affiliation(s)
- John J Zaunders
- Centre for Immunology, St. Vincent's Hospital, Victoria Street, Darlinghurst, NSW 2010, Australia.
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30
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Sansom DM, Walker LSK. The role of CD28 and cytotoxic T-lymphocyte antigen-4 (CTLA-4) in regulatory T-cell biology. Immunol Rev 2006; 212:131-48. [PMID: 16903911 DOI: 10.1111/j.0105-2896.2006.00419.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 221] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
The profound influence of CD28 and cytotoxic T-lymphocyte antigen-4 (CTLA-4) on T-cell immunity has been known for over a decade, yet the precise roles played by these molecules still continue to emerge. Initially viewed as molecules that provide cell-intrinsic costimulatory and inhibitory signals, recent evidence suggests that both CD28 and CTLA-4 are also important in the homeostasis and function of a population of suppressive cells, termed regulatory T cells (Tregs). Here we review the main features of the CD28 and CTLA-4 system and examine how these impact upon Treg biology.
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Affiliation(s)
- David M Sansom
- MRC Centre for Immune Regulation, University of Birmingham Medical School, Birmingham, UK.
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31
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Abstract
Lupus nephritis (LN) is a major cause of morbidity and mortality in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Although the use of aggressive immunosuppression has improved both patient and renal survival over the past several decades, the optimal treatment of LN remains challenging. Improved outcomes have come at the expense of significant adverse effects owing to therapy. Moreover with long-term survival, the chronic adverse effects of effective therapies including risk of malignancy, atherosclerosis, infertility, and bone disease all become more important. Finally, some patients fail to achieve remission with standard cytotoxic therapy and others relapse when therapy is reduced. For these reasons, recent clinical trials have attempted to define alternate treatment protocols that appear to be efficacious in achieving and maintaining remission, but with less toxicity than standard regimens. This paper discusses established and newer treatment options for patients with proliferative and membranous LN, with an emphasis on the results of these recent clinical trials. We also review the experimental and human data regarding some of the novel targeted forms of therapy that are under investigation and in different phases of clinical trials.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Waldman
- Kidney Disease Section, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Disease, Bethesda, Maryland 20892, USA.
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32
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Engelhardt JJ, Sullivan TJ, Allison JP. CTLA-4 overexpression inhibits T cell responses through a CD28-B7-dependent mechanism. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2006; 177:1052-61. [PMID: 16818761 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.177.2.1052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
CTLA-4 has been shown to be an important negative regulator of T cell activation. To better understand its inhibitory action, we constructed CTLA-4 transgenic mice that display constitutive cell surface expression of CTLA-4 on CD4 and CD8 T cells. In both in vivo and in vitro T cell responses, CTLA-4 overexpression inhibits T cell activation. This inhibition is dependent on B7 and CD28, suggesting that overexpressed CTLA-4 inhibits responses by competing with CD28 for B7 binding or by interfering with CD28 signaling. In addition, expression of the transgene decreases the number of CD25+Foxp3+ T cells in these mice, but does not affect their suppressive ability. Our data confirm the activity of CTLA-4 as a negative regulator of T cell activation and that its action may be by multiple mechanisms.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Antigens, CD
- Antigens, Differentiation/biosynthesis
- Antigens, Differentiation/genetics
- Antigens, Differentiation/physiology
- B7-1 Antigen/metabolism
- B7-1 Antigen/physiology
- Binding, Competitive/genetics
- Binding, Competitive/immunology
- CD28 Antigens/metabolism
- CD28 Antigens/physiology
- CTLA-4 Antigen
- Cell Differentiation/genetics
- Cell Differentiation/immunology
- Cells, Cultured
- Down-Regulation/genetics
- Down-Regulation/immunology
- Encephalomyelitis, Autoimmune, Experimental/genetics
- Encephalomyelitis, Autoimmune, Experimental/immunology
- Encephalomyelitis, Autoimmune, Experimental/prevention & control
- Epitopes, T-Lymphocyte/genetics
- Epitopes, T-Lymphocyte/immunology
- Humans
- Lymph Nodes/cytology
- Lymph Nodes/immunology
- Lymph Nodes/metabolism
- Lymphocyte Activation/genetics
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred C57BL
- Mice, Inbred CBA
- Mice, Knockout
- Mice, Transgenic
- Resting Phase, Cell Cycle/genetics
- Resting Phase, Cell Cycle/immunology
- Signal Transduction/genetics
- Signal Transduction/immunology
- T-Lymphocyte Subsets/cytology
- T-Lymphocyte Subsets/immunology
- T-Lymphocyte Subsets/metabolism
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Affiliation(s)
- John J Engelhardt
- Division of Immunology, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY 10021, USA
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33
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Sakaguchi S, Ono M, Setoguchi R, Yagi H, Hori S, Fehervari Z, Shimizu J, Takahashi T, Nomura T. Foxp3+CD25+CD4+ natural regulatory T cells in dominant self-tolerance and autoimmune disease. Immunol Rev 2006; 212:8-27. [PMID: 16903903 DOI: 10.1111/j.0105-2896.2006.00427.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1198] [Impact Index Per Article: 66.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Naturally arising CD25+ CD4+ regulatory T (Treg) cells, most of which are produced by the normal thymus as a functionally mature T-cell subpopulation, play key roles in the maintenance of immunologic self-tolerance and negative control of a variety of physiological and pathological immune responses. Natural Tregs specifically express Foxp3, a transcription factor that plays a critical role in their development and function. Complete depletion of Foxp3-expressing natural Tregs, whether they are CD25+ or CD25-, activates even weak or rare self-reactive T-cell clones, inducing severe and widespread autoimmune/inflammatory diseases. Natural Tregs are highly dependent on exogenously provided interleukin (IL)-2 for their survival in the periphery. In addition to Foxp3 and IL-2/IL-2 receptor, deficiency or functional alteration of other molecules, expressed by T cells or non-T cells, may affect the development/function of Tregs or self-reactive T cells, or both, and consequently tip the peripheral balance between the two populations toward autoimmunity. Elucidation of the molecular and cellular basis of this Treg-mediated active maintenance of self-tolerance will facilitate both our understanding of the pathogenetic mechanism of autoimmune disease and the development of novel methods of autoimmune disease prevention and treatment via enhancing and re-establishing Treg-mediated dominant control over self-reactive T cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shimon Sakaguchi
- Department of Experimental Pathology, Institute for Frontier Medical Sciences, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan.
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34
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Abstract
Within the paradigm of the two-signal model of lymphocyte activation, the interest in costimulation has witnessed a remarkable emergence in the past few years with the discovery of a large array of molecules that can serve this role, including some with an inhibitory function. Interest has been further enhanced by the realization of these molecules' potential as targets to modulate clinical immune responses. Although the therapeutic translation of mechanistic knowledge in costimulatory molecules has been relatively straightforward, the capacity to target their inhibitory counterparts has remained limited. This limited capacity is particularly apparent in the case of the cytotoxic T lymphocyte-associated antigen-4 (CTLA-4), a major negative regulator of T cell responses. Because there have been several previous comprehensive reviews on the function of this molecule, we focus here on the physiological implications of its structural features. Such an exercise may ultimately help us to design immunotherapeutic agents that target CTLA-4.
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MESH Headings
- Amino Acid Sequence
- Animals
- Antigens, CD
- Antigens, Differentiation/chemistry
- Antigens, Differentiation/genetics
- Antigens, Differentiation/metabolism
- Biological Transport, Active
- CTLA-4 Antigen
- Dimerization
- Evolution, Molecular
- Humans
- Ligands
- Lymphocyte Activation
- Models, Immunological
- Molecular Biology
- Molecular Sequence Data
- Polymorphism, Genetic
- Protein Structure, Quaternary
- Sequence Homology, Amino Acid
- Signal Transduction
- T-Lymphocytes/immunology
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Affiliation(s)
- Wendy A Teft
- The FOCIS Center for Clinical Immunology and Immunotherapeutics, Robarts Research Institute, and Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada, N6A 5K8
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35
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Zheng SG, Wang JH, Stohl W, Kim KS, Gray JD, Horwitz DA. TGF-beta requires CTLA-4 early after T cell activation to induce FoxP3 and generate adaptive CD4+CD25+ regulatory cells. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2006; 176:3321-9. [PMID: 16517699 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.176.6.3321] [Citation(s) in RCA: 221] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
Although positive CD28 costimulation is needed for the generation of natural CD4+CD25+ regulatory T cells, we report that negative CTLA-4 costimulation is necessary for generating phenotypically and functionally similar adaptive CD4+CD25+ suppressor cells. TGF-beta could not induce CD4+CD25- cells from CTLA-4(-/-) mice to express normal levels of FoxP3 or to develop suppressor activity. Moreover, blockade of CTLA-4 following activation of wild-type CD4+ cells abolished the ability of TGF-beta to induce FoxP3-expressing mouse suppressor cells. TGF-beta accelerated expression of CTLA-4, and time course studies suggested that CTLA-4 ligation of CD80 shortly after T cell activation enables TGF-beta to induce CD4+CD25- cells to express FoxP3 and develop suppressor activity. TGF-beta also enhanced CD4+ cell expression of CD80. Thus, CTLA-4 has an essential role in the generation of acquired CD4+CD25+ suppressor cells in addition to its other inhibitory effects. Although natural CD4+CD25+ cells develop normally in CTLA-4(-/-) mice, the lack of TGF-beta-induced, peripheral CD4+CD25+ suppressor cells in these mice may contribute to their rapid demise.
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Affiliation(s)
- Song Guo Zheng
- Division of Rheumatology and Immunology, Department of Medicine, University of Southern California, Keck School of Medicine, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA
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36
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Attia P, Phan GQ, Maker AV, Robinson MR, Quezado MM, Yang JC, Sherry RM, Topalian SL, Kammula US, Royal RE, Restifo NP, Haworth LR, Levy C, Mavroukakis SA, Nichol G, Yellin MJ, Rosenberg SA. Autoimmunity correlates with tumor regression in patients with metastatic melanoma treated with anti-cytotoxic T-lymphocyte antigen-4. J Clin Oncol 2005; 23:6043-53. [PMID: 16087944 PMCID: PMC1473965 DOI: 10.1200/jco.2005.06.205] [Citation(s) in RCA: 751] [Impact Index Per Article: 39.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE Previously, we reported our experience treating 14 patients with metastatic melanoma using a fully human antibody to cytotoxic T-lymphocyte antigen-4 (anti-CTLA-4) in conjunction with peptide vaccination. We have now treated 56 patients to evaluate two different dose schedules of anti-CTLA-4 and to explore the relationship between autoimmunity and tumor regression. PATIENTS AND METHODS A total of 56 patients with progressive stage IV melanoma were enrolled onto the study. All had Karnofsky performance status > or = 60% with no prior history of autoimmunity. Twenty-nine patients received 3 mg/kg anti-CTLA-4 every 3 weeks, whereas 27 received 3 mg/kg as their initial dose with subsequent doses reduced to 1 mg/kg every 3 weeks. In both cohorts patients received concomitant vaccination with two modified HLA-A*0201-restricted peptides from the gp100 melanoma-associated antigen, gp100:209-217(210M) and gp100:280-288(288V). RESULTS Two patients achieved a complete response (ongoing at 30 and 31 months, respectively) and five patients achieved a partial response (durations of 4, 6, 25+, 26+, and 34+ months, respectively), for an overall objective response rate of 13%. Tumor regression was seen in lung, liver, brain, lymph nodes, and subcutaneous sites. Of 14 patients with grade 3/4 autoimmune toxicity, five (36%) experienced a clinical response compared with only two responses in the 42 patients (5%) with no autoimmune toxicity (P = .008). There were no significant differences in response rate or toxicity between the two dose schedules. CONCLUSION Administration of anti-CTLA-4 monoclonal antibody plus peptide vaccination can cause durable objective responses, which correlate with the induction of autoimmunity, in patients with metastatic melanoma.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Steven A. Rosenberg
- Address reprint requests to Steven A. Rosenberg, MD, PhD, Surgery Branch, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, CRC, Room 3W-3940, 10 Center Dr, Bethesda, MD 20892-1201; e-mail:
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37
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Tang Q, Boden EK, Henriksen KJ, Bour-Jordan H, Bi M, Bluestone JA. Distinct roles of CTLA-4 and TGF-beta in CD4+CD25+ regulatory T cell function. Eur J Immunol 2004; 34:2996-3005. [PMID: 15468055 DOI: 10.1002/eji.200425143] [Citation(s) in RCA: 289] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Both CTLA-4 and TGF-beta have been implicated in suppression by CD4+CD25+ regulatory T cells (Treg). In this study, the relationship between CTLA-4 and TGF-beta in Treg function was examined. Blocking CTLA-4 on wild-type Treg abrogated their suppressive activity in vitro, whereas neutralizing TGF-beta had no effect, supporting a TGF-beta-independent role for CTLA-4 in Treg-mediated suppression in vitro. In CTLA-4-deficient mice, Treg development and homeostasis was normal. Moreover, Treg from CTLA-4-deficient mice exhibited uncompromised suppressive activity in vitro. These CTLA-4-deficient Treg expressed increased levels of the suppressive cytokines IL-10 and TGF-beta, and in vitro suppression mediated by CTLA-4(-/-) Treg was markedly reduced by neutralizing TGF-beta, suggesting that CTLA-4-deficient Treg develop a compensatory suppressive mechanism through CTLA-4-independent production of TGF-beta. Together, these data suggest that CTLA-4 regulates Treg function by two distinct mechanisms, one during functional development of Treg and the other during the effector phase, when the CTLA-4 signaling pathway is required for suppression. These results help explain contradictions in the literature and support the existence of functionally distinct Treg.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qizhi Tang
- UCSF Diabetes Center, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143-0540, USA
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38
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Riley JL, June CH. The CD28 family: a T-cell rheostat for therapeutic control of T-cell activation. Blood 2004; 105:13-21. [PMID: 15353480 DOI: 10.1182/blood-2004-04-1596] [Citation(s) in RCA: 224] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The CD28 family of receptors (CD28, cytotoxic T-lymphocyte-associated antigen 4 [CTLA-4], inducible costimulator [ICOS], program death-1 [PD-1], and B- and T-lymphocyte attenuator [BTLA]) plays a critical role in controlling the adaptive arm of the immune response. While considerable information is available regarding CD28 and CTLA-4, the function of the more recently discovered members of the CD28 family is less well understood. This review will highlight recent findings regarding the CD28 family with special emphasis on effects the CD28 family has on immunopathology, the discovery of costimulatory antibodies with superagonist function, and the status of clinical trials using various strategies to augment or block T-cell costimulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- James L Riley
- Abramson Family Cancer Research Institute, Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104-6160, USA.
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39
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Marks L, Levy RB. The cytotoxic potential of regulatory T cells: what has been learned from gene knockout model systems? Transplantation 2004; 77:S19-22. [PMID: 14726764 DOI: 10.1097/01.tp.0000106473.46037.83] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
The mechanisms of T-cell regulation are difficult to elucidate because of their complexity and the numerous subcategories of cell populations. There are two fundamental approaches to address this conundrum. First, it is possible to use a purified cell population and submit these cells to various assays. The second approach is to manipulate a target molecule and determine what effect this has on T-cell homeostasis in vitro and in vivo. This molecular strategy may help characterize multiple regulatory populations that use the same pathway for controlling T-cell function. Through a concerted two-pronged effort, the authors' laboratory and others have attempted to decipher different molecular pathways for regulatory cell function. Several gene knockout mouse models display a phenotype of profound lack of homeostasis in which T cells accumulate, presumably because of a defect in regulation. Dependent on the molecule disrupted, the immune cell subset being examined may no longer be appropriately regulated. Accordingly, the phenotype of exogenously added "putative" regulatory cells can then be examined by assessing their ability to control this aberrant accumulation. By using co-transplantation techniques, much information can be postulated regarding potential regulatory cell phenotype and function. Model systems with target gene manipulations involving Fas ligand, Fas, perforin, interleukin-2, and cytotoxic T-lymphocyte-associated antigen-4 exist and in all cases appear to disrupt critical cytotoxic regulatory cell function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lianne Marks
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Miami School of Medicine, Miami, FL 33136, USA
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40
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Watanabe N, Gavrieli M, Sedy JR, Yang J, Fallarino F, Loftin SK, Hurchla MA, Zimmerman N, Sim J, Zang X, Murphy TL, Russell JH, Allison JP, Murphy KM. BTLA is a lymphocyte inhibitory receptor with similarities to CTLA-4 and PD-1. Nat Immunol 2003; 4:670-9. [PMID: 12796776 DOI: 10.1038/ni944] [Citation(s) in RCA: 641] [Impact Index Per Article: 30.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2003] [Accepted: 05/13/2003] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
During activation, T cells express receptors for receiving positive and negative costimulatory signals. Here we identify the B and T lymphocyte attenuator (BTLA), an immunoglobulin domain-containing glycoprotein with two immunoreceptor tyrosine-based inhibitory motifs. BTLA is not expressed by naive T cells, but it is induced during activation and remains expressed on T helper type 1 (T(H)1) but not T(H)2 cells. Crosslinking BTLA with antigen receptors induces its tyrosine phosphorylation and association with the Src homology domain 2 (SH2)-containing protein tyrosine phosphatases SHP-1 and SHP-2, and attenuates production of interleukin 2 (IL-2). BTLA-deficient T cells show increased proliferation, and BTLA-deficient mice have increased specific antibody responses and enhanced sensitivity to experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. B7x, a peripheral homolog of B7, is a ligand of BTLA. Thus, BTLA is a third inhibitory receptor on T lymphocytes with similarities to cytotoxic T lymphocyte-associated antigen 4 (CTLA-4) and programmed death 1 (PD-1).
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MESH Headings
- Abatacept
- Amino Acid Sequence
- Animals
- Antigens, CD
- Antigens, Differentiation/physiology
- Antigens, Surface
- Apoptosis Regulatory Proteins
- B7-1 Antigen/physiology
- CTLA-4 Antigen
- Encephalomyelitis, Autoimmune, Experimental/immunology
- Immunoconjugates
- Interleukin-2/biosynthesis
- Intracellular Signaling Peptides and Proteins
- Lymphocyte Activation
- Mice
- Molecular Sequence Data
- Phosphorylation
- Programmed Cell Death 1 Receptor
- Protein Tyrosine Phosphatase, Non-Receptor Type 1
- Protein Tyrosine Phosphatase, Non-Receptor Type 11
- Protein Tyrosine Phosphatase, Non-Receptor Type 6
- Protein Tyrosine Phosphatases/physiology
- Proteins/physiology
- RNA, Messenger/analysis
- Receptors, Immunologic/chemistry
- Receptors, Immunologic/genetics
- Receptors, Immunologic/physiology
- T-Lymphocytes/immunology
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Affiliation(s)
- Norihiko Watanabe
- Department of Pathology & Immunology, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Washington University School of Medicine, Box 8118, 660 South Euclid Avenue, St. Louis, Missouri 63110, USA
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41
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Saito T, Yamasaki S. Negative feedback of T cell activation through inhibitory adapters and costimulatory receptors. Immunol Rev 2003; 192:143-60. [PMID: 12670402 DOI: 10.1034/j.1600-065x.2003.00022.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Antigen recognition by the T cell receptor (TCR) complex induces the formation of a TCR signalosome by recruiting various signaling molecules, generating the recognition signals for T cell activation. The activation status and functional outcome are positively and negatively regulated by dynamic organization of the signalosome and by costimulation signals. We have studied the negative regulation of T cell activation, particularly through inhibitory adapters and costimulation receptors that are little expressed in resting cells but are induced upon T cell activation. We described Grb-associated binder 2 (Gab2) and cytotoxic T lymphocyte antigen-4 (CTLA-4) as a representative inhibitory adapter and a negative costimulation receptor, respectively, both of which exhibit negative feedback. Gab2 functions as a signal branch for activation vs. inhibition, as phosphorylation of either Src homology 2 (SH2) domain-containing leukocyte phosphoprotein of 76 kDa (SLP-76) or Gab2 by zeta-associated protein of 70 kDa (ZAP-70) determines the fate of the response. As a professional inhibitory receptor, CTLA-4 inhibits T cell response by competition of ligand binding with positive costimulator receptor CD28, and also induces inhibitory signaling. The trafficking and the cell surface expression of CTLA-4 are dynamically regulated and induced. CTLA-4 is accumulated in lysosomes and secreted to the T cell-APC contact site upon TCR stimulation. As T cell activation proceeds, these inhibitory adapters and costimulation receptors are induced and suppress/regulate the responses as negative feedback.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takashi Saito
- Department of Molecular Genetics, Graduate School of Medicine, Chiba University, Chiba, Japan.
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